[1] Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.
[2] A possible exception is a doubtful species of _Haemogregarina_,
which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
Annelid.
[3] For an interesting account of the biological relations between
parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the
_Quarterly Review_, July 1904.
[4] This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
which some authorities consider _Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani_ as
quite distinct from other _Piroplasmata_ (see TRYPANOSOMES).
[5] It must not be forgotten that one species of _Halteridium (H.
[Trypanomorpha] noctuae)_ is said to have well-marked trypaniform
phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
_Trypanosomes_ (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
thus alluded to here. Whether _H. danilewskyi_ also becomes
trypaniform in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the
criteria of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are
not yet definitely known.
HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, was born in
Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He studied at
Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a chaplaincy at Wadenswil,
on the Lake of Zurich. At this time his attachment to the old faith was
tempered by a mystical turn, and by a devotion to the prophetical
writings of the Old Testament, which he studied in the original. By 1523
we find him in Zurich, where he published, at first anonymously and in
Latin (_Judicium Dei_), later with his name and in German (Sept. 24,
1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, and bearing
the motto attached to all his subsequent works, "O Got erlosz die (or
dein) Gefangnen" ("O God, set the prisoners free"). An attempt to give
effect to the teaching of this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed
by a public religious disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official
account. In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews,
and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's brief exposition
of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); in the dedication
(dated Zurich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes to translate Bugenhagen's
comment on the Psalter. He then went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's
introduction to Johann Frosch. Here he came for a time under the
influence of Urbanus Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg
Regel. Returning to Zurich, he was in intercourse with leading
Anabaptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant
baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting to
Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for his printer
Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme of rejecting all
sacraments, reaching something like the mystical standpoint of the early
Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg in the autumn of 1525, and made
his way through Constance to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him
kindly. He translated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on
the Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken
figuratively), and proceeding to Zurich in November, published his
version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming connexion
with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli were difficult;
returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) his translation of
Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, and with a preface reflecting
on Zwingli. This he followed by a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He
next went to Strassburg, and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At
Strassburg in the late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or
Denck, who collaborated with him in the production of his _opus magnum_,
the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, _Alle Propheten nach hebraischer
Sprach vertuetscht_. The preface is dated Worms, 3 April 1527; and there
are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527,
folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 16 deg.; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was
the first Protestant version of the prophets in German, preceding
Luther's by five years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck
now entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with some
success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in November 1527.
Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the summer of 1528. After long
imprisonment and many examinations he was condemned on the 3rd of
February 1529 to die by the sword, and the sentence was executed on the
following day. His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial
witnesses, Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his
fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes him as "a
servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle says "he was condemned
for the sake of divine truth." His papers included an unpublished
treatise against the essential deity of Christ, which was suppressed by
Zwingli; the only extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being
contained in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian
Frank's _Chronica_. The discovery of his heterodox Christology (which
has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) was
followed by charges of loose living, never heard of in his lifetime, and
destitute of evidence or probability.
See Breitinger, "Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in _Museum Helveticum_
(1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850);
_Dutch Martyrology_ (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. Keim, in
Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1899). (A. Go.*)
HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his _takhallus_ or _nom de
plume_ of Hafiz, was one of the most celebrated writers of Persian
lyrical poetry. He was born at Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early
part of the 8th century of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the
14th of our own. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he
attained a ripe old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the
date given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although
several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little is
actually known about his life, which appears to have been passed in
retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in terms of affectionate
admiration. He was a subject of the Muzaffar princes, who ruled in
Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, until the dynasty was overthrown by
Timur (Tamerlane). Of these princes his especial patrons were Shah
Shuja' and Shah Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry
and theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which he
studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of dervishes. Hafiz
afterwards enrolled himself in the same order and became a professor of
Koranic exegesis in a college which his friend and patron Haji
Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially founded for him. This was probably
the reason of his adopting the sobriquet of Hafiz ("one who remembers"),
which is technically applied to any person who has learned the Koran by
heart. The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little
to Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities
drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. In revenge
he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom loses an
opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's fame as a poet was
soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan world, and several
powerful monarchs sent him presents and pressing invitations to visit
them. Amongst others he was invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned
in the south of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through
Lahore he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for him by
the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a bad sailor, and,
having invented an excuse for being put ashore, made the best of his way
back to Shiraz. Some biographies narrate a story of an interview between
Hafiz and the invader Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily,
"Art thou he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand
and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" alluding to a
well-known verse in one of his odes. "Yes, sire," replied Hafiz, "and it
is by such acts of generosity that I have brought myself to such a state
of destitution that I have now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so
pleased at his ready wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome
present. Unfortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture
Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned to
Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is known.
One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, another that
of a favourite unmarried son, and several others speak of his love for a
girl called _Shakh i Nabat_, "Sugar-cane branch," and this is almost all
of his personal history that can be gathered from his writings. He was,
like most Persians, a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission
of the office of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali,
cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the _Hadith_ (traditional sayings)
of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code of Mahommedan
ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains a verse in praise of Ali
is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is omitted by Sudi, the Turkish
editor and commentator, who was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's
heretical opinions and dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised
by the ecclesiastical authorities on his death as to his interment in
consecrated ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own
works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now
throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same manner
as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination called
_Sortes Virgilianae_. Opening the book at random after pronouncing the
customary formula asking for inspiration, the objectors hit upon the
following verse--"Turn not away thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for
though immersed in sin, he will be admitted into Paradise." He was
accordingly buried in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now
included in an enclosure called the Hafiziyeh.
His principal work is the _Diwan_, that is, a collection of short odes
or sonnets called _ghazals_, and consisting of from five to sixteen
_baits_ or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having the same
rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always introducing the
poet's own _nom de plume_. The whole of these are arranged in
alphabetical order, an arrangement which certainly facilitates reference
but makes it absolutely impossible to ascertain their chronological
order, and therefore detracts from their value as a means of throwing
light upon the growth and development of his genius or the incidents of
his career. They are often held together by a very slender thread of
continuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of the
couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the point of
view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, will always show
that a single idea does run throughout the whole. The nature of these
poems has been the subject of much discussion in the West, some scholars
seeing in their anacreontic utterances nothing but sensuality and
materialism, while others, following the Oriental school, maintain that
they are wholly and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between
the two would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered that
Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his _ghazals_ were in
all probability published from a _takia_, and arranged with at least a
view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same time it is ridiculous to
suppose that the glowing imagery, the gorgeous and often tender
descriptions of natural beauties, the fervent love passages, and the
roystering drinking songs were composed in cool blood or with deliberate
ascetic purpose. The beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It
is the outcome of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in
nature and enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived
in an age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded that
his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an artificial
mould.
Besides the _Diwan_, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the Leipzig
edition of his works contains 573 _ghazals_ (forming the _Diwan_), 42
_kit'as_ or fragments, 69 _ruba'iyat_ or tetrastics, 6 _masnaviyat_ or
poems in rhyming couplets, 2 _kasaid_, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
_mukhammes_ or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
several _tarji'-band_ or poems with a refrain. The whole _Diwan_ was
translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, with
introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; a few rhyming
versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. Nott, J. Hindley,
Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through the pages of the
_Oriental Miscellany_ and other periodicals, and a fine edition
containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. Bicknell
appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), A. Rogers
(1889), J. H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). The
principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), which
gave the first impulse to Goethe's _Westostlicher Diwan_; a rhyming
and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's works by
Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which contains also
the Persian text and notes; _Der Diwan des Schemseddin Muhammed
Hafis_, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in which the rhyming
system of the original is imitated. Besides these, the reader may
consult d'Herbelot, _Bibliotheque orientale_, article "Hafiz"; Sir
William Ouseley's _Oriental Collections_ (1797-1798); _A Specimen of
Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz_, by John Richardson (London, 1802);
_Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_, by Sir Gore Ouseley (Oriental
Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article by Professor E. B.
Cowell in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (No. 177, July 1874); J. A. Vullers,
_Vitae poetarum Persicorum_ (1839, translated from Daulatshah); S.
Robinson, _Persian Poetry for English Readers_ (1883). The best
edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann Brockhaus of
Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension of the Turkish
editor Sudi, and contains his commentary in Turkish on the first
eighty _ghazals_. See also H. Ethe in _Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie_, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, _Geschichte der
persischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1901). (E. H. P.)
HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. _haegtesse_, _hegtes_,
cognate with Ger. _Hexe_, witch, Dutch _hecse_), a word common during
the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon or evil spirit, and so
particularly applied to such supernatural beings as the harpies and
fairies of classical mythology, and also to witches. In modern usage the
word is generally used of a hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior
is accompanied by malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an
eel-like parasitic fish, _Myxine glutinosa_, allied to the lamprey.
(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects for an
enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word as "hedge" (see
HEDGES) and "haw." "Hag" also means "to cut," and is used in Scotland of
an extent of woodland marked out for felling, and of a quantity of
felled wood. This word is also used of a cutting in the peat of a "moss"
or "bog," and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather
in a bog; it is common in the form "moss-hags."
HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, was born on the 23rd
of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and
literary taste, was Danish minister. He was educated at the gymnasium of
Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to
Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary
to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's
return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and
hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called
"English Court" (_Englischer Hof_) in Hamburg, a trading company founded
in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time
had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death
on the 28th of October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears
unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the devastation
wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently a social poet. His
light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, with their undisguised
_joie de vivre_, introduced a new note into the German lyric; his fables
and tales in verse are hardly inferior in form and in delicate
persiflage to those of his master La Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry
re-echoes the philosophy of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on
the German lyric until late in the 18th century.
The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg
shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title _Versuch
einiger Gedichte_ (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738
appeared _Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzahlungen_; in 1742 a
collection of his lyric poems, under the title _Sammlung neuer Oden
und Lieder_; and his _Moralische Gedichte_ in 1750. A collection of
his entire works was published at Hamburg after his death in 1757. The
best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800).
Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F.
Muncker's _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_
(Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, _F. von Hagedorn und seine
Bedeutung fur die deutsche Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt,
_Hagedorn und die Erzahlung in Reimversen_ (Berlin, 1884).
HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), German philologist,
chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was
born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After
studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment
in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in
order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed
_professor extraordinarius_ of German literature in the university of
Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity
to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as _professor ordinarius_. He
died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen's
critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening
an interest in old German poetry belongs to him.
His principal publications are the _Nibelungenlied_, of which he
issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the
_Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); _Lieder der
altern Edda_ (Berlin, 1812); _Gottfried von Strassburg_ (Berlin,
1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title
_Gesamtabenteuer_ (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and _Das Heldenbuch_
(Leipzig, 1855). He also published _Uber die altesten Darstellungen
der Faustsage_ (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited _Das neue
Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft fur deutsche Sprache und
Altertumskunde_. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke
was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop.
(1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the
Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to
Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway,
connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district.
It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old
Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a
technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are
also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen
is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and
possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works,
woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco,
and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large
limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.
HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the
railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city.
Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic
churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a
gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal
industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of
porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer.
There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an
important military centre and has a large garrison, including three
artillery battalions.
Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its
origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The
emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in
1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in
which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial
globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the
_Landvogt_ of Hagenau, the imperial _advocatus_ in Lower Alsace.
Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in
1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis
XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by
imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all
destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine,
into the possession of Germany.
HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874). German church historian, was born on
the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his father was a practising
physician. His preliminary education was received at a Pestalozzian
school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, whence in due course he passed
to the newly reorganized local university. He early devoted himself to
theological studies and the service of the church, while at the same
time cherishing and developing broad "humanistic" tendencies which found
expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic admiration for
the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 were spent first at Bonn,
where G. C. F. Lucke (1791-1855) exerted a powerful influence on his
thought, and afterwards at Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander
became his masters. Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette
had recently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished
himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, _Observationes
historico-hermeneuticae circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae
Scripturae_; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and in 1829
professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his academic labours in
connexion with the history of dogma and of the church, he lived a life
of great and varied usefulness as a theologian, a preacher and a
citizen; and at his "jubilee" in 1873, not only the university and town
of Basel but also the various churches of Switzerland united to do him
honour. He died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.
Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, but he is
specially distinguished as a writer on church history. Though neither so
learned and condensed as the contributions of Gieseler, nor so original
and profound as those of Neander, his lectures are clear, attractive and
free from narrow sectarian prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a
champion of the "mediation theology" (_Vermittelungstheologie_), based
upon the fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was
much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. He sought
to maintain the old confessional documents, and to make the objective
prevail over the purely subjective manner of viewing theological
questions. But he himself was aware that in the endeavour to do so he
was not always successful, and that his delineations of Christian dogma
often betrayed a vacillating and uncertain hand.
His works include _Tabellarische Ubersicht der Dogmengeschichte_
(1828); _Encyclopadie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften_
(1833); _Vorlesungen uber Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des
Protestantismus_ (1834-1843); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_
(1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); _Vorlesungen uber
die Geschichte der alien Kirche_ (1853-1855); _Vorlesungen uber die
Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1860-1861); _Grundlinien der
Homiletik u. Liturgik_ (1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius
(1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a _Geschichte der
theol. Schule Basels_ (1860); his _Predigten_ (1858-1875), two volumes
of poems entitled _Luther u. seine Zeit_ (1838), and _Gedichte_
(1846). The lectures on church history under the general title
_Vorlesungen uber die Kirchengeschichte von der altesten Zeit bis zum
19ten Jahrhundert_ were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).
See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.
HAGENBECK, CARL (1844- ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born
at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar
bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many
other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given
the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business,
so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his
animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative
animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the
respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The
educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the
French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the
Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other
popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from
Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.
HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland,
U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore.
Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910,
census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley
railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile
valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more
distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852;
non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the
surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a
manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory
products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3%
over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts,
hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print
paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes
and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting
plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan
Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore
in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on
the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated
his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.
HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, Or BORER (_Myxine_), a marine fish which forms
with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates
(_Cyclostomata_). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found
within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds
after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a
thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to
have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North
Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some
localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the
west coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA).
HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the more homiletic
elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from
the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the
haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is
often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and
ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud
(q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one
point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of
Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed
a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional
stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often
beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the
Talmud were collected in the _Eye of Jacob_, a very popular compilation
completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.
HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the "minor prophets," whose
writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai ([Hebrew:
Haggai], Gr. [Greek: 'Aggaios], whence Aggeus in the English version of
the Apocrypha) perhaps means "born on the feast day," "festive." But
Wellhausen[1] is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for
Hagariah ("Yahweh hath girded"), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to
be a contraction of Zechariah.
The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the
first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth
month--that is, between September and December--of the second year of
Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485
B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability
that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the
seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in
extreme old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the
period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began
to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai's labours
(Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem
(Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of
Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov's
_Introductio_, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (_Vitae prophetarum_) says
that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return,
witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial
near the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several
psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other
versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS.
Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.[2]
In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua,
rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy
in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and
distress are due to Yahweh's indignation at such remissness. Let them
build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the
honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work
at the temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord was
with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the
following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the
apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord's.
He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought
to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former
temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii.
10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly
ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of
the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel
is assured of God's special love and protection in the impending
catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly
pointed as preceding the glorification of God's house on Zion. In thus
looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier
prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory
and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great
anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic
features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of
Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the
Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple.
The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as
His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament
prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book
of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the
high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.[3] The stem
of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded
to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new
importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which
Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against
the non-Zadokite priests.
The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their
sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that
neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any
return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been
made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is
unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of
the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after
the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a
remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal
families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon
increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon
and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings
of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and
obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would
arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and
divine revelation.
In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems
preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty
objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence
of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that
the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon.
Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the
spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to
found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only
people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans.
Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing
the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had
fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter
disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong
enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as
though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of
enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. "The like
collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious
men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection
of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their
enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile
shore."[4]
From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be
interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus
had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on
whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne.
The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of
a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and
other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that
Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was
therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy
building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly
received.
It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no
direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his
practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the
earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful--the temple. "Without a
sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would
have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that
they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a
God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai argued that
material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing
distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people's religious
apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the
book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a
religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple,
did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the
other hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective as
it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the
aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To
the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture
of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly
warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa.
lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that
while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were
unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who
taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is
sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious
thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took
two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous authors of Isa.
xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed
their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and
priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the
religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where
the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity
which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness
of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40,
Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of
the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing
from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the
conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the
new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this
consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of
prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.
AUTHORITIES.--The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A.
Kohler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on the
_Nachexilische Propheten_. Reinke's _Commentary_ (Munster, 1868) is
the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been
treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng.
trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as
by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd
ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R.
Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J.
Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as
by Kohler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older
literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmuller's
_Scholia_. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially
mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament
prophecy, see Duhm, _Theologie der Propheten_ (Bonn, 1875); A. B.
Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_ (1904); A. F.
Kirkpatrick, _The Doctrine of the Prophets_; G. A. Smith, _The Book of
the Twelve Prophets_, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andree, _Le Prophete Aggee_;
Ed. Meyer, _Entstehung des Judentums_ (1896). (W. R. S.; A. J. G.)