MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS (_continued_).
Administration of Justice--The Kadi el Islam--Religion in the
Sudan--The Khalifa's Sermons--Enforced Pilgrimage to the Mahdi's
Tomb--Limits of the Mahdist Empire--Natural Produce--Caravan
Roads--Ostrich Hunting--Trade and Commerce--The Slave-trade--The
Slave Market--Industries--Immorality--Unpopularity of the
Khalifa--His Ignorance and Cruelty--His Private
Apartments--Principal Buildings in Omdurman--Description of the
City--The Prison and its Horrors--Death of Zeki Tummal and Kadi
Ahmed.
Throughout the preceding pages, I have frequently referred in general
terms to the Khalifa's system of administering justice. The Kadis, or
judges, are ready tools in the hands of their astute master. They are
only permitted to act independently in trivial cases, such as family
disputes, questions of property, and the like; but in all matters of
importance, they must invariably refer to the Khalifa for final
decision, in giving which the latter invariably consults his own
immediate interests; but at the same time his earnest endeavour is to
appear before the public to be within the bounds of justice. The judges
therefore, have a somewhat difficult task to perform: that is to say,
they must invariably carry out the Khalifa's wishes, and give them the
appearance of being legally correct; whereas, in nine cases out of ten,
they are entirely contrary to the first elements of justice and right.
The nominal codes of justice are the Moslem religious law and the
"Instructions" of the Mahdi,--the latter being supposed to regenerate
the former, which, through abuse and corruption, had been misapplied
and, metaphorically speaking, trodden under foot. The main principle
governing the "Instructions" is the necessity for absolute belief in
the Mahdi's Divine mission,--to doubt this is considered an act of
apostasy punishable by death, confiscation of property, or imprisonment
for life. The Khalifa's object being to seize all power, the
"Instructions" are applied on every possible occasion; and he generally
takes council with Yakub as to the means to be employed to secure his
end; and as Yakub is the embodiment of every description of base
intrigue and violence, the application of these laws results in the
grossest injustice, oppression, and brutality.
The following comprise the Court of Justice of the two principal Kadis:
Hussein Wad Sahra, Jaali; Suleiman Wad el Hejaz, Gehemabi; Hussein Wad
Gisu, Homri; Ahmed Wad Hamdan, Arakini; Osman Wad Ahmed, Batahini; and
Abdel Kader Wad Om Mariam, who was formerly Kadi of Kalakla and Prefect
of Khartum; also Mohammed Wad el Mufti, who is the judge of petty
disputes amongst the mulazemin. In addition to these, there are several
Kadis of the western tribes; but they are not permitted to give
judgment, and merely give their votes to their higher colleagues.
Hussein Wad Sahra, whom the Khalifa recently appointed to succeed the
Kadi el Islam, Ahmed Wad Ali, completed his studies at the Azhar Mosque
in Cairo, and is known as the most learned man in the Sudan. In spite,
however, of his erudition, he made the fatal mistake of writing a small
pamphlet in favour of the claims of Mohammed Ahmed to be the true Mahdi;
and, having realised his error, he inwardly became his most bitter
antagonist. Having now been summoned by the Khalifa to fill this
important position, he was unwillingly obliged to accept it; his sense
of justice has occasionally got the better of his fear, and, in several
instances, he has given just judgments contrary to the Khalifa's wishes;
consequently, he is not at present in favour with his master. He still
nominally holds the post, but is seldom called to the councils. If fear
of his life does not eventually get the upper hand, he will undoubtedly
be shortly numbered amongst those who are to be got rid of.
Whenever the grand Council of Kadis assembles, it is always understood
that they are about to pronounce some special judgment in accordance
with the Khalifa's wishes, which have been previously communicated to
them. As a Kadi's salary is not large,--from twenty to forty Dervish
dollars a month,--it may be readily understood that venality enters
largely into the minor judgments with which the Khalifa does not
interfere.
In accordance with the "Instructions," the evidence of witnesses is
inviolable: it is not permitted to the accused to protest; and,
consequently, it is the judges' prerogative to accept or refuse
witnesses at will, and such a system naturally gives them ample
opportunities of increasing their incomes.
The Kadi of the Mulazemin has special instructions that any case between
one of the body-guard and natives of the country--even if they be the
highest in the land--shall invariably be given in favour of the former;
and so rigorously is this rule enforced, that it is now never thought
worth while to enter into a lawsuit with one of the body-guard.
Attached to the Beit el Mal are two Kadis whose special duty is to keep
up connection with the Mehekema (Law Courts); they also issue the papers
which must be signed when slaves are bought and sold, and on which they
collect a small tax. There are also Kadis in the market, police
stations, and at the ferries who are charged with settling disputes and
carrying out the duties of the Court of Small Causes.
The following brief notes on the state of religion, education,
agriculture, commerce, and slave-trade may be of some interest.
Religion in the Sudan, as far as my experience goes, is governed by the
principle that the end justifies the means. Proclamations and pamphlets
enjoining strict attention to the performance of religious duties, and
urging the abandonment of all earthly pleasures, are despatched to the
remotest parts of Africa and Arabia, to Bornu, Dar Fellata, Mecca, and
Medina. The Khalifa, if his health permits it, attends the five daily
prayers most regularly; and yet, at heart, no man could be more
irreligious. During all the years in which I have been in the closest
communication with him, I have never once seen or heard him say a prayer
in his own house. Should any religious rite or ceremony interfere in the
smallest degree with his wishes or ambitions, it is instantly abolished;
but in doing so he is careful that the proposition for its abolition
should emanate in the first instance from his Kadis, who declare it
necessary for the "maintenance of the faith;" and the astuteness with
which these obsequious myrmidons twist and turn matters in order to suit
the Khalifa's will is deserving of a better cause. Whenever it is quite
impossible to create some pretext for the execution of an unusually
gross piece of injustice, Divine interposition and inspiration is
invariably called to the rescue.
Abdullahi often addresses his followers from the pulpit in the mosque;
but as he is entirely ignorant of theology, and knows little or nothing
about the rudiments of religion, the scope of his sermons is excessively
limited, and consists of a repetition of stereotyped phrases. On first
mounting the pulpit, he greets the multitude with the words, "Salam
Aleikum ya ashab el Mahdi!" (Peace be upon you, O friends of the
Mahdi!). To this the congregation shout in one voice, "Aleik es Salam ya
Khalifat el Mahdi!" (Peace be with thee, O Khalifa of the Mahdi!). The
Khalifa then adds, "God bless you! God preserve you! May God lead the
Mahdi's followers to victory!" and between each sentence the
congregation shout, "Amin" (Amen).
He then goes on to say, "See, O friends of the Mahdi, how evil is the
world! Think for how short a time we live in it! Were it not so the
Prophet and his follower, the Mahdi, would still be with us. We shall
surely follow them. Prepare, therefore, for your journey to the next
world. Do not seek earthly joys; say the five prayers daily. Read the
Mahdi's Rateb; and be ever ready to fight against the unbelievers. Obey
my orders [this sentence he frequently repeats], and the joys of
Paradise will be yours. Those who are disobedient, and do not take heed
of my words, are lost; for them, as for the unbeliever, eternal
damnation and hell fire is prepared. I am the shepherd, and you are the
sheep. As you tend your cattle and see that they do not eat what will
harm them, so I watch over you and see that you do not get into evil
ways. Think always of the Almightiness of God. Think of the cow, which
is made of flesh and blood and skin and bones; and yet you can obtain
sweet white milk from her. Do you not recognise God's power in this?[17]
Remain faithful to your vows to the Mahdi and to myself. Obey my
commands, which will give you peace on earth and joy in the world to
come. As the stones of a building go to make the structure complete, so
should you support one another. Forgive one another. Love each other as
the sons of one mother [and the crowd shouts, "We forgive each other!"].
May God bless you! May He lead you to victory! May He ever preserve and
keep you! Depart now in peace; but, before we separate, shout in one
voice, 'La Illaha ilalaha Mohammed Rasul Allah.' This will enlighten
your hearts and strengthen your faith." The congregation then disperses
with loud shouts of "Amin, la illaha, etc." All his sermons vary very
little from the above.
The repetition of the five prayers, and the reading of the Kuran, on
which no commentaries are permitted to be made, make up the sum total of
religion, interspersed now and then with the reading of the Mahdi's
instructions and the repetition, twice a day, of the Rateb. If any
person says prayers at home, instead of at the mosque, without just
cause or reason, he is adjudged by the Khalifa as "disobedient;" and
such prayers are, he says, not acceptable to God. From his point of
view, true religion consists of servile obedience to his commands; and
by this means alone can the soul enter into everlasting joys.
He has forbidden pilgrimage to Mecca, having substituted for it
pilgrimage to the tomb of the Mahdi, who is the Prophet's
representative. Although the Sudanese intensely dislike this innovation,
they are perforce obliged to accept it; and as it is now impossible for
them to return to the orthodox faith, which they so unwittingly cast
aside, they now accept the situation, and carry out their mock religious
duties in the most businesslike manner, but without the smallest belief
in their efficacy.
Education and religious instruction are practically non-existent. Some
boys, and occasionally a few girls, are taught to recite the Kuran and
the Rateb in the mesjids (religious schools attached to the mosques), of
which a few are allowed to be privately kept up. A small percentage of
these children, when they have completed their course in the mesjids,
are sent to the Beit el Mal, where they become apprentices to the old
Government clerks, and learn a certain amount of business
correspondence. The system of theological instruction which obtains in
most Moslem countries, but which was never much in vogue in the Sudan,
has now ceased to exist altogether.
Cultivation of the land south of Berber is carried on during the rainy
season, which in the northern districts begins in July, and in the
southern at the end of May, or early in June, and lasts till the end of
October; but there are now immense tracts of once fertile soil which,
through want of cultivation and depopulation, have become tracts of
desert or a tangled wilderness. The staple grain of the Sudan is dhurra,
and if there is a plentiful rainfall, the supply is generally good; but
if there is a scarcity of rain, a famine almost invariably ensues, and
the poorer classes of the population undergo terrible privations. On
these occasions, they generally have to proceed to Karkoj on the Blue
Nile, or some distance up the White Nile, and bring dhurra to Omdurman
in boats.
From Wadi Haifa to Fashoda on the White Nile, or to Famaka on the Blue
Nile, narrow strips of river bank are cultivated by sakias
(water-wheels) or shadufs (hand-buckets); and, in addition to dhurra,
Turkish maize, beans, lentils, peas, and pumpkins are cultivated. Owners
of water-wheels in the vicinity of the larger towns cultivate small
quantities of sugar-cane, water-melons, radishes, sweet cucumbers, and
various kinds of vegetables, which find a ready market; and when the
rainy season is over cotton is planted. The most productive land is, of
course, on the islands, which, during high Nile, are often completely
submerged; and as the river sinks they are sown almost without labour,
and produce excellent crops. Oranges and lemons are grown in the
neighbourhood of Khartum; but they are very small, and contain little
juice. A few pomegranates, grapes, and figs are also to be had; but they
are all of a very inferior quality. There are, of course, quantities of
date-palms, of which the fruit forms one of the principal items of food;
but the supply is barely sufficient for the consumption. In the Dar
Mahass and Sukkot districts of the Dongola Province the supply of dates
is very considerable; and they are brought from thence to various parts
of the Sudan, the drying process being carried on principally in the
Berber and Robatab districts.
Gum-arabic is collected in the forests of Southern Kordofan, and at one
time constituted the principal wealth of this province. It was gathered
principally by the Gimeh and Gowama Arabs; but the former have been
forced to emigrate, and the latter, through constant tyranny and
oppression, have been so reduced that scarcely a sixth remains of their
original numbers. In the days of the Egyptian Government, from eight
hundred thousand to one million kantars of gum-arabic were gathered
annually; but at present at most thirty thousand kantars are produced,
and were it not that one of the former chiefs of the Beit el Mal had
represented to the Khalifa the increase which would accrue to his
private treasury by allowing the collection of gum, it is probable the
custom of gum picking would have fallen into entire disuse.
The cultivation of tobacco was formerly one of the principal pursuits
of the native population; but as smoking is strictly prohibited by the
Mahdist code, this product has entirely died out, though occasionally
small quantities are smuggled in from the Tagalla and Nuba mountains,
and fetch large prices; but any persons guilty of infringing the
regulations in this respect suffer very heavy penalties.
The once extensive commerce of the Sudan has now sunk down to
comparatively nothing; and the roads which were formerly traversed by
numberless caravans are now deserted, obliterated by sand, or overgrown
with rank vegetation. The principal routes were,--
1. The Arbaïn or forty days' road, from Darfur to Assiut, or from
Kordofan through the Bayuda desert to Dongola and Wadi Halfa.
2. From Khartum, _via_ Berber, to Assuan, or _via_ Abu Hamed, to
Korosko.
3. From Khartum, _via_ Berber or Kassala, to Suakin.
4. From Gallabat, Gedaref, and Kassala to Massawa.
At present the only roads used by occasional caravans are from Berber to
Assuan and Suakin. Shortly after the capture of Khartum, the Sudan
merchants imported to Assuan considerable quantities of the captured
gold and silver ornaments; and, partly owing to this fact, and partly to
the amount of spoil accumulated in the Khalifa's private treasury, the
supply of these metals has become so reduced that Abdullahi has given
strict orders to the merchants that they should on no account take with
them to Egypt any gold or silver except what was absolutely necessary
for the expenses of the journey. This amount was fixed by the Beit el
Mal, and had to be taken in old currency, the value of which was
inserted in the passport.
As the sadly diminished trade with Egypt began to revive, natural
products, which had been the former wealth of the Sudan, were again made
the medium of commerce. Gum, ostrich feathers, tamarinds, senna-leaves,
etc. were collected in the Beit el Mal, as well as ivory, and were sold
by auction at local currency rates; but as the majority of these
products came from the western districts, which, owing to war, famine,
and disease had become almost depopulated, the supply was scanty. In
exchange for these, the merchants brought from Egypt Manchester goods,
which are greatly in demand in the Sudan. Gum is a monopoly, and the
price paid for it varies greatly. The Beit el Mal purchases at the rate
of twenty to thirty dollars (Omla Gedida), and sells to the merchants at
the rate of thirty to forty dollars. The purchaser generally receives
permission to take it to Egypt, and is taxed at the rate of a dollar a
hundred weight at Berber, where the amount is carefully checked with the
bill of lading. If he wishes to take it to Suakin or Assuan, he is
obliged to pay a tax of a further dollar a hundred weight; but in this
case it is a Maria Theresa dollar, which is equivalent to five Omla
Gedidas; and thus already a sixth of the original cost has been added in
taxation.
Ostrich-hunting has now become almost impossible, as the Arabs have
practically no guns, and it is most difficult to procure any ammunition.
An attempt was made to hunt ostriches on horseback; but this also was
forbidden by the Khalifa, and, consequently, very few feathers are
brought into the market. The Arabs then tried ostrich-breeding, and
caught some young birds; but this again was forbidden on the grounds
that it was not allowed by religion, and the plucking of birds was made
an offence which was most severely punished. The Khalifa's object in
imposing these absurd strictures was merely to appear in the eyes of the
public as a very religious Moslem. In consequence, ostrich-breeders had
no other course but to kill their birds, and for some days Omdurman was
flooded with ostrich meat. I have heard that attempts are made by some
of the desert Arabs to rear ostriches in a species of cage made of the
branches of trees; but the feathers obtained in this way are so few as
to make the trade in this commodity almost unappreciable.
Ivory comes from the Equatorial regions in considerable quantities about
once a year, and generally finds its way to Suakin; and as these
districts appear to be gradually passing out of Mahdist control, it is
hardly probable that the amount will increase in future years.
Occasionally, a few tusks are brought from the Southern Darfur
districts; but unless the Dervishes re-occupy the Bahr el Ghazal in
force, their ivory trade stands in danger of dying out altogether.
Goods can only be imported from Egypt by the Assuan and Suakin roads.
Formerly, a certain amount of trade was carried on between Suakin and
Kassala, and Kassala and Massawa; but since the occupation of the
Eastern Sudan by the Italians, it has almost entirely ceased. The goods
imported are generally of an inferior quality, and consist mostly of
material for women's dresses and men's jibbas; but to the inhabitants of
the Sudan this is a matter of little consequence, for they much prefer
gaudy and tawdry material to the more durable fabrics. Indeed, it would
be very difficult, if not impossible, to find purchasers for a better
class of goods in the Sudan.
One of the principal imports is scent of every variety, such as
sandal-wood oil, cloves, scented seeds, etc., for all of which the
Sudanese ladies have a strong predilection. A certain amount of sugar,
rice, inferior jams, and dried fruit also find purchasers amongst the
more wealthy of the population. The importation of all articles made of
iron, brass, tin, copper, etc. has, for some time past, been rigorously
prohibited by the Egyptian Government, and now it is almost impossible
to obtain a pair of scissors or a razor. Copper cooking-utensils have
risen to an enormous price; and most of those which previously existed
have been bought up by the arsenal for the manufacture of cartridges.
Consequently, food is now cooked almost entirely in earthenware vessels.
The tax of ushr (a tenth) is levied on all goods imported to the Sudan.
It must be paid in either money or kind, and is frequently taken more
than once along the road. All goods on arrival in Omdurman are taken to
the Beit el Mal and stamped; and here the ushr is again taken.
Merchants, therefore, owing to the heavy taxes imposed, in addition to
the presents they have to make to the various chiefs, have generally
paid half as much again over and above the value of their goods. They
are therefore obliged to considerably raise the price; and even then the
total profit is by no means a large one. Several of the more wealthy
inhabitants of the Sudan have taken to trading with Egypt, not so much
with a view to making money, as to spending a few months away from the
atmosphere of the Khalifa's authority. It is by means of trade alone
that any of the unfortunate inhabitants of the Sudan can temporarily
escape from the hands of that tyrant, whose rule is more detested than
ever. Most of the merchants, having their wives, families, and relatives
in the Sudan, are obliged eventually to return; and, were it not for
these ties, I think that few men who have the chance of leaving the
Sudan would ever return.
But if trade in general is in a state of depression, there is one trade
to which the advent of the Mahdi and Khalifa has given a great impulse.
I refer, of course, to the slave-trade. As, however, the export of
slaves to Egypt is strictly prohibited, this trade is confined entirely
to the provinces under the Khalifa's control. In prohibiting the export
of slaves, the Khalifa acts on the wise principle that he should not
increase the power of his adversaries at his own expense. It is, of
course, quite impossible for him to absolutely prevent slaves being
taken occasionally to Egypt or Arabia; but the slave-caravans which were
formerly sent from the Sudan have now almost completely stopped. A few
years ago quantities of slaves were sent from Abyssinia by Abu Anga, and
from Fashoda by Zeki Tummal, as well as from Darfur and the Nuba
mountains by Osman Wad Adam, and were generally sold by public auction
for the benefit of the Beit el Mal, or the Khalifa's private treasury.
The transport of slaves is carried on with the same execrable and
heartless cruelty which characterises their capture. Of the thousands of
Abyssinian Christians seized by Abu Anga, the majority were women and
children; and under the cruel lash of the whip they were forced to march
on foot the whole distance from Abyssinia to Omdurman; wrenched from
their families, provided with scarcely enough food to keep body and soul
together, barefooted, and almost naked, they were driven through the
country like herds of cattle. The greater number of them perished on the
road; and those who arrived in Omdurman were in so pitiable a condition
that purchasers could scarcely be found for them, whilst numbers were
given away for nothing by the Khalifa. After the defeat of the Shilluks,
Zeki Tummal packed thousands of these wretched creatures into the small
barges used for the transport of his troops, and despatched them to
Omdurman. Hundreds died from suffocation and overcrowding on the
journey; and, on the arrival of the remnant, the Khalifa appropriated
most of the young men as recruits for his body-guard, whilst the women
and young girls were sold by public auction, which lasted several days.
Hungry, and in many cases naked, these unfortunate creatures lay huddled
together in front of the Beit el Mal. For food, they were given an
utterly inadequate quantity of uncooked dhurra. Hundreds fell ill; and
for these poor wretches it was also impossible to find purchasers.
Wearily they dragged their emaciated bodies to the river bank, where
they died; and as nobody would take the trouble to bury them, the
corpses were pushed into the river and swept away.
But a worse fate than this befell the slaves who had the misfortune to
be sent from Darfur along the broad stretches of waterless desert which
lie between that province and Omdurman. These miserable creatures were
mercilessly driven forward day and night; and it would be impossible for
me to describe here the execrable measures adopted by these brutal
slave-drivers to force on their prey to their destination. When the poor
wretches could go no further, their ears were cut off as a proof to the
owner that his property had died on the road. Some of my friends told me
that on one occasion they had found an unfortunate woman whose ears had
been cut off, but who was still alive. Taking pity on her, they brought
her to El Fasher, where she eventually recovered, whilst her ears had
been duly exposed in Omdurman as proof of her death.
Latterly, no large caravans of slaves have arrived in Omdurman, because
the majority of the slave-producing districts, such as Darfur, have
become depopulated, or, in some cases, the tribes, such as the Tama,
Massalit, etc., have thrown off allegiance to the Khalifa. Consignments,
however, still come from Reggaf; but, owing to the long and tedious
journey, numbers of them perish on the way. As the supplies from
Gallabat, Kordofan, and Darfur have considerably diminished, the Khalifa
now allows the Emirs to sell slaves to the itinerant Gellabas; and the
latter are obliged to sign a paper giving a descriptive return of their
purchase, and the amount paid. They are permitted to re-sell on the same
conditions.
There is of course a daily sale of slaves in Omdurman; but the purchase
of male slaves is forbidden, as they are looked upon as the Khalifa's
monopoly, and are generally turned into soldiers. Any one wishing to
dispose of a male slave must send him to the Beit el Mal, where a purely
nominal price is paid for him; and he is then, if likely to make a good
soldier, recruited for the mulazemin, but if unsuitable, he is sent off
to work as a labourer in his master's fields. The sale of women and
girls is permissible everywhere, with the proviso that a paper must be
signed by two witnesses of the sale, one of whom, if possible, should be
a Kadi, certifying that the slave sold is the actual property of the
vendor. This system was brought into force because slaves frequently ran
away from their masters, were caught and sold by other persons as their
own property, and thus theft of slaves was a very common practice in
Omdurman. They were frequently enticed into other people's houses, or
secretly induced to leave the fields, then thrown into chains and
carried off to distant parts of the country, where they were sold at
very low rates. In accordance with the Mohammedan Law, slaves cannot be
witnesses; and, being well aware of their inferior position, these
stolen creatures, as long as they are kindly treated, are not
dissatisfied with their lot.
In Omdurman itself, in an open space a short distance to the southeast
of the Beit el Mal, stands a house roughly built of mud-bricks, which is
known as the Suk er Rekik (slave-market). Under the pretext that I
wanted to buy or exchange slaves, I several times received the Khalifa's
permission to visit it, and found ample opportunity for closely
observing the conduct of the business. Here professional slave-dealers
assemble to offer their wares for sale. Round the walls of the house
numbers of women and girls stand or sit. They vary from the decrepit and
aged half-clad slaves of the working-class, to the gaily-decked Surya
(concubine); and as the trade is looked upon as a perfectly natural and
lawful business, those put up for sale are carefully examined from head
to foot, without the least restriction, just as if they were animals.
The mouth is opened to see if the teeth are in good condition. The upper
part of the body and the back are laid bare; and the arms carefully
looked at. They are then told to take a few steps backward or forward in
order that their movements and gait may be examined. A series of
questions are put to them to test their knowledge of Arabic. In fact,
they have to submit to any examination the intending purchaser may wish
to make. Suryas, of course, vary considerably in price; but the whole
matter is treated by the slaves without the smallest concern. They
consider it perfectly natural, and have no notion of being treated
otherwise. Only occasionally one can see by the expression of a woman or
girl that she feels this close scrutiny; possibly her position with her
former master was rather that of a servant than a slave, or she may have
been looked upon almost as a member of the family, and may have been
brought to this unhappy position by force of circumstances, or through
some hateful inhumanity on the part of her former master. When the
intending purchaser has completed his scrutiny, he then refers to the
dealer, asks him what he paid for her, or if he has any other better
wares for sale. He will probably complain that her face is not pretty
enough, that her body is not sufficiently developed, that she does not
speak Arabic, and so on, with the object of reducing the price as much
as possible; whilst, on the other hand, the owner will do his utmost to
show up her good qualities, charms, etc., into the detail of which it is
not necessary to enter here. Amongst the various "secret defects" which
oblige the dealer to reduce his price are snoring, bad qualities of
character, such as thieving, and many others; but when at last the sale
has been finally arranged, the paper is drawn out and signed, the money
paid, and the slave becomes the property of her new master. Payment is
always made in local currency (Omla Gedida dollars), and runs
approximately as follows:--
For an aged working slave, fifty to eighty dollars; for a middle aged
woman eighty to one hundred and twenty dollars; for young girls between
eight and eleven years of age, according to looks, one hundred and ten
to one hundred and sixty dollars; and for suryas (concubines), according
to looks, one hundred and eighty to seven hundred dollars. These rates,
of course, vary also according to market value, or special demand for a
particular race.
There are practically no industries in the Sudan, as, with the exception
of the articles I have already mentioned, there are no exports.
Formerly, gold and silver filigree work was sent to Egypt; but, owing to
the scarcity of these metals, and to the Mahdi's edict against wearing
jewellery, this export has altogether ceased. There is a considerable
manufacture and trade in long and short spears of various shapes,
stirrup-irons, horse and donkey bits, knives for fastening on the arm,
as well as agricultural implements. Wooden saddles for horses, camels,
and mules, angarebs, boxes for carrying clothes, and doors, windows, and
shutters of a primitive description are also made. Formerly,
boat-building was extensively carried on; but, owing to the Khalifa's
confiscation of all boats on the Nile, it ceased almost entirely, till
about a year ago, when, with the Khalifa's permission, it re-commenced.
As, however, all new boats are taxed highly by the Beit el Mal, there
is little inducement to the builders to undertake such profitless work.
[Illustration: In the Slave Market, Omdurman.]
There is a certain amount of leather-work in red and yellow shoes,
sandals, saddles of different sorts, harness, amulets, sword scabbards,
and knife sheaths, etc., whilst whips in large quantities are made from
the hide of the hippopotamus. There is also a considerable cotton
industry. Every woman or girl spins for her own use or for sale; and in
every village there are numbers of weavers who work the spun-yarn into a
variety of materials. In the Gezira are woven common cotton
stuffs,--such as tobs, damur, and genj (names of cloths) in lengths of
about ten yards. These are brought to the market in large quantities,
and are principally used for the clothing of the commoner classes. The
finest yarns are spun in the province of Berber. Strips of coloured silk
are frequently interwoven in the material, which is used principally for
turbans and hazams (the strips of cotton which are used to bind round
the body), as well as coverings of various sorts, and shawls. A certain
amount of cotton stuff is made in the Dongola province; but that
district is chiefly noted for the manufacture of sail-cloth. Materials
from Kordofan are noted for their durability rather than for their
beauty.
In addition to spinning, the women occupy themselves largely in plaiting
mats of various shapes and sizes from the leaves of the dom palm, which
are sold largely in all parts of the Sudan. The best quality of these
mats is made from the narrow strips of the palm leaves, barley straw,
and thin pieces of leather. Mats of a similar description are also made
for placing under dishes on the dinner-table. The workmanship of some of
these is so fine and good that a certain quantity find their way to
Egypt, where they are sold as curiosities. The Darfur women are
specially clever in making these mats, into which are interwoven various
sorts of glass beads, and the result is sometimes extremely pretty.
In the preceding pages, I have endeavoured to give a brief outline of
the Khalifa's life, and the existing state of affairs in the country;
but this would not be complete without a few remarks regarding the moral
condition of the people. The attempted regeneration of the faith by the
Mahdi, who disregarded the former religious teaching and customs, has
resulted in a deterioration of morals, which, even at the best of times,
were very lax in the Sudan. Partly from fear of the Khalifa, and partly
for their own personal interests and advantage, the people have made
religion a mere profession; and this has now become their second nature,
and has brought with it a condition of immorality which is almost
indescribable. The majority of the inhabitants, unhappy and discontented
with the existing state of affairs, and fearing that their personal
freedom may become even more restricted than it is, seem to have
determined to enjoy their life as much as their means will allow, and to
lose no time about it. As there is practically no social life or
spiritual intercourse, they seem to have resolved to make up for this
want by indulging their passion for women to an abnormal extent. Their
object is to obtain as many of these in marriage as possible, as well as
concubines; and the Mahdi's tenets allow them the fullest scope in this
direction. For instance, the expenses in connection with marriage have
been greatly diminished. The dowry for a girl has been reduced from ten
to five dollars; and for a widow, five dollars, a common dress, a pair
of shoes or sandals, and a few scents. Should a man desire to marry a
girl, her father or guardian must consent, unless there are some very
cogent reasons for not doing so. Under any circumstances, they are held
responsible that their daughters or wards become wives as soon as they
reach a convenient age. The acquisition, therefore, of four wives--which
is the number authorised by the Kuran--has become a very simple matter,
and in most cases is considered merely a means of acquiring a small
amount of personal property. Moreover, a large proportion of the women
are quite agreeable to this arrangement, and enter into matrimony either
with the object of obtaining some clothes and a little money, or
temporarily changing their mode of life, being well aware that, in
accordance with the law, they can dissolve marriage ties without
difficulty. If a woman seeks a divorce, she retains her dowry, unless
the separation rises from aversion to her husband, in which case the
dowry is returned if the man wishes it. I know many men who, in the
space of ten years, have been married forty or fifty times at least; and
there are also many women who, during the same period, have had fifteen
or twenty husbands, and in their case the law enjoins that between each
divorce they must wait three months at least. As a rule, concubines, of
whom a man may legally have as many as he likes, lead a most immoral
life. They rarely live in the same house as their master, unless they
have children by him, in which case they cannot be sold; but in the
majority of cases they are bought with the object of being retained
merely for a very short time, and subsequently sold again at a profit.
This constant changing of hands leads to great moral deterioration.
Their youth and beauty quickly fade; and, as a rule, they age
prematurely, and then enter upon a life of hardship and moral
degradation which it is almost impossible to conceive.
It is a common practice for merchants to make pecuniary profit out of
the immorality of their slaves. They buy young girls, permit them to
enjoy a certain amount of freedom by seeking a shelter and livelihood in
the manner which suits them best; and for this privilege they refund to
their masters a percentage of their gains.
The greatest vice exists amongst the slaves of the mulazemin. The latter
entice women to their quarters, where they remain a short time with them
as their wives; but the freest interchange takes place between them. The
Khalifa does not seem to think it worth while to check this immorality,
as he imagines that by allowing them to please themselves, his own
slaves will become more attached to him, and will not wish to leave him.
It may be readily conceived that the result of this moral laxity has
led to the prevalence of the worst sort of disease, which has taken such
a hold of all classes of the population, both free and slaves, that were
it not for the warm and dry climate, the ravages would be terrible. As
it is, the general state of health is very unsatisfactory, and is
considerably aggravated by the complete absence of medicines necessary
to check the malady.
A certain number of people also indulge in unnatural love: and at first
the Khalifa made some attempt to check this by banishment to Reggaf; but
latterly he has given up doing so. He has come to the conclusion that it
is much easier to rule by despotism and tyranny, a degraded nation than
one which possesses a high standard of morality. For this reason, he
both hates and fears the Jaalin, who inhabit the Nile banks between
Hagger el Asal and Berber, because they are almost the only Arabs in the
Sudan who maintain a well-regulated family life, and hold morality in
high esteem as a necessary condition for a healthy and contented
existence.
The widows of the Mahdi are forcibly prevented from leading a corrupt
life; as, immediately after his master's death, the Khalifa, in honour
of his memory, confined these women in houses surrounded by high walls,
in the immediate vicinity of his tomb, where they are strictly guarded
by eunuchs. Much against their will, not only the wives and concubines,
but also many of the young girls,--most of whom were daughters of former
Government officials, and who were taken into the harem when quite
young, in order to become his future wives,--have been thus forcibly
deprived of the possibility of re-marrying, and are so closely guarded
that they are only permitted to see their female relatives once a year.
They are supplied merely with the bare necessaries of life, and long for
their freedom. Let us hope that before very long it may come!
In spite of his despotism, the Khalifa is in considerable fear of his
life. He ruthlessly evicted all the local inhabitants of those portions
of the town in the immediate neighbourhood of his own residence; and
their places have been taken by his enormous body-guard, whose numbers
he daily seeks to increase. These he has surrounded by an immense wall,
within which he and his relatives live, while all persons of whom he is
in the slightest degree suspicious are forced to reside without the
enclosure. Within, however, all is not peace and contentment. The
constant duties he imposes on his body-guard have produced a feeling of
irritation. They grumble at the small pay they receive, and do not
appreciate the restrictions imposed on their social life. Thousands of
these who belong to the free Arab tribes are prevented from having any
intercourse whatever with their relations. They are scarcely ever
permitted to quit the enclosure; and their smallest offences are
punished with appalling severity. Abdullahi is surrounded day and night
by his own specially appointed guard, and by numbers of faithful
servants; and no persons--not even his nearest relatives--are permitted
to approach him with arms in their hands. Should any one be commanded to
see the Khalifa, his sword and knife, which he invariably wears, are
taken from him, and he is generally searched before being admitted to
the audience-chamber. This general mistrust has added to his
unpopularity; and, even amongst his most devoted adherents, remarks are
frequently let fall in an undertone, commenting on his despotism and his
personal fears.
In spite, however, of all this undue severity, the Khalifa has not
succeeded in keeping his own tribe in hand. On their first arrival in
the Nile valley, they indulged in wholesale raids on the local
population, seizing their grain, ravishing their women, and carrying off
their children. Indeed affairs became so serious that the Khalifa was
obliged to issue an order that no Taaisha Arab would be permitted to
leave the town without special permission; but his instructions were
practically ignored, and lawlessness is even more rife than before. The
conduct of these Arabs is unbearable. They openly boast that their
relationship with the Khalifa has made them masters of the country, and
that they intend to assert themselves. They have seized all the best
pastures for their cattle and horses; and they live on the fat of the
land,--a state of affairs which has caused considerable jealousy amongst
the other western tribes, who view the Taaisha with no very friendly
feelings. Of all this the Khalifa is well aware; but I do not think he
realises how unpopular he really is, and his constant effort is to
retain the sympathy of his Emirs by frequently sending them secretly by
night presents of money and slaves. The latter do not hesitate to accept
these gifts, which they know have been unfairly gained; and their
opinion of the Khalifa, instead of being improved, remains as it was
before. He imagined that the learned and educated element of the
population--which is exceedingly small--was on his side, because he
allowed Kadi Hussein to give lectures in the mosque after noon and
evening prayers on the subject of the Moslem rights of inheritance. As
all such re-unions were forbidden by the Mahdi, some of the Ulema
(learned men) were stupid enough to think that this new departure was a
sign of progress. The Khalifa himself attended these lectures; and,
noticing one day that some of the Ulema, in order to rest themselves,
sat cross-legged instead of in a submissive attitude of prayer, he
openly reprimanded them, and declared in a loud voice that all persons,
whether learned or ignorant, must in his presence pay him the respect
due to him. A few days later, Kadi Hussein inadvertently quoted in his
lecture a chapter to the effect that learning was a high virtue, and
that kings and princes should realise this, and accept the advice of
learned men. The Khalifa, who is utterly ignorant of reading and
writing, got up and left the mosque in a rage; and, a few days later, he
issued an order that the meetings should be discontinued for the future.
Kadi Hussein immediately fell in favour, and soon afterwards had the
further misfortune to disagree with the Khalifa on a question respecting
slaves. The latter had called upon the Kadis for an opinion as to
whether all male and female slaves who might have taken refuge with the
mulazemin, and were not claimed by their rightful owners within twenty
days, should not become the actual property of their new masters; but as
no persons living outside the wall are under any circumstances permitted
to enter the enclosure, it stands to reason that masters of runaway
slaves have no possibility of searching the quarters of the mulazemin.
On these grounds the Kadi suggested that runaway slaves should be
publicly exposed in the market-place for a short time, and that if no
one appeared to claim them within a specified period, they should then
become the property of the Beit el Mal. As the Khalifa had previously
given private instructions to his mulazemin to retain all slaves
belonging to the Nile valley tribes, and to return only those who
belonged to the western Arabs, the Kadi's proposition did not at all
suit him, whilst the other Kadis, to whom he had referred the matter,
concurred with him against Kadi Hussein. The friends of the latter now
trembled for his life; but the Khalifa allowed it to pass for the
moment, and is only waiting for some other opportunity to involve him
more deeply in what he is pleased to term "an act of disobedience."
The Khalifa has not moved out of Omdurman for upwards of ten years. Here
he has centralised all power, stored up all ammunition, and gathered
under his personal surveillance all those whom he suspects, obliging
them to say the five prayers daily in his presence, and listen to his
sermons. He has declared Omdurman to be the sacred city of the Mahdi. It
is strange to think that ten years ago this great town was merely a
little village lying opposite to Khartum, and inhabited by a few
brigands. It was not for some time after the fall of Khartum that the
Mahdi decided to settle there. Mimosa-trees filled up the space now
occupied by the mosque and the residences of the three Khalifas.
Abdullahi took as his own property all ground lying south of the mosque,
whilst that on the north side was divided between Khalifa Sherif and
Khalifa Ali Wad Helu. During his lifetime, the Mahdi had declared that
Omdurman was merely a temporary camp, as the Prophet had revealed to him
that he should depart this life in Syria, after conquering Egypt and
Arabia; but his early death had shattered all his plans and the hopes of
his followers.
From north to south, the new city covers a length of about six English
miles. The southern extremity lies almost exactly opposite the southwest
end of Khartum. At first, every one wanted to live as near the river
banks as possible, in order to facilitate the drawing of water,
consequently the breadth of the city is considerably less than its
length; and it is in no place over three miles in width. At first, it
consisted of thousands and thousands of straw huts; and the mosque was
originally an oblong enclosure surrounded by a mud wall four hundred and
sixty yards long and three hundred and fifty yards broad; but this has
now been replaced by one made of burnt brick, and then whitewashed over.
After this, the Khalifa began building brick houses for himself and his
brother, then for his relatives, whilst the Emirs and most of the
wealthy people followed his example. I have already described the
construction of the Mahdi's tomb; but before I left Omdurman much of the
whitewash had been knocked off by the weather, which spoilt its general
appearance. Above the apex of the dome are three hollow brass balls, one
above the other, connected together by a lance, the head of which forms
the top ornament of the structure. I have often heard people say that
the Khalifa erected this spear to show that he is perfectly prepared to
declare war against the heavens if his wishes are not carried out.
Occasionally Abdullahi shuts himself up for hours in this mausoleum,
probably with the object of obtaining some special inspiration; but
since the execution of the Mahdi's relatives, his visits are much less
frequent; and it is generally supposed he dreads to be alone with the
body of his dead master, whose tenets and influence he has, not in words
but in deeds, so persistently overturned. Every Friday, the large doors
in the surrounding enclosure are opened to admit the pilgrims; and as
every Mahdist is ordered to attend on these days to repeat the prayers
for the dead, thousands are to be seen in the various attitudes of
prayer, beseeching the protection of the Almighty through the
intermediary of the Saint (?) who lies buried there; but I doubt not
that many fervent prayers ascend to the throne of God for relief from
the terrible oppression and tyranny of his despotic successor.
South of the tomb, and adjoining the great mosque, lies the enormous
enclosure of the Khalifa. It consists of a high wall built of red
bricks, which is subdivided into several smaller courts, all of which
are in communication with each other; and nearest to the mosque are his
own private apartments, to the east of which are those of his wives, the
stables, store-houses, quarters of the eunuchs, etc., etc. In the centre
of the eastern face of the mosque is a large wooden door (the other
entrances to the mosque have no doors) through which admission is
obtained to the Khalifa's private apartments and reception chambers. On
entering the main gate, one passes through a sort of porch, leading into
a small court, in which are two rooms, one side of each of which is left
completely open; and it is here that the Khalifa receives his guests. A
door leads out of this court into the private apartments; and the
youthful attendants are the only persons allowed to enter. The various
houses within the enclosure are constructed in the shape of large
detached halls, on one or both sides of which are verandahs. On the roof
of one of these buildings a second story has been added, on all four
sides of which are windows, from which a complete view of the town can
be obtained.
The reception chambers are furnished with the greatest simplicity. An
angareb, over which a palm-mat is spread, is the only article of
furniture; but his interior apartments are provided with all the
luxuries it is possible to procure in the Sudan. Brass and iron
bedsteads with mosquito curtains,--the spoil of Khartum,--carpets,
silk-covered cushions, door and window curtains of every variety of
colour and texture, are the principal articles of furniture, while the
verandahs are provided with the universal angareb and palm-mat. Compared
with the Khalifa's early mode of life, these articles constitute the
most extreme luxuries.
To the east of the Khalifa's enclosure lies the house of his son, which
is furnished much in the same style as that of his father, but with even
greater luxury. Several large brass chandeliers from Khartum are
suspended from the ceilings; and there is an immense garden made from
earth transported from the banks of the Nile, and in which hundreds of
slaves are employed daily. The latter are justly irritated with the
great love of show which is the distinguishing characteristic of their
young master, whilst they themselves are provided with scarcely enough
food for their maintenance.
The Khalifa and his son spend much of their time in building and
furnishing new apartments, and in making their lives as pleasant and
comfortable as possible. Yakub follows their example; and every day
numbers of workmen are to be seen streaming towards these two houses,
carrying beams, stone, mortar, and other requisite building-material.
Khalifa Ali Wad Helu's house is very much smaller, and is furnished with
great simplicity.
In addition to his principal residence, Abdullahi possesses houses in
the northern and southern districts of the city; but they are built and
furnished on much simpler lines, and are merely used by him as
rest-houses when he despatches troops on expeditions from the capital,
or goes out to inspect freshly arrived detachments from the provinces.
He seldom stays in these houses more than a day or two at a time. He has
also built a house near the river, and close to the old Government fort,
the ditches of which have now been filled in. He generally goes to this
house when steamers are about to start for Reggaf, in order that he may
personally superintend embarkations.
The Beit el Amana, or arsenal, is separated from Yakub's house by a
broad open space. It consists of a large building enclosed by stone
walls, and here are stored the guns, rifles, ammunition, and other
warlike material, as well as the five carriages belonging to the
Governor-Generals and to the Catholic Mission. At intervals of every few
paces sentries are posted in small sentry boxes; and they are charged to
allow no unauthorised persons to enter the building. Just north of the
arsenal lies a building in which are stored the flags of all the Emirs
residing in Omdurman; and beside it is a semi-circular building about
twenty feet high, provided with stairs, where the Khalifa's war-drums
are kept. A little further to the east is the cartridge and small-arms
manufactory.
On the north side of the city, and close to the river, is the Beit el
Mal, which is an enormous walled-in enclosure subdivided into a variety
of courts in which are stored goods coming from all parts of the Sudan
and from Egypt, as well as grain stores and slave courts. A little to
the south of the Beit el Mal lies the public slave-market, and, in close
proximity, the Beit el Mal of the Mulazemin has been erected.
The town of Omdurman is built for the most part on fairly level ground,
but here and there are a few small hills. The soil consists mostly of
hard red clay, and is very stony, with occasional patches of sand. For
his own convenience, the Khalifa has driven large straight roads through
various parts of the town; and to make way for these numbers of houses
were levelled, but no compensation was given to their owners. A glance
at the rough plan attached to the end of the book will give the reader
an approximate idea of the extent and general situation of the town and
principal buildings, and its relative position with reference to
Khartum, which is now a complete ruin, the dock-yard alone being kept
up, and communication between it and Omdurman maintained by a submarine
cable worked by some of the former Government telegraph officials.
Outside the large unfinished wall built along the road leading to the
Beit el Mal are a number of shops belonging to the various trades, all
of which are kept quite distinct,--such as carpenters, barbers,
tailors, butchers, etc., etc. The Mehekemet es Suk (market police) are
charged with maintaining order in the town; and the gallows erected in
various parts of the city are a very evident indication of the system of
government of the country.
The population of the city is located entirely according to tribes. The
western Arabs live for the most part in the southern quarters, whilst
the northern portion has been allotted to the Nile valley people; and in
addition to the market police, the various sections of the populace are
obliged to supply a number of watchmen for the preservation of public
security in their respective quarters, and they must report any
disturbances to the night patrols.
With the exception of the few broad roads which the Khalifa has made for
his own convenience, the only communications between the various
quarters consist of numbers of narrow winding lanes; and in these all
the filth of the city is collected. Their wretched condition, and the
smells which emanate from these pestilential by-paths are beyond
description. Dead horses, camels, donkeys, and goats block the way; and
the foulest refuse lies scattered about. Before certain feast-days, the
Khalifa issues orders that the city is to be cleaned; but, beyond
sweeping all these carcases and refuse into corners, nothing further is
done; and when the rainy season begins the fetid air exhaling from these
decaying rubbish heaps generally produces some fatal epidemic, which
sweeps off the inhabitants by hundreds.
Formerly, there were cemeteries within the city; but now all the dead
must be buried in the desert north of the parade ground.
Fever and dysentery are the prevailing maladies in Omdurman, and between
the months of November and March an almost continuous epidemic of typhus
fever rages.
Of late years numbers of new wells have been made. Those north of the
mosque give good water; but those in the southern quarters of the city
are mostly brackish. They vary in depth from thirty to ninety feet, and
are generally dug by the prisoners under the direction of the saier.
[Illustration: Coming from Market, Omdurman.]
"He has been taken to the Saier," is an expression one frequently hears;
and it means that some wretched creature has been carried off to the
prison. The mere mention of this word awakens feelings of horror and
dread in the minds of all who hear it. The prison is situated in the
southeastern quarter of the city, near the river, and is surrounded by a
high wall. A gate, strongly guarded day and night by armed Blacks, gives
access to an inner court, in which several small mud and stone huts have
been erected. During the day-time, the unhappy prisoners, most of them
heavily chained and manacled, lie about in the shade of the buildings.
Complete silence prevails, broken only by the clanking of the chains,
the hoarse orders of the hard-hearted warders, or the cries of some poor
wretch who is being mercilessly flogged. Some of the prisoners who may
have specially incurred the Khalifa's displeasure, are loaded with
heavier chains and manacles than the rest, and are interned in the small
huts and debarred from all intercourse with their fellow-prisoners. They
generally receive only sufficient nourishment to keep them alive.
Ordinary prisoners receive no regular supply of food; but their
relatives are allowed to provide for them. It often happens that long
before a meal reaches the person for whom it is intended, a very large
portion of it has been consumed by the rapacious and unscrupulous
warders; and sometimes the prisoner gets nothing whatever. At night, the
wretched creatures are driven like sheep into the stone huts, which are
not provided with windows, and are consequently quite unventilated.
Regardless of prayers and entreaties, they are pushed pell-mell into
these living graves, which are generally so tightly packed that it is
quite impossible to lie down. The weaker are trampled down by the
stronger; and not infrequently the warder opens the door in the morning
to find that some of his victims have succumbed to suffocation and
ill-usage in these horrible cells. It is a painful sight to see scores
of half-suffocated individuals pouring out of these dens, bathed in
perspiration, and utterly exhausted by the turmoil of the long and
sleepless night. Once emerged, they sink down, more dead than alive,
under the shade of the walls, and spend the remainder of the day in
trying to recover from the effects of the previous night, and gain
sufficient strength to undergo the horrors of that which is to follow.
One would think that death was preferable to such an existence. Still
these unfortunates cling to life, and pray to God to relieve them from
their sufferings. In spite of the prison being invariably overcrowded,
and notwithstanding the horrors of prison life, I do not ever remember
having heard of a case of suicide amongst the unfortunate inmates.
Charles Neufeld has spent some years in the Saier, often ill, subject to
the greatest privations, and merely kept alive by the occasional
supplies which reached him through the Black servant he brought with him
from Egypt, and who, in turn, was assisted by the other Europeans in
Omdurman. He managed to survive, though heavily chained by the neck, and
wearing two large irons round his feet. On one occasion, he refused to
spend the night in one of the stone huts, which he aptly described as
"the last station on the way to Hell," and for this act of disobedience
he was severely flogged; but he bore it without a murmur, until his
tormentors--amazed at his powers of endurance--cried out, "Why do you
not complain? Why do you not ask for mercy?" "That is for others to do,
not for me," was the strong-hearted reply which gained for him the
respect of even his gaolers. After enduring three years of imprisonment,
his irons were lightened; and, with only a chain joining his ankles, he
was removed to Khartum, where he was ordered to refine saltpetre for the
manufacture of gunpowder, under the superintendence of Wad Hamednalla.
Here his condition was much improved; and he received a small monthly
remuneration for his work, which sufficed to provide him with the bare
necessaries of life. As the saltpetre refinery adjoins the old church of
the Mission, the latter has thus been saved from destruction. After his
daily hard work is over, Neufeld is allowed to rest in the Mission
gardens; and here, no doubt, his thoughts often revert to his family at
home, and he must in his heart curse the evil day which induced him to
quit Egypt, and thoughtlessly venture into the clutches of the Khalifa.
For him fate has indeed been cruel; and most fervently do I hope that
ere long he may be reunited with his relatives, who have not abandoned
all hope of seeing him again. In Europe, there is no lack of friends who
are ready to do all in their power to help him; but it rests with God
alone to release this poor captive from his misery.
It makes my heart ache to think of all the horrors that have been
enacted in that dreadful prison. There was the sad case of poor Sheikh
Khalil, who had been despatched from Cairo with letters to the Khalifa,
informing him of the number and names of the prisoners who had been
captured at the battle of Toski, all of whom, he was assured, were being
well cared for, and would eventually be set free; and he was requested
to hand over to the Sheikh the sword and medals of General Gordon,
which, it was assumed, were in his possession. Khalil's companion,
Beshara, was sent back with the letters unanswered, whilst the
unfortunate emissary, who was an Egyptian by birth, was thrown into
chains, under the pretext that he had been sent as a spy. Ill-treated
and deprived of nourishment, he became so weak that he could not rise
from the ground. His tormentors even refused him water to drink; and at
last death came to him as a happy release from his sufferings.
Malech, a Jewish merchant of Tunis, who had come to Kassala with Abu
Girga's permission, was seized by the Khalifa's orders, and brought to
Omdurman, where he remains in captivity in the Saier to this day. He is
as thin as a skeleton, and is driven almost to despair. He is kept
alive by the efforts of his own community, who have been forced to
become Moslems, and who succeed in providing him with small quantities
of food.
Two Ababda Arabs, arrested on suspicion of carrying letters to Europeans
in Omdurman, were seized and imprisoned, and died soon after of
starvation. The alarm in the European colony was great; but fortunately
it transpired that the letters were for a Copt from his relations in
Cairo.
The great Sheikh of the Gimeh tribe, Asakr Abu Kalam, who had shown such
friendship and hospitality to the Khalifa and his father in early days,
was ruthlessly seized and thrown into chains, because it came to the
Khalifa's ears that he had spoken disparagingly of the present condition
of the Sudan, and had expressed regret at having taken up arms against
the Government. He was eventually exiled to Reggaf, whilst his wife, who
was a well-known beauty in the Sudan, was torn from the arms of her
husband at the hour of his departure, and carried off to the Khalifa's
harem.
The well-known Emir, Zeki Tummal, on being seized, was thrown into a
small stone building the shape of a coffin, the door of which was built
up. He was given no food whatever; but a small amount of water was
handed to him through an aperture in the wall. For twenty-three days, he
suffered all the horrors of starvation; but no sound or complaint was
heard to issue from that living grave. Too proud to beg, and well aware
of the futility of doing so, he lingered on till the twenty-fourth day,
when death carried him out of reach of his tormentors. The saier and his
warders watched, through the aperture, the death agonies of the wretched
man; and when at length he had ceased to struggle, they hurried off to
give their lord and master the joyful news. That night Zeki's body was
removed to the western quarter of the city, and there buried amongst a
heap of old ruins, with his back turned towards Mecca.[18] The Khalifa,
not content with having tormented him in life, thought thus to deprive
him of peace in the world to come.
I have already described how the Khalifa disposed of his most trusted
adherent, the Kadi Ahmed. On reaching the Saier, he was thrown into the
hut in which Zeki had been interned; and, a few days after, he was
visited, at the command of the Khalifa, by two other Kadis, who asked
where he had hidden his money. "Tell your master, the Khalifa," said he,
"that I have settled my account with this world; and I know of no place
where gold or silver can be found." To their further inquiries he
remained perfectly silent; and the two myrmidons returned, crestfallen,
to their master. This happened only a few days before I quitted
Omdurman. Since my return to Egypt, I have ascertained that he died
shortly afterwards, under similar circumstances to those of Zeki.
One could fill a volume with descriptions of the horrors and cruelties
enacted in the terrible Saier; but it is useless to weary the reader
with further accounts of the atrocities committed by order of that
merciless tyrant, the Khalifa.