FOOTNOTE:

[1] "Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract

attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents

the Old Norwegian _heill_, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. _hal_,

whence "hale," "whole," and _hael_, whence "health," "heal."

HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and

historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His

father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of

Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson

of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton,

was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest

of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at

Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted

shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained

neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly

established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied

application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the

bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was

appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He

was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to

which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of

Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the

first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East

India Company's service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger

daughter married Sir James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles

Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885,

afterwards came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name.

Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was the _Annals

of Scotland_, of which the first volume, "From the accession of Malcolm

III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.," appeared in

1776, and the second, "From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce,

to the accession of the house of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson

justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a "Dictionary"

of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that

is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected

subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include

_Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish

Clergy_ (1769); _An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High

Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem_ (1769); three volumes entitled _Remains

of Christian Antiquity_ ("Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in

the Second Century," 1776; "The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.,"

1778; "The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from

Eusebius," 1780); _Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the

Christian Church_ (1783); and editions or translations of portions of

Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published _An

Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the

Rapid Growth of Christianity_ (Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of

the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the

famous 15th and 16th chapters of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman

Empire_.

A "Memoir" of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his

_Inquiry into the Secondary Causes_.

HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of

Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton &

South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is

Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m.

W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but

retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date.

There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the

remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and

manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.

HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, _K'iung-chow-fu_, a

large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and

situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20 deg.

8' to 17 deg. 52' N., and from 108 deg. 32' to 111 deg. 15' E. It

measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90

m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the

size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is

separated by the straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.

With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and broad tracts

on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole island is occupied by

jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys between. The central range

bears the name of Li-mou shan or Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger

Mountain), and attains a height of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are

celebrated in a glowing ode by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears

to be well watered, and some of its rivers are not without importance as

possible highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are

very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an irregular

curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north to Tan-chow on the

west coast. Being exposed to the winter monsoon, the northern parts of

the island enjoy much the same sort of temperate climate as the

neighbouring provinces of the mainland, but in the southern parts,

protected from the monsoon by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost

or entirely tropical. Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684

is reported in the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes

are a much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to the

same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 1702, 1704,

1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber of various

kinds--eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.--is one of the principal

products of the island, and has even been specially transported to

Peking for imperial purposes. The coco palm flourishes freely even in

the north, and is to be found growing in clumps with the _Pinus

sinensis_. Rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet

potatoes, ground-nuts and tobacco are all cultivated in varying

quantities. The aboriginal inhabitants collect a kind of tea called

t'ien ch'a, or celestial tea, which looks like the leaves of a wild

camellia, and has an earthy taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and

iron occur in the Shi-lu shan or "stone-green-hill"; the silver at least

was worked till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of

the island.

The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between the little

yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. Buffaloes are common,

and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at least they are frequently albinos.

Horses are numerous but small. Hogs and deer are both common wild

animals, and of the latter there are three species, _Cervus Eldi, Cervus

hippelaphus_ and _Cervus vaginalis_. Among the birds, of which 172

species are described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in _The Ibis_ (1870),

there are eagles, notably a new species _Spilornis Rutherfordi_,

buzzards, harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The _Upupa

ceylonensis_ is familiar to the natives as the "bird of the Li matrons,"

and the _Palaeornis javanica_ as the "sugar-cane bird."

Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, though

strictly it is only a portion of the island that is under Chinese

administration, the remainder being still occupied by unsubjugated

aborigines. The department contains three _chow_ and ten _hien_

districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the capital is situated;

Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the

north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung-hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien,

Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the southmost of all), Kan-en-hien, Ch'ang-hwa-hien,

Tan-chow, Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu

is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on the

river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and examination

halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in coco-nuts and scented

woods are its principal industrial product. In 1630 it was made the seat

of a Roman Catholic mission by Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit,

and the old cemetery still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port

of K'iung-chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low

water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow, i.e.

seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along which a large

traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but more frequently by

means of wheel-barrows, which serve the purpose of cabs and carts. The

value of the trade of the port has risen from L670,600 in 1899 to

L719,333 in 1904. In the same year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage

of 312,554, visited the port. This trade is almost entirely with the

British colony of Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small

coasting steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat

communication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of K'iung-chow,

including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated at 52,000. The

number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 30, most of them officials

or missionaries.

The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, the Chinese

immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and the wild aborigines

or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most part originally from Kwang-si

and the neighbouring provinces, and they speak a peculiar dialect, of

which a detailed account by Mr Swinhoe was given in _The Phoenix, a

Monthly Magazine for China, &c._ (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr

Taintor are almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more

decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular features,

while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, straight and

black, and their beards, if they have any, are very scanty. They till

the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, &c., to the Chinese

markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called also La, Le or Lauy, are

probably connected with the Laos of Siam and the Lolos of China. Though

not gratuitously aggressive, they are highly intractable, and have given

great trouble to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on

deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though they are

mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons are still the

spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and strung with bamboo.

In marriage no avoidance of similarity of name is required. The bride's

face is tattooed according to a pattern furnished by the bridegroom.

Their funeral mourning consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw

beef, and they use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice

oxen. In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and women

from neighbouring settlements move about in gay clothing hand in hand

and singing songs. The whole population of the island is estimated at

about 2-1/2 millions. At its first conquest 23,000 families were

introduced from the mainland. In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign

166,257 inhabitants; in 1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835,

1,350,000.

It was in 111 B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, first

made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who divided it into

the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear in the south, so-called

from the long ears of the native "king," and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in

the north. During the decadence of the elder branch of the Han dynasty

the Chinese supremacy was weakened, but in A.D. 43 the natives were led

by the success of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their

allegiance. About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai.

In A.D. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its conquest by

the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was incorporated with the

western part of the province of Kwang-tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh

Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north of the sea and south of the sea. It

was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, or district south of the sea or strait, came

into use as the name of the island, which, however, has borne the

official title of K'iung-chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan

or Jade Mountains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a

department of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the

turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for delinquent

officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or Su-Tung-po was

banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th century pirates made the

intercourse with the mainland dangerous, and in the 17th they were

considered so formidable that merchants were allowed to convey their

goods only across the narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of

English men-of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty

of Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how (Hai-Kow)

were opened to European commerce; but it was not till 1876 that

advantage was taken of the permission.

HAINAU (officially HAYNAU), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province

of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the railway from Breslau to

Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 10,500. It has an Evangelical and

a Roman Catholic church, manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper,

metal ware and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals.

Near Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blucher inflicted a defeat on the

French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.

HAINAUT (Flem. _Henegouwen_, Ger. _Hennegau_), a province of Belgium

formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern Hainaut is famous as

containing the chief coal and iron mines of Belgium. There are about

150,000 men and women employed in the mines, and about as many more in

the iron and steel works of the province. About 1880 these numbers were

not more than half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut

are Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louviere. The

province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, and is connected

with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. The area of the province is

computed at 930,405 acres or 1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was

1,192,967, showing an average of 821 per square mile.

Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first of the kingdom

of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It afterwards became part of

the duchy of Lorraine. The first to bear the title of count of Hainaut

was Reginar "Long-Neck" (c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of

the duchy of Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower

Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, which

remained in the male line of his descendants, all named Reginar, until

the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, Richildis, married _en

secondes noces_ Baldwin VI. of Flanders, and, by him, became the

ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the

Crusaders to the empire of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder

daughter Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands

Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). On her

death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, on whose death

in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, John of Avesnes, count of

Holland (d. 1304). The countship of Hainaut remained united with that of

Holland during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was under the counts

William I. "the Good" (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married

Edward III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes of

Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who succeeded her

brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage with the emperor Louis IV.

brought Hainaut with the rest of her dominions to the house of

Wittelsbach. Finally, early in the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline

was dispossessed by Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut

henceforward shared the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.

AUTHORITIES.--The _Chronicon Hanoniense_ or _Chronica Honnoniae_ of

Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V.,

covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz,

_Monum. Germ._ (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The _Chronicon Hanoniense_,

ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between

1278 and 1281, was published under the title _Hist. genealogica

comitum Hannoniae_, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels

(1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were

published by de Fortia d'Urban under the title, _Histoire de Hainault

par Jacques de Guyse_, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. Delacourt,

"Bibliographie de l'hist. du Hainaut," in the _Annales du cercle

archeologique de Mons_, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier, _Dict.

geograph. historique, &c., de Hainault_ (Mons, 1891). See also Ulysse

Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources_ s.v.

HAINBURG, or HAIMBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. E.S.E

of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. It is situated on the Danube, only

2-1/2 m. from the Hungarian frontier, and since the fire of 1827

Hainburg has been much improved, being now a handsomely built town. It

has one of the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about

2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the site of

the old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded by ancient

walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. There are numerous

Roman remains, among which may be mentioned the altar and tower at the

town-house, on the latter of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A

Roman aqueduct is still used to bring water to the town. On the

neighbouring Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which

appears in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested

from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the foot of the

same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar of Bohemia was

married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier it was the residence of

the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the town, on an island in the Danube, is

the ruined castle of Rothelstein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights

Templars. Hainburg was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured

by Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants

massacred by the Turks in 1683.

HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Kleine

Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway to Rosswein. Pop.

(1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical churches, a park, and commercial

and technical schools. Hainichen is a place of considerable industry.

Its chief manufacture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics;

indeed it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The

special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen are

due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. There

are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. Hainichen is the

birthplace of Gellert, to whose memory a bronze statue was erected in

the market-place in 1865. The Gellert institution for the poor was

erected in 1815.

HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on the Cua-Cam, a

branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The population numbers between

21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted

by the rice trade of the port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about

20 m. from the Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which

it communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the second

commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, and has

government and private ship-building yards. The harbour is accessible at

all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., but is obstructed by a bar.

Hai-phong is the seat of a resident who performs the functions of mayor,

and the residency is the chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a

tribunal of commerce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also

among its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat

service (_Messageries fluviales_) of Tongking, which plies as far as

Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking and

northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning and the

manufacture of cement are carried on.

HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general term for the

characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming the coat of mammals.

The word is also applied by analogy to the filamentous outgrowths from

the body of insects, &c., plants, and metaphorically to anything of like

appearance.

For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see SKIN AND EXOSKELETON; FIBRES and

allied articles; FUR, and LEATHER.

_Anthropology._--The human hair has an important place among the

physical criteria of race. While its general structure and quantity vary

comparatively little, its length in individuals and relatively in the

two sexes, its form, its colour, its general consistency and the

appearance under the microscope of its transverse section show

persistent differences in the various races. It is the persistence of

these differences and specially in regard to its colour and texture,

which has given to hair its ethnological importance. So obvious a racial

differentiation had naturally long ago attracted the attention of

anthropologists. But it was not until the 19th century that microscopic

examination showed the profound difference in structure between the hair

characteristic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr

Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological Society

entitled "On the Human Hair as a Race Character, examined by aid of the

Microscope." This address established the importance of hair as a racial

criterion. He demonstrated that the structure of the hair is

threefold:--

(1) Short and crisp, generally termed "woolly," elliptical or

kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or pith. Its

colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic of all the

black races except the Australians and aborigines of India. This type of

hair has two varieties. When the hairs are relatively long and the

spiral of the curls large, the head has the appearance of being

completely covered, as with some of the Melanesian races and most of the

negroes. Haeckel has called this "_eriocomous_" or "woolly" proper. In

some negroid peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the

hair grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little

tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as if it

were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has gained the

name of "peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it "_lophocomous_" or

"crested." Most negroes have this type of hair in childhood and, even

when fully grown, signs of it around the temples. The space between each

tuft is not bald, as was at one time generally assumed. The hair grows

uniformly over the head, as in all races.

2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, with

the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost without exception

black. This is the hair of the yellow races, the Chinese, Mongols and

Indians of the Americas.

3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with medullary

tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, and is mainly fair,

though black, brown, red or towy varieties are found.

There is a fourth type of hair describable as "frizzy." It is easily

distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but not from the

negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and is characteristic of the

Australians, Nubians, and certain of the Mulattos. Generally hair curls

in proportion to its flatness. The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker.

These extremes are respectively represented by the Papuans and the

Japanese. Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most

persistent, as in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native

hybrids. Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, "half negro,

quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry-looking

hair.

Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest hue of black

being found side by side with the most flaxen and towy. Colour varies

less in the lank type, and scarcely at all in the woolly. The only

important exception to the uniform blackness of the negroid wool is to

be found among the Wochuas, a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is

described by Wilhelm Junker (_Travels in Africa_, iii. p. 82) as "of a

dark, rusty brown hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among

the populations of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south.

According to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every

hundred Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out

of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% among

Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. Among the

straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, however, found

among the western Finns. Among those races with frizzy hair, red is

almost as common as among those with wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an

individual anomaly associated ordinarily with freckles. There are no

red-haired races.

A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of hair and

its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus straight hair is

the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly is shortest. Wavy hair

holds an intermediate position. In the two extremes the difference of

length in man and woman is scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired

races, men's tresses are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail,

and the hair of Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards

of 9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally short

growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses have hair no

longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now and again in the

frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is marked. Among European

men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 16 in., while with women the mean

length is between 25 and 30 in. and in some cases has been known to

reach 6 ft. or more.

The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with that on the

head. The hairiest races are the Australians and Tasmanians, whose heads

are veritable mops in the thickness and unkempt luxuriance of the locks.

Next to them are the Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the

Hairy Ainu of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now

extinct, supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be

found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian peasantry.

The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the men often scarcely

having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of America and the Mongols.

Negroid peoples may be said to be intermediate, but usually incline to

hairlessness. The wavy-haired populations hold also an intermediate

position, but somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no

rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and western

negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the inhabitants of

Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. From statistics

taken in America it would seem that it is ten times less frequent among

negroes than among whites between the ages of thirty-three and

forty-five years, and thirty times less between twenty-one and

thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more frequent than among negroes

but less than among whites. It is rarer among Redskins than among

negroes. The _lanugo_ or downy hairs, with which the human foetus is

covered for some time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb,

and the minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human

body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete hairy

covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or at all events

Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. The discovery of

Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or more has proved that this

physical criterion remains unchanged, and that it is to-day what it was

so many scores of centuries back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions

of mankind were distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as

that which characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type

bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn derived

from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion it is worth mention,

as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though the regions occupied by the

negroid races are the habitat of the anthropoid apes, the hair of the

latter is real hair, not wool. Further in the eastern section of the

dark domain, while the Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his

presumed progenitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly

red hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher apes

in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.

No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer one of racial

purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as to

suggest that "a single hair presenting the average form characteristic

of the race might serve to define it." At any rate a hair of an

individual bears the stamp of his origin.

See Dr Pruner-Bey in _Memoires de la societe d'anthropologie_, ii. P.

A. Brown, _Classification of Mankind by the Hair_; P. Topinard,

_L'Homme dans la nature_ (1891), chap. vi.

_Commerce._--Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures.

Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of

certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest

quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig

is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most

costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being

employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are

worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for

many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative

painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger,

polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too

short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt.

For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other

rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer

qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in

the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or

steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used

by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses;

and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes,

horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of

oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work,

for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law

officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet

ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of

horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is

especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the

short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and

curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered

with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in

Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and

Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various

manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some

importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair

is woven into crinoline for ladies' bonnets, plaited into fishing

lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining

cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The

manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more

peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which

cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions

determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of

considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are

distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than

the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in

Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source

of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale

of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers

attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair

5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the "raw

material" is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of

ladies' "combings." Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen

is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of

golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey

shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair

is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts,

frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing

resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of

jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade.

HAIR-TAIL (_Trichiurus_), a marine fish belonging to the

_Acanthopterygii scombriformes_, with a long band-like body terminating

in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent teeth in both jaws.

Several species are known, of which one, common in the tropical

Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British Islands.

HAITI [HAITI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, or _Hispaniola_], an island in the

West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the chain and, with the

exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. Its greatest length

between Cape Engano on the east and Cape des Irois on the west is 407

m., and its greatest breadth between Cape Beata on the south and Cape

Isabella on the north 160 m. The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather

less than that of Ireland. From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica,

130 m. W.S.W., it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto

Rico, 60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17 deg. 37' and 20

deg. 0' N. and 68 deg. 20' and 74 deg. 28' W. From the west coast

project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape Tiburon forms

the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long and its width varies

from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole St Nicholas at the point of the

north-western peninsula, which is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of

40 m. Between these lies the Gulf of Gonaive, a triangular bay, at the

apex of which stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaive,

opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to

Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent harbour,

200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast being its only

defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent Bay of Samana, formed

by the peninsula of that name, a mountain range projecting into the sea;

its mouth is protected by a coral reef stretching 8-1/2m. from the south

coast. There is however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a

safe and beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana,

with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there are no

inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa and Neyba are

reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula has good harbours at

Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any

importance between Aux Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay

of Baraderes. The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.

[Illustration: Map of Haiti.]

Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading

to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to

the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There

are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and

southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and

fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the

Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape

Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating

in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The

central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m.

in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island

it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra

del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving

first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition

to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to

the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on

some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the

highest elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the

city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is

the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of

Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900

ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the

largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river

Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly

level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of

cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as

it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti

Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a

distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of

hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of

this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most

of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in

part wooded, and all very fertile.

There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui,

falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of

Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows,

and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also

rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the

mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise

the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into

Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some

distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of

its name into the Gulf of Gonaive. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on

which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The

greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft.

above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though

25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call

it Etang Sale. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous

sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre,

which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake

has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva.

Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a

fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and

Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not

infrequent.

_Geology._--The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and

large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It

is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of

the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which

fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the

geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the

schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and

conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.;

and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containing

_Hippurites_. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and

limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of

shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene,

and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper

sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica

(Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely

of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or

Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly

examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary

deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed

in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene.

Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene

age.

_Fauna and Flora._--The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the

largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons.

Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and

insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and

centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters

teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs,

descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains

and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives,

who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.

In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by

any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in

perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate

climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among

indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger,

native indigo (_indigo marron_ or _sauvage_), arrowroot, manioc or

cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and

sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane,

coffee, indigo (called _indigo franc_, to distinguish it from the

native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit,

mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most

of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the

mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a

necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common,

but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially

in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel,

satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (_Canella alba_), yellow acoma

(_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) and gri-gri; and among the latter are

Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are

extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts

occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and

many kinds of palms.

_Climate._--Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents

a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The

yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and

dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season

lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island,

so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain

districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while

other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position

the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the

temperature there ranges between 80 deg. and 95 deg. F. and in winter

between 70 deg. and 80 deg. F. Even in the highlands the mercury never

falls below 45 deg. F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the

Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds

are from the east.

_The Republic of Haiti._--Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro

republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the

remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic.

Between these two governments there exists the strongest political

antipathy.

Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the

republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting

communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful

example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by

negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the

members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of

1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in

origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti.

In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military

despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president.

The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized

nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and

branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal

and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state

religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly

disguised adherence to the horrid rites of _Voodoo_ (q.v.), although

this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5

_departements_, 23 _arrondissements_ and 67 _communes_. Each

_departement_ and _arrondissement_ is governed by a general in the army.

The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small

vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary

schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The

Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at

Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law

school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France

for their education. The unit of money is the _gourde_, the nominal

value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to

great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs,

paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and

enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed

condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare

necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour,

salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The

exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and

sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had

an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little

capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless.

Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French

occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast

service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly

visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign

steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A

railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28

m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to

La Grande Riviere, 15 m. distant.

The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who

form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and

much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but

ignorant and lazy. They have a passion for dancing weird African dances

to the accompaniment of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor

legally prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the

state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The people

generally speak a curious but not unattractive _patois_ of French

origin, known as Creole. French is the official language, and by a few

of the educated natives it is written and spoken in its purity. On the

whole it must be owned that, after a century of independence and

self-government, the Haitian people have made no progress, if they have

not actually shown signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate

Port-au-Prince (pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000),

Gonaive (18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace

of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci and

of the fortress of La Ferriere, built by King Henri Christophe

(1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. inland from Cap

Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne (22,000) and La Croix des

Bouquets (20,000) are the largest towns in the interior. The entire

population of the republic is about 1,500,000.

_History._--The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by Columbus,

who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 6th of December 1492.

The natives called the country Haiti (mountainous country), and

Quisquica (vast country). Columbus named it Espagnola (Little Spain),

which was latinized into Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the

island was inhabited by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by

the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They

were, however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as early

as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants of whom now

possess the land. Six years after its discovery Columbus had explored

the interior of the island, founded the present capital, and had

established flourishing settlements at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega,

Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines had been opened up, and advances made in

agriculture. Sugar was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the

staple product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English,

driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of Tortuga,

where they became formidable under the name of Buccaneers. They soon

obtained a footing on the mainland of Haiti, and by the treaty of

Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied was ceded to France. This new

colony, named Saint Dominique, subsequently attained a high degree of

prosperity, and was in a flourishing state when the French Revolution

broke out in 1789. The population was then composed of whites, free

coloured people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes

demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the whites; and

in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them all the privileges of

French citizens. The whites at once adopted the most violent measures,

and petitioned the home government to reverse the decree, which was

accordingly revoked. In August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out

into insurrection, and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A

period of turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both

parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty.

Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to settle the

dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the abolition of slavery,

they could effect nothing. To add further to the troubles of the colony,

it was invaded by a British force, which, in spite of the climate and

the opposition of the colonists, succeeded in maintaining itself until

driven out in 1798 by Toussaint l'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in

1795, France had acquired the title to the entire island.

By 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of remarkable

military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. He then published,

subject to the approval of France, a form of constitutional government,

under which he was to be governor for life. This step, however, roused

the suspicions of Bonaparte, then first consul, who determined to reduce

the colony and restore slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General

Leclerc, with 25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and

often ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc

proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn guarantees on

the part of the French, laid down his arms. He was seized and sent to

France, where he died in prison in 1803. The blacks, infuriated by this

act of treachery, renewed the struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines

(1758-1806), with a barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The

French, further embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were

only too glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.

The opening of the following year saw the declaration of independence,

and the restoration of the aboriginal name of Haiti. Dessalines, made

governor for life, inaugurated his rule with a bloodthirsty massacre of

all the whites. In October 1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was

crowned with great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his

tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for by several

chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), established himself

in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Petion (1770-1818) took possession

of the southern part. The Spaniards re-established themselves in the

eastern part of the island, retaining the French name, modified to Santo

Domingo. Civil war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and

Petion, but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared

himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty

caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Petion was

succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), who, after

Christophe's death, made himself master of all the French part of the

island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island proclaimed its

independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage of dissensions there,

invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion of the whole island fell into his

hands. Boyer held the presidency of the new government, which was called

the republic of Haiti, until 1843, when he was driven from the island by

a revolution. In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again

asserted their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was

established, and from that time the two political divisions have been

maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, and

president succeeded president, in rapid succession. Order, however, was

established in 1849, when Soulouque, who had previously obtained the

presidency, proclaimed himself emperor, under the title of Faustin I.

After a reign of nine years he was deposed and exiled, the republic

being restored under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and

enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was forced to

flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre Salnave, who, after a

presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget (1870), Dominique

(1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) followed, each to be driven into exile

by revolution. The next president, Salomon, maintained himself in office

for ten years, but he too was driven from the country and died in exile.

Civil war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Legitime and Hippolyte,

and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. He ruled

with the most absolute authority till his death in 1896. General

Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled till his flight to Paris in 1902.

The usual civil war ensued, and after nine months of turmoil, order was

restored by the election of Nord Alexis in December 1902.

Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by many

disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there was an attack

by native soldiery on the French and German representatives, and

punishment was exacted by these powers. In December 1904 ex-president

Sam, his wife and members of his ministry were sentenced to long terms

of imprisonment for fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a

conspiracy against the government was reported and the ringleaders were

sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, and

Gonaive and St Marc and other places were reported to be in the hands of

the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, the rising was checked, and

Alexis announced the pardon of the revolutionaries. In March, however,

this pacific policy was reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were

summarily executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified

when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September the

criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, a large

number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the year, and in

November revolution broke out again. General Antoine Simon raised his

standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection was rife among the government

troops, who deserted to him in great numbers. On the 2nd of December

Port-au-Prince was occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries,

and Alexis took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and

finding refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the

presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, in

circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered that a plot

was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was threatened.

AUTHORITIES.--B. Edwards, _Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo_

(London, 1801); Jordan, _Geschichte der Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, 1846);

Linstant Pradin, _Recueil general des lois et actes du gouvernement

d'Haiti_ (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo

(Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, _Hist. des revolutions d'Haiti_ (Paris,

1859); Sam. Hazard, _Santo Domingo, Past and Present_ (London, 1873),

with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, _Haiti, or the Black Republic_

(London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,

1893); Marcelin, _Haiti, etudes economiques, sociales, et politiques_;

and _Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes_ (Paris, 1893); Hesketh

Pritchard, _Where Black Rules White_ (London, 1900). For geology, see

W. M. Gabb, "On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo," _Trans.

Amer. Phil. Soc._, Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp.

49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,

1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in _Peterm.

Mitt._ 1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will

be found in R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of

Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).

HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal,

on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna.

Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the

struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal,

being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and

1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very

plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, its

traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic in three

directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance.

Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western

railway.

HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a "setting out," for

the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from

the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the

lesser pilgrimage, called _umrah_ or _omra_, may be made to the mosque

at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a

meritorious act. The term _hajji_ or _hadji_ is given to those who have

performed the greater pilgrimage. The word _hajj_ is sometimes loosely

used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is

also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy

Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION).

HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib Chelebi Hajji

Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at

Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of

the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was

present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628.

In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 1633 at

Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hajji).

The following year he was in Erivan and then returned to Constantinople.

Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat

department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended

the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a

practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all

books he found there. His largest work is the _Bibliographical

Encyclopaedia_ written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters

dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and

Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical

order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the

author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It

was edited by G. Flugel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7

vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been

reproduced at Constantinople (1893).

Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of

general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,

1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655

(Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks

(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London,

1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin

trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by

J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin

in his _Geography of Asia Minor_, vol. 1).

For his life see the preface to Flugel's edition; list of his works in

C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_ (Berlin, 1902), vol.

ii., pp. 428-429. (G. W. T.)

HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John

Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He

resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, London. In the address "To the

Gentle Reader" prefixed to his _Newes out of Powles Churchyard ...

Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus_ (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the "first

three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a

dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor,

and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was

published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose

policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a

valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as

was Hake. _Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye_,

first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it

was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the

form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of

the cathedral, and is divided into eight "satyrs," dealing with the

corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys,

the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws,

extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a

meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in

rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the

author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the

"carping and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with

small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a "carping

careless cankerd churle."

He also wrote a translation from Thomas a Kempis, _The Imitation, or

Following of Christ_ (1567, 1568); _A Touchstone for this Time

Present_ (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,

followed by a treatise on education; _A Commemoration of the ...

Raigne of ... Elizabeth_ (1575), enlarged in 1578 to _A Joyfull

Continuance of the Commemoration, &c._; and of _Gold's Kingdom, and

this Unhelping Age_ (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse,

in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography

of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds

for his edition in 1872 of the _Newes_ (Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).

HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an

old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a

Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George's hospital

and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years

before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he

published a prose epic _Vates_, republished in Ainsworth's magazine as

_Valdarno_, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after

years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and

followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual

custom as to review Hake's poems in the _Academy_ and in the

_Fortnightly Review_. In 1871 he published _Madeline_; 1872, _Parables

and Tales_; 1883, _The Serpent Play_; 1890, _New Day Sonnets_; and in

1892 his _Memoirs of Eighty Years_. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety

and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat

restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he

shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier

work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on

the 11th of January 1895.

HAKE (_Merluccius vulgaris_), a fish which differs from the cod in

having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the

coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less

esteemed than that of the true _Gadi_. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not

scarce. There are local variations in the use of "hake" as a name; in

America the "silver hake" (_Merluccius bilinearis_), sometimes called

"whiting," and "Pacific hake" (_Merluccius productus_) are also

food-fishes of inferior quality.

HAKKAS ("Guests," or "Strangers"), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found

in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there

is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the

aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper.

According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China

as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance and customs

they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their

women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their

feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious

people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by

Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have

been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping

rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between

the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial

they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as

"foreigners," and with whom their means of communication is usually

"pidgin English." The earliest persecution occurred under the "first

universal emperor" of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this time

the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations

they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when

some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th,

8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on

the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas

distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the

14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung.

See "An Outline History of the Hakkas," _China Review_ (London,

1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the

Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_ (1884),

_Things Chinese_ (London, 1893); Schaub, "Proverbs in Daily Use among

the Hakkas," in _China Review_ (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J.

Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_; Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d.

anthrop._ (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, "The Aborigines of

Formosa," _China Review_, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, "A Ramble

through Southern Formosa."

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good

family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh

extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled

in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was

Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that

borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a

queen's scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit

to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His

cousin's discourse, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an

universall mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to

"prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ

Church, Oxford, in 1570, "his exercises of duty first performed," he

fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the

printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took

his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A.

(1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that

"shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed

mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this

was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the

kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by

Thomas Hood.

Hakluyt's first published work was his _Divers Voyages touching the

Discoverie of America_ (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the

notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward

Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of

thirty, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the

greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was

selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at

the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions

of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting

information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent

inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne

discoverie in America." The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris

are embodied in his important work entitled _A particuler discourse

concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde

Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte

worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo

barkes_. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was

to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the

unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's other works consist mainly

of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and

prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we

possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited

England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the _Discourse_

"along with one in Latin upon Aristotle's _Politicks_," and obtained,

two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant

prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his

other preferments till his death.

While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS.

journal of Laudonniere, the _Histoire notable de la Florida_, edited by

Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and

published in London under the title of _A notable historie containing

foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida_ (London,

1587, 4to.). The same year _De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades

octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti_ saw the light

at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map

dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle);

it is the first on which the name of "Virginia" appears.

In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a

residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first

edition of his chief work, _The Principall Navigations, Voiages and

Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., London, 1 vol.). In the

preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of

the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600

appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of _The

Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the

English Nation_ (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly

rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according

to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great

collection, though but little read, has been truly called the "prose

epic of the modern English nation." It is an invaluable treasure of

material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization,

which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt

edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, _The

Discoveries of the World_ (4to., London). In the same year his name

occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with

maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he

had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford,

Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of

Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of

Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604)

he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will

contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of

his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he

secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of

the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the

colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In

1606 he appears as one of the chief promoters of the petition to the

king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer

in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a

translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled

_Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next

neighbour_ (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the

young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, "England is more

indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age." We

may notice that it was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke

translated Mendoza's _History of China_ (London, 1588-1589) and John

Pory made his version of _Leo Africanus_ (_A Geographical History of

Africa_, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was

buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey

register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various

emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory,

Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered

by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of

his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who

inserted them in an abridged form in his _Pilgrimes_ (1625-1626, fol.).

Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist

chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.

Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (_Divers Voyages_

(1582); _Particuler Discourse_ (1584); Laudonniere's _Florida_ (1587);

Peter Martyr, _Decades_ (1587); _Principal Navigations_ (1589 and

1598-1600); Galvano's _Discoveries_ (1601); De Soto's Florida record,

the _Virginia richly valued_ (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt

Society's London edition of the _Divers Voyages_ in 1850, the edition

of the _Particuler Discourse_, by Charles Deane in the _Collections of

the Maine Historical Society_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an

introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the

_Principal Navigations_, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional

matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page

issued for the first volume of the final edition of the _Principal

Navigations_, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its

reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen

the mistaken supposition that a new _edition_ was then (1599)

published. Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by

Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in

1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes

the Glasgow edition of the _Principal Navigations_ in its _extra

series_, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of _Carpini_, _Rubruquis_,

and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.).

Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's _Pilgrimes_ by the

Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now

published or "fathered" 150 vols. See also _Voyages of the Elizabethan

Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal

Navigations_, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R.

Beazley, 1907).

For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of

the _Principal Navigations_ should be especially consulted; also

Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the

_Divers Voyages_; Fuller's _Worthies of England_, "Herefordshire";

_Oxford Univ. Reg._ (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; _Historical MSS.

Commission, 4th report, appendix_, p. 614, the last giving us the

Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when

at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575. (C. H. C; C. R. B.)

HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many

years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially

raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been

frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is

built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in

height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is

united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the

rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the

ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet

of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and

spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good

holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port.

The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur,

furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted

fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit

largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of

foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect

Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication

with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo.

Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of

1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the

mikado in 1869.

HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated

on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The

place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre

Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of

pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal

ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The

bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble

to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the

treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious

personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of

England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is

chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin.

Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were

caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown

in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a

great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium,

is paid annually to this church. The hotel de ville dates from 1616 and

has been restored with more than ordinary good taste.

HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India

in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous

for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from

the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture

of susis or striped trouser-cloths.

HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of

Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded

in 403 B.C. by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes

bore: we find, e.g. _Halaisa Archonida_ on a coin of the time of

Augustus (_Corp. inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the

first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was

granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some

importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped

its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an

inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period

(perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.)

HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally "rule of conduct"), the rabbinical

development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud

and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the

legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between

the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who

strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief

attempts to codify the halakha were the _Great Rules (Halakhoth

Gedoloth)_ of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written

by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers

in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), the _Strong Hand

of_ Maimonides (1180), and the _Table Prepared_ (_Shulhan Aruch_) of

Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a

work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life

in many of its phases. (I. A.)

HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 56

m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. It lies in a fertile

country to the north of the Harz Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the

junction of railways to Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The

town has a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful

wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant),

dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable for the majestic

impression made by the great height of the interior, with its slender

columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The treasure, preserved in the former

chapter-house, is rich in reliquaries, vestments and other objects of

medieval church art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were

rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one of special

interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), a basilica, with

four towers, in the later Romanesque style, dating from the 12th and

13th centuries and restored in 1848, containing old mural frescoes and

carved figures. Remarkable among the other old buildings are the

town-hall, of the 14th century and restored in the 17th century, with a

crypt, and the Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now

utilized as law courts and a prison. The principal educational

establishment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close

to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (q.v.), since 1899 the

property of the municipality and converted into a museum. It contains a

collection of the portraits of the friends of the poet-scholar and some

valuable manuscripts. The principal manufactures of the town are sugar,

cigars, paper, gloves, chemical products, beer and machinery. About a

mile and a half distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of

the surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric

cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.

The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by Bishop

Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at

Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were granted

by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction over their

see, which became one of the most considerable of the ecclesiastical

principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the introduction of

the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death of Sigismund of

Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 1552 to 1566), the last

Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives of economy elected the

infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg. In 1589 he became duke of

Brunswick, and two years later he abolished the Catholic rites in

Halberstadt. The see was governed by lay bishops until 1648, when it

was formally converted by the treaty of Westphalia into a secular

principality for the elector of Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit

in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to

Prussia on the downfall of Napoleon.

The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 1113 it was

burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry the Lion. During

the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately by the Imperialists

and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it over to Brandenburg.

See Lucanus, _Der Dom zu Halberstadt_ (1837), _Wegweiser durch

Halberstadt_ (2nd ed., 1866) and _Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt_

(1872); Scheffer, _Inschriften und Legenden halberstadtischer Bauten_

(1864); Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt_ (Halle, 1878);

and Zschiesche, _Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi_ (1882).

HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an axe-blade

balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head at the end of the

staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in length. The utility of such

a weapon in the wars of the later middle ages lay in this, that it gave

the foot soldier the means of dealing with an armoured man on horseback.

The pike could do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This

ensured security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a

mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a powerful

weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, was required. Several

different forms of weapon responding to these requirements are described

and illustrated below; it will be noticed that the thrusting pike is

almost always combined with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that

the individual billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if

caught alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow

missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently with

the disuse of complete armour and the development of firearms, the pike

or thrusting element gradually displaces the axe or cleaving element in

these weapons, till at last we arrive at the court halberts and

partizans of the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the so-called

"halbert" of the infantry officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can

scarcely be classed even as partizans.

Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust weapons

of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of clearness. The

most primitive is the _voulge_ (fig. 1), which is simply a heavy cleaver

on a pole, with a point added. The next form, the _gisarme_ or

_guisarme_ (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety but is always

distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, which was used to pull down

mounted men, and generally resembles the agricultural bill-hook of

to-day. The _glaive_ (fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly

curved sword-blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked

gisarme as a _glaive-gisarme_ (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A

_gisarme-voulge_ is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).

[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.]

The weapon best known to Englishmen is the _bill_, which was originally

a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side (whereas the glaive

has the cutting edge on the convex side), but in its best-known form it

should be called a bill-gisarme (fig. 6). The _partizans_, _ranseurs_

and _halberts_ proper developed naturally from the earlier types. The

feature common to all, as has been said, is the combination of spear and

axe. In the halberts the axe predominates, as the examples (fig. 10,

Swiss, early 15th century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig.

12, German court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the

_partizan_ the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being reduced

to little more than an ornamental feature. A south German specimen (fig.

9, 1615) shows how this was compensated by the broadening of the

spear-head, the edges of which in such weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a

service weapon of simple form, merely has projections on either side,

and from this developed the _ranseur_ (fig. 7), a partizan with a very

long and narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like

projections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the

atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.

[Illustration: FIGS. 7-12.]

The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military history

of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries as the pike.

But, even in a form distinguishable from the voulge and the glaive, it

dates from the early part of the 13th century, and for many generations

thereafter it was the special weapon of the Swiss. Fauchet, in his

_Origines des dignitez_, printed in 1600, states that Louis XI. of

France ordered certain new weapons of war called _hallebardes_ to be

made at Angers and other places in 1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament

of pikes and halberts at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and

16th centuries the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed in

many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced in open

work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This weapon was in use

in England from the reign of Henry VII. to the reign of George III.,

when it was still carried (though in shape it had certainly lost its

original characteristics, and had become half partizan and half pike) by

sergeants in the guards and other infantry regiments. It is still

retained as the symbol of authority borne before the magistrates on

public occasions in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may

be called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of the

staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. _godendart_) is the

Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.

The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. _hallebarde_, of

which the English "halberd," "halbert," is an adaptation, was itself

adapted from the M.H.G. _helmbarde_, mod. _Hellebarde_; the second part

is the O.H.G. _barta_ or _parta_, broad-axe, probably the same word as

_Bart_, beard, and so called from its shape; the first part is either

_helm_, handle, cf. "helm," tiller of a ship, the word meaning "hafted

axe," or else _helm_, helmet, an axe for smiting the helmet. A common

derivation was to take the word as representing a Ger. _halb-barde_,

half-axe; the early German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.

HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish divine, the younger son

of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey House, Stirlingshire, was born at

Dundee on the 14th of July 1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards

at the high school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen

he joined the "Duke of Montrose" East Indiaman as a midshipman. After

four voyages to India he was nominated to the command of the "Melville

Castle" in the summer of 1793; but having during a long and unexpected

detention of his ship begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come

under the evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the

founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved to quit

the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to Scotland

before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he became acquainted

with the celebrated evangelical divine, Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in

whose society he made several tours through Scotland, endeavouring by

tract-distribution and other means to awaken others to some of that

interest in religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May

1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, with

encouraging success. In the same year he established a non-sectarian

organization for tract distribution and lay preaching called the

"Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home." During the next few

years he made repeated missionary journeys, preaching wherever he could

obtain hearers, and generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal

to the Church of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of

the Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. In 1799

he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation in

Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church known by that name

in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building replaced the circus in which

the congregation had at first met. To this church he continued to

minister gratuitously for more than fifty years. In 1808 he made public

avowal of his conversion to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled

him to withdraw from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and

open-air preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion

of current religious and theological questions by means of the press. He

died on the 8th of February 1851.

His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his second wife, a

daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a prominent Scottish

physician, who became president of the Edinburgh College of Physicians.

Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theological

discussions were: _The Duty of Christian Forbearance in Regard to

Points of Church Order_ (1811); _Strictures on a Publication upon

Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker_ (1819); _Refutation of

Edward Irving's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and

Atonement of Jesus Christ_. His _Observations on Universal Pardon_,

&c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of

Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; _Man's

Responsibility_ (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and

extent of the Atonement. He also published: _Journal of a Tour in the

North_; _Early Instruction Commended_ (1801); _Views of the Social

Worship of the First Churches_ (1805); _The Doctrine and Duty of

Self-Examination_ (1806); _The Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1845);

_Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians_ (1848).

HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856- ), British statesman and philosopher,

was the third son of Robert Haldane of Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to

the signet, and nephew of J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew

of the Scottish divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at

Edinburgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Gottingen, where

he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class honours in

philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and Ferguson scholar in

philosophy of the four Scottish Universities (1876). He was called to

the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 became a queen's counsel. In 1885

he entered parliament as liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which

he was re-elected continuously up to and including 1910. He was included

in 1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for war, and

was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization of the

British army, by which the militia and the volunteer forces were

replaced by a single territorial force. Though always known as one of

the ablest men of the Liberal party and conspicuous during the Boer War

of 1899-1902 as a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the

task of thinking out a new army organization on business lines had

struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery lawyer, he was

more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for his knowledge of

Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy he had also the German

sense of thoroughness and system, and his scheme, while it was much

criticized, was recognized as the best that could be done with a

voluntary army. Mr Haldane's chief literary publications were: _Life of

Adam Smith_ (1887); _Education and Empire_ (1902); _The Pathway to

Reality_ (1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp,

Schopenhauer's _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_ (_The World as Will

and Idea_, 3 vols., 1883-1886).