[1] In Bleek's _Einleitung_, 4th ed., p. 434.
[2] See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's _Hexapla_; Kohler,
_Weissagungen Haggai's_, 32; Wright, _Zechariah and his Prophecies_,
xix.
[3] After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf.
Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palestine_, chap. i).
[4] G. A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 235.
HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856- ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham
Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to
South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the
time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the
staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he
subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He
married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the
Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the
overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and
read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published _Cetywayo
and his White Neighbours_ (1882), written in defence of Sir T.
Shepstone's policy. This was followed by the novels _Dawn_ (1884), _The
Witch's Head_ (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at
Isandhlwana; and in 1886 _King Solomon's Mines_, suggested by the
Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. _She_ (1887), another
fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, _Ayesha, or
the Return of She_, being published in 1905. The scene of _Jess_ (1887)
and of _Allan Quatermain_ (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he
unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the
Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural
questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in
Norfolk. In his _Rural England_ (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of
depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the
colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort
Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the
establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the
subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an
enlarged form, as _The Poor and the Land_ (1905), with suggestions for a
scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.
His other books include _Maiwa's Revenge_ (1888), _Mr Meeson's Will_
(1888), _Colonel Quaritch_, V.C. (1888), _Cleopatra_ (1889), _Eric
Brighteyes_ (1891), _The World's Desire_ (1890), a romance of Helen of
Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; _Nada the Lily_ (1892),
_Montezuma's Daughter_ (1894), _The People of the Mist_ (1894), _Joan
Haste_ (1895), _Heart of the World_ (1896), _Dr Therne_ (1898), _A
Farmer's Year_ (1899), _The New South Africa_ (1900), _Lysbeth, A Tale
of the Dutch_ (1901). _Stella Fregelius_ (1903), _A Gardener's Year_
(1905), _A Farmer's Year_ (1899, revised ed., 1906), _The Way of the
Spirit_ (1906).
HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's heart,
liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in
the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c.,
chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a
Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The
derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. _hachis_, English "hash," is
of later appearance than "haggis." It may be connected with a verb "to
hag," meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate
ultimately with "hash."
HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], saint, [Greek: logos], discourse),
that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives
of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which
the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its
development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic remains, there
would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of
hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when
hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together
into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, the [Greek:
sunagoge ton archaion marturion] of Eusebius, to which the author refers
in several passages in his writings (_Hist. Eccl._, v. proem 2; v. 20,
5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is
unfortunately lost in its entirety. The _Martyrs of Palestine_, as also
the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the
monastic life, and, similarly, the _Dialogues_ of St Gregory (Pope
Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of
hagiologic collections. The _In gloria martyrum_ and _In gloria
confessorum_ of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in
their compilation. The most important collections are those which
comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in
the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called
menologies (from Gr. [Greek: men], month, [Greek: logos], discourse),
and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century
(Theodore of Studium, _Epist._ i. 2). One of them, the menology of
Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a
universal vogue (see SYMEON METAPHRASTES). The corresponding works in
the Western Church are the _passionaries_ or _legendaries_, varieties of
which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively.
They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the
lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in a church, a
province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary
(_De magno legendario Austriaco_ in the _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvii.
24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were
made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the
Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as the _Speculum
hisloriale_ of Vincent de Beauvais; the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de
Voragine; the _Sanctorale_ of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle,
_Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy_, Paris, 1879); the
_Sanctilogium_ of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by John
Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of _Nova legenda Angliae_
(new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and the _Catalogus
sanctorum_ of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), published at Vicenza in
1493, and many times reprinted. The _Sanctuarium_ of B. Mombritius,
published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives
a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the
manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was
John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value
(Bollandists, _De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans_,
Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or
Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (_Analecta Bollandiana_, vi.
31-34).
Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of the
_Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae_ (Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of
Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the
co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic
texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin
translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of
Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the
order of the calendar (_De probatis sanctorum historiis_, Cologne,
1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an
improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought it necessary to
retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly
written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their
documentary value.
The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit,
Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the
martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the celebrated collection of
the _Vitae patrum_ (Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time
at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great
collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and
augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of the _Acta
sanctorum_ (see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others
of a similar character but less extensive in scope.
Dom T. Ruinart collected the best _Acta_ of the martyrs in his _Acta
martyrum sincera_ (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
measure. The best publication of this kind, the _Acta sanctorum
ordinis S. Benedicti_ (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon,
does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived
according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_ (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
Lobineau, _Vie des saints de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
Ghesquiere, _Acta sanctorum Belgii_ (Brussels and Tongerloo,
1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in
the _Monumenta Germaniae_, and a special section of the _Scriptores
rerum Merovingicarum_ is devoted to the lives of the saints. For
Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's
_Florilegium insulae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's _Acta
sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae_ (Louvain,
1645-1647); John Pinkerton's _Vitae antiquae sanctorum ..._ (London,
1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M.
Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title of _Lives of the Scottish
Saints_); W. J. Rees's _Lives of the Cambro-British Saints_
(Llandovery, 1853); _Acta sanctorum Hiberniae_ (Edinburgh, 1888);
Whitley Stokes's _Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford,
1890); and J. O'Hanlon's _Lives of the Irish Saints_ (Dublin,
1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives
of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from
the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes
rather within the domain of the philologist.
The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the
subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much
scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou's "Symeonis
Metaphrastae opera omnia" (_Patrologia Graeca_, 114, 115, 116) and
Theophilos Ioannu, [Greek: Mnemeia agiologika] (Venice, 1884). For
Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's _Acta sanctorum martyrum
orientalium_ (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's _Acta martyrum et sanctorum_
(Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of
saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of
Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's _Les Actes des martyrs de
l'Egypte_ (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini's _Scriptores
Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian,
Sabinin's _Paradise of the Georgian Church_ (St Petersburg, 1882).
In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected
to detailed critical study.
To realize the present state of hagiology, the _Bibliotheca
hagiographica_, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists,
and the _Bulletin hagiographique_, which appears in each number of the
_Analecta Bollandiana_ (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks to
the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification
of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress.
The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the
knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in
this literature between what is really historical and what is merely
the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of
pious writers (see H. Delehaye, _Les Legendes hagiographiques_, 2nd
ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). "Though the lives of saints," says
a recent historian, "are filled with miracles and incredible stories,
they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs
of the people. Some of them are 'memorials of the best men of the time
written by the best scholars of the time,'" (C. Gross, _The Sources
and Literature of English History_, p. 34, London, 1900). (H. De.)
HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], holy, and [Greek: skopein], to
see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an
oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other
parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the
elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or "squints" as they
are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel
arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an
oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater
church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances
such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring
the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on
the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as
to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and
communicate with the bell-ringers.
HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande
river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is
situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn,
sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities
from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the
neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is
manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very
skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy
was founded in 1581.
HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, _'s Gravenhage_, or, abbreviated, _den Haag_; in
Fr. _La Haye_; and in Late Lat. _Haga Comitis_), the chief town of the
province of South Holland, about 2-1/2 m. from the sea, with a junction
station 9-1/2 m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it
with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande,
as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a
branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900),
212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual
residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the
government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the
council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other
administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in
keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is
fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in his _Olanda_ as
half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern
times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher
and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the
poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the
town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and
well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an
attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance
of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded
surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.
The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the
Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet
of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and
topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the
Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent
avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg,
representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the
entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is
situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological
gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat
stretches to the "1813 Plein" or square, in the centre of which rises the
large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the
restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander
Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to
the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through
the "little woods" to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the
busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was
purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III.,
and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In
front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by
Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive
stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once
surrounded by a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The
oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland,
whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several
centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of
the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the
home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the
Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front
of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed
in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the
other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing
some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders.
Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the
middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William
II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or "outer
court," is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen
Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway.
It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the
mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square
called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the
buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings,
including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the
Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in
1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and
contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this
collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the
stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore
the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the
French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the
municipal museum (_Gernsente_ Museum), containing paintings by both
ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine
collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer
Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count
Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS.
and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag
Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831)
presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards
of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable
collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to
the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the
queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico
of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and
containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous
churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English
church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese.
The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted
interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit
(1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some
escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the
chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th
century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the
philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in
front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall
(built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical
picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial
government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the
large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the
ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the
theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and
other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892),
the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon
foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and
lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and
carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.
The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest ornament. It is
composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic
beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a
remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At
the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is
the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices
concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty
little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or
"house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for the
Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder,
Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by
Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an
octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish
artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this
room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer
of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the
grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are
also noteworthy.
The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th
century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland,
and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it
thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the
centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange
onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the
status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.
In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century
the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties
and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple
Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands;
the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England
and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish
provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against
Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England
and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of
peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the
first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty
of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first "Hague
Convention," the outcome of the "peace conference" assembled on the
initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and
the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference
(June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or
Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: _History_;
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed to be
completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen
avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie
contributed L300,000 towards its cost.
HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the
27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied
theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated
_professor extraordinarius_ of theology and pastor of Altstadt in
Konigsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822
he became _professor ordinarius_. In 1826 he removed as professor of
theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of
Bardesanes, Marcion (_Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprunglichen
Gestalt_, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a _Syrische
Chrestomathie_ (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a
treatise, _De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum
naturalismo contineatur ratione_ (1827), and also of an _Offene
Erklarung an die Evangelische Kirche zunachst in Sachsen u. Preussen_
(1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he
endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty
voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833
Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (_Uber die Lage des
Christenthums in unserer Zeit_, 1832) having attracted the notice of
Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological
professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became "general
superintendent" of the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the
13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his "supra-naturalism," he
did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own
doctrinal system. The first edition of his _Lehrbuch des christlichen
Glaubens_ (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and
as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important
points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have
remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his
edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his _Bibliothek der Symbole und
Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche_ (1842; 2nd ed. 1877)
and _Predigten_ (1852).
His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after studying
theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively _Privatdozent_ at
Breslau (1845), professor _ad interim_ (1846) at Konigsberg on the death
of Heinrich Havernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor
ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a
commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs
(1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the
Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and the
_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.
HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-1843), German physician and
founder of "homoeopathy," was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of
April 1755. He was educated at the "elector's school" of Meissen, and
studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at
Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in
Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following
year, while translating W. Cullen's _Materia medica_ into German, he was
struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy
body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure.
He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of
medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the "law of
similars," _similia similibus curantur_ or _curentur_--i.e. diseases are
cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms
similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a
paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland's _Journal_, and four years
later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally
employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his
doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his
chief work, _Organon der rationellen Heilkunde_, containing an exposition
of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following
years appeared the six volumes of his _Reine Arzneimittellehre_, which
detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large number of drugs, i.e.
by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the
hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries,
whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave
Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cothen he went
to live at Cothen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he
practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843.
Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cothen in
1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned,
_Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis_ (1805) and _Die
chronischen Krankheiten_ (1828-1830).
See the article HOMOEOPATHY; also Albrecht, _Hahnemann's Leben und
Werken_ (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, _Hahnemann's Life and Letters_
(Philadelphia, 1895).
HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German author, was born at
Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of
Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his
enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of
his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von
Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her
husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled,
produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in
1838 appeared as a novelist with _Aus der Gesellschaft_, a title which,
proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as
that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed _Ida
Schonholm_. For several years the countess continued to produce novels
bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but
less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with
aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations at length drew
upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style
entitled _Diogena_ (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together
seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic
religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled
_Von Babylon nach Jerusalem_ (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply
from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she,
however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a
nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her
literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works
of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications,
however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works
do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their
sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling
and expressed with passionate eloquence. _Ulrich_ and _Grafin Faustine_,
both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but
_Sigismund Forster_ (1843), _Cecil_ (1844), _Sibylle_ (1846) and _Maria
Regina_ (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz
on the 12th of January 1880.
Her collected works, _Gesammelte Werke_, with an introduction by O.
von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
(Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, _Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Wurzburg,
undated); P. Haffner, _Grafin Ida Hahn-Hahn_, _eine psychologische
Studie_ (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, _Ida Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Mainz,
1894).
HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was
educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he
afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short
time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was
appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on
the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems
of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law
and the _Mishnah_; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful
authority. In his _responsa_ he laid stress on custom and tradition
provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially
conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of
religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan
theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians
of other beliefs.
See Steinschneider, _Hebr. Ubersetz_. p. 910, and article in _Jewish
Encyclopedia_, vi. 153.
HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak,
which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The
town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of
streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The
inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally
mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak
are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from
its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan
Turkestan.
HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They
still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British
Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in
cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They
formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the
slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle
of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.
See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). For "Haida
Texts and Myths," see _Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer.
Ethnol._ (1905).
HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist,
geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795.
His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of
mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having
studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the
university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs
at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on
the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town.
In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and,
journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into
English, with additions of his own, Mohs's _Grundriss der Mineralogie_,
published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the title _Treatise on
Mineralogy_ (1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the
Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of
the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he
was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of
Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet
of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of
the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly
after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy,
which was given to the world under the title _Handbuch der bestimmenden
Mineralogie_ (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the
imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this
important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a
member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of
the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of
the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked
high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress
in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances
which have been called after him "Haidinger's brushes." Knighted in
1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near
Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871.
In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
_Anfangsgrunde der Mineralogie_ (Leipzig, 1829); _Geognostische
Ubersichtskarte der osterreich. Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1847);
_Bemerkungen uber die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in
Christallen_ (Vienna, 1853); _Interferenzlinien am Glimmer_ (Vienna,
1855); _Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol_ (Vienna, 1855). He also
edited the _Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen_ (Vienna, 1847); the
_Berichte uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
in Wien_ (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the _Jahrbuch_ of the Vienna K. K.
Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found
in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and
of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), _Edinburgh Phil. Journal,
Brewster's Journal of Science_, and _Poggendorff's Annalen_.
(H. B. Wo.)
HAIDUK (also written _Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke_ and _Heyduque_), a term
which appears originally to have meant "robber" or "brigand," a sense it
retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is
probably derived from the Turkish _haidud_, "marauder," but its origin
is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the
Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to
have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as _hajdu_
(plural _hajduk_), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and [)C]ech as
_hajduk_, in Bulgarian as _hajdutin_ and in Greek as [Greek:
chaintoutes]. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread
north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was
applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605
these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party
(see HUNGARY: _History_) with titles of nobility and territorial rights
over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known
thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and
converted into the county of Hajdu (Ger. _Hajduken_). _Hajdu_ is also a
common prefix in Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdu-Szoboszlo,
Hajdu-Namas. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other
countries, _haiduk_ came to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a
male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also
occasionally used as a synonym for "footman" or "lackey."
HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of
the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present
town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an
important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The
population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews
1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian
sect of the "Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem).
The exports (grain and oil) were valued at L178,738 in 1900. Much of the
trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port
is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast.
HAIK (an Arabic word, from _hak_, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually
of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan
peoples. It is generally 6 to 6-1/2 yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is
either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as
an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer
classes. By women the "haik" is arranged to cover the head and, in the
presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin "haik" of
silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.
HAIL (O. Eng. _haegl_ and _hagol_,[1] cf. the cognate Teutonic _hagel_,
as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. [Greek: kachlex], pebble, is
probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice
falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric
structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending
into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending
current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of
water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends
again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and
again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer
strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses
of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes
result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with
disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow,
"soft-hail" or "graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring
cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and
falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the
conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail, i.e. great
heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection
currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift.