officer.
=b. Do not let _this_ or _that_ when modifying _kind_ or _sort_ be
attracted into the plural by a following noun.=
Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities.
Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities.
Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards.
Right: I never did like this sort of post cards.
=c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to
the meaning intended.=
Right: The crowd is waiting.
Right: The crowd are not agreed.
Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an
inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable
union.
English usage: The government were considering a new bill
regarding labor.
American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at
the disposal of General Foch.
=d. Do not use _don't_ in the third person singular. Use _doesn't_.
_Don't_ is contraction of _do not_.=
Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning.
Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning.
Exercise:
1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind
of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of
travelers.
2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one
assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening.
3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come
today.
4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the
agent for telling us the train was not late.
5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter.
=Agreement=
=52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which
intervenes between it and the subject.=
Wrong: The size of the plantations vary.
Right: The size of the plantations varies.
Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the
country.
Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the
country.
Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the
demand.
Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand.
[Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.
=b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject
of words introduced by _with_, _together with_, _no less than_, _as well
as_, and the like.=
Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have
investigated the charges.
Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has
investigated the charges.
=c. Singular subjects joined by _or_ or _nor_ take a singular verb.=
Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised are acceptable.
Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised is acceptable.
=d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by _and_ takes a
plural verb.=
Right: The hunting and fishing are good.
=e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate
noun.=
Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders.
Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders.
Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure.
Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure.
=f. In _There is_ and _There are_ sentences the verb should agree in
number with the noun that follows it.=
Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision.
Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision.
Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child.
Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child.
Exercise:
1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of
an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are)
injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses
(is, are) often more harmful still.
2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a
voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are)
always out of tune.
3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to
sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the
engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured.
4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against
children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is,
are) the factory whistles.
5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing
freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give)
me confidence in my judgment.
=_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=
Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between
_shall_ and _will_ in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the
more important distinctions in written discourse.
=53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use _shall_ with the
first person (both singular and plural) and _will_ with the second and
third.=
I shall go. We shall walk.
You will play. You will hear.
He will sing. They will reply.
=To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is,
use _will_ with the first person (both singular and plural), and _shall_
with the second and third.=
I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded.
You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us.
He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute.
In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer.
"Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?"
"You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?"
_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules given for _shall_ and _will_.
Mere statement of a fact:
I [or We] should like to go.
You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer.
Resolution or emphatic assurance:
I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading.
You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it.
_Should_ has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to
express a condition; and _would_ has a special use (in all persons) to
express a wish, or customary action.
If it should rain, I shall not go.
If I should remain, it would probably clear off.
Would that I could swim!
He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour.
Exercise:
1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I
(shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall,
will) bring forth.
2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose.
When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch
the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow.
3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He
(shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he
(shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old
horse.
4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the
organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window?
(Should, would) I ask his permission?
5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should,
would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You
(shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I
ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell.
=Principal Parts=
=54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle.= Avoid
_come_, _done_, _bursted_, _knowed_, _says_ for the past tense; and
[_had_] _eat_, [_had_] _froze_, [_have_] _ran_, [_has_] _went_, [_has_]
_wrote_, [_are_] _suppose_ for the past participle. Memorize the
principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present
tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall
these is to repeat the formula: Today I _sing_; yesterday I _sang_;
often in the past I have _sung_. The principal parts of _sing_ are
_sing_, _sang_, _sung_. A list of difficult verbs is given below.
bear bore borne
born
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bid bid bid
bade bidden
bite bit bit
bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
burn burnt burnt
burned burned
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
deal dealt dealt
dive dived dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
dreamed dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
dwell dwelt dwelt
dwelled dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fight fought fought
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
flow flowed flowed
freeze froze frozen
get got got
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hang hanged hanged
hold held held
kneel knelt knelt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lie lied lied
loose loosed loosed
lose lost lost
mean meant meant
pay paid paid
prove proved proved
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
slink slunk slunk
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spit spit spit
spat spat
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trod
trodden
wake woke waked
waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
weep wept wept
write wrote written
Exercise:
1. Adams ---- (past tense of _draw_) another glass of cider and
---- (past tense of _drink_) it. When those squashes once ----
(past tense of _begin_), they ---- (past tense of _grow_) like
mad.
2. The thermometer had ---- (past participle of _fall_) twenty
degrees, and three water pipes had ---- (past participle of
_freeze_). Afterward one ---- (past tense of _burst_).
3. Annie had ---- (past participle of _speak_) a piece, and
Nancy had ---- (past participle of _write_) a poem, and Isabel
had nearly ---- (past participle of _burst_) with envy.
4. He ---- (past tense of _do_) a brave deed; he ---- (past
tense of _swim_) straight for the whirlpool. I had ---- (past
participle of _know_) him before, and had ---- (past participle
of _shake_) hands with him.
5. He ---- (past tense of _come_) home late, and has ---- (past
participle of _eat_) his dinner. Now he has ---- (past
participle of _go_) down town. He has ---- (past participle of
_ride_) before. I ---- (past tense of _see_) him. He ---- (past
tense of _run_) swiftly.
=Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries=
=55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered
in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.=
Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb _intended_
indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do
something. What? Did I intend _to go_, or _to have gone_?]
Right: I intended to go.
Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The
principal verb _hoped_ indicates a past time. In that past time
our hope was that you _would_ come, not that you _would have
come_.]
Right: We hoped that you would come.
=b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a
preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.=
Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he shot.
Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he had shot.
=c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are
usually expressed in the present tense.=
Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet.
Right: He said that Venus is a planet.
=d. The subjunctive mode of the verb _to be_ is used to express a
condition contrary to fact, or a wish.=
Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy.
Right: If he were here, I should be happy.
Faulty: I wish that I was a man.
Right: I wish that I were a man.
=e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect
of successive verbs is not altered without reason.=
Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier
_learns_ discipline, and consequently _would have_ steady
nerves in time of war. [_Learns_ should be followed by _will
have_.]
Wrong: An automobile _should be_ kept in good working order so
that its life _is_ lengthened. [_Should be_ is properly
followed by _may be_.]
Exercise:
1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken.
2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so
long.
3. If I was sick, I should go home.
4. They expected to have won the game.
5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a
person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably
be able to secure membership for him.
=Adjective and Adverb=
=56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.=
Crude: He spoke slow and careful.
Right: He spoke slowly and carefully.
Crude: He sure did good in his classes.
Right: He surely did well in his classes.
=b. In such sentences as _He stood firm_ and _The cry rang clear_ the
modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb
if it refers to the verb.=
Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the
thought is that the sun which shines is bright.]
Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the
manner of working rather than to the person who works. It
should therefore be an adverb.]
Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes
angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems
intelligent.
=c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, _look_, _sound_, _taste_,
_smell_, _feel_, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to
the subject.= (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to
the verb.)
She looks _beautiful_. [Not _beautifully_.]
The dinner bell sounds _good_. [Not _well_.]
My food tastes _bad_. [Not _badly_.]
That flower smells _bad_. [Not _badly_.]
I feel good [_in good spirits_.]
I feel well [_in good health_. An adjectival use of _well_.]
I feel bad [_in bad health or spirits_. "I feel badly" would
mean "My sense of touch is impaired."]
Exercise:
1. They fought ---- (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled
----(awkward, awkwardly).
2. Margaret ---- (sure, surely) worked ---- (faithful,
faithfully) in economics.
3. At this reply the teacher grew ---- (wrathful, wrathfully).
I hear you ---- (plain, plainly).
4. I feel ---- (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks ---- (sweet,
sweetly). No perfume smells so ---- (dainty, daintily).
5. That salad tastes ---- (good, well). I feel ---- (bad,
badly) today. Your voice sounds ---- (good, well) and
----(familiar, familiarly).
=A Word in a Double Capacity=
=57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double
capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.=
Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and
two churches in another.
Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two
churches were built in another.
Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it.
Right: He always has done it, and always will do it.
Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any
other man in the community.
Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not
older.
Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work.
Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it.
Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most
skilful, tennis players in the state.
Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the
state, if not the most skilful.
Exercise:
1. He is as old, if not older, than she is.
2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore.
3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many
hobbies.
4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good,
as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things
than in any show.
5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping
our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous
physician said that one of the next, if not the very next,
marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries
in the realm of dentistry.
Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation
The Parts of Speech and Their Uses
=Noun.= A noun is a name. It may be =proper= (_Philip Watkins_), or
=common=. Common nouns may be =concrete= (_man_, _windmill_), or
=abstract= (_gratitude_, _nearness_). =A= noun applied to a group
is said to be =collective= (_family_, _race_). The uses of a noun
=are=: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object
of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another
noun (Jenkins, our _coach_), to indicate possession (_Joseph's_
coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an
adjective (the _brick_ sidewalk) or adverb (John went _home_),
and to indicate direct address (_Jehovah_, help us!).
=Pronoun.= A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun.
It may be =personal= (_I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_,
_we_, _they_), =relative= (_who_, _which_, _what_, _that_, _as_,
and compounds _whoever_, _whichsoever_, etc.), =interrogative=
(_who_, _which_, _what_), =demonstrative= (_this_, _that_,
_these_, _those_), or =indefinite= (_some_, _any_, _one_, _each_,
_either_, _neither_, _none_, _few_, _all_, _both_, etc.).
Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and
indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns
are also used as adjectives, notably the =possessives= (_my_,
_his_, _their_, etc.) and the relative or interrogative _which_
and _what_. The addition of _-self_ to a personal pronoun forms
a =reflexive pronoun= or =intensive= (I blamed _myself_. You
_yourself_ are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands
is called the =antecedent=. The uses of pronouns are in general
the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as
connectives (the man _who_ spoke), interrogatives ask questions
(_what_ man?), and demonstratives point out (_that_ man).
=Verb.= A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion
about the subject. It may express either action or mere
existence. It may be =transitive= (_trans_ meaning "across";
hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act;
Brutus _stabbed_ Cæsar; Cæsar is _stabbed_) or =intransitive=
(not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery _fell_). Its
meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice
shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion
made by the verb. The =active voice= shows the subject as actor
(They _elected_ Washington); the =passive voice=, as acted upon
(Washington _was elected_). (A transitive verb may be active or
passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates
the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion,
condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The
=indicative mode= affirms or denies (He _went_. She _did not
dance_.) The =subjunctive= expresses condition or wish (If he
_were_ older, he would be wiser. Would that I _were_ there!).
The =imperative= expresses command or exhortation (_Remain_
there. _Go!_ _Let_ us pray). =Modal auxiliaries= with these three
modes form =modal aspects= of the verb. There are as many
different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are
sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively
the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or
existence. The tenses are the =present=, the =past=, the =future=
(employing the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_), the =perfect=
(employing _have_), the =past perfect= (employing _had_), and the
=future perfect= (employing _shall have_ and _will have_).
=Verbals= are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of
speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms,
infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings.
=Adjective.= An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or
pronoun. An adjective may be =attributive= (_bright_ sun,
_cool-headed_ adventurers) or =predicate= (The field is _broad_.
The meat tastes _bad_. I want this _ready_ by Christmas).
Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison.
The =positive degree= indicates the simple quality of the object
without reference to any other. The =comparative degree=
indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the _older_
brother). The =superlative degree= indicates that three or more
objects are compared (Stanley is the _oldest_ child in the
family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A
_most excellent_ record). Ordinarily _er_ or _r_ is added to
the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ or _st_ to the
positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But
some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of
more than two, syllables) prefix _more_ (or _less_) to the
positive to form the comparative, and _most_ (or _least_) to
the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more
beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities
that do not permit comparison (_dead_, _four-sided_, _unique_).
=Adverb.= An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, another adverb (She played _well_; _unusually_
handsome; _very_ sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun
(Walking _fast_ is good for the health), a preposition (The
ship drifted _almost_ upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It
came _just_ when we wished). Certain adverbs (_fatally_,
_entirely_) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do
are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables
(_slowly_, _more_ or _less slowly_, _most_ or _least slowly_).
=Preposition.= A preposition is a connective _placed before_ a
substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the
substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast _of_
heraldry, the pomp _of_ power. He ran _toward_ the enemy
_without_ fear).
=Conjunction.= A conjunction is a word used to _join together_
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A =coördinate conjunction=
connects elements of equal rank (See 36). =Correlative
conjunctions= are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A
=subordinate conjunction= is one that connects elements unequal
in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its
function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place,
or cause, it is often called a =conjunctive adverb= or =relative
adverb=.
=Interjection.= An interjection is a word _thrown into_ speech to
express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other
words. (_Oh_, is that it? _Well_, I'll do it. _Hark!_)
=Other Grammatical Terms=
=Absolute expression.= An expression (usually composed of a
substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which,
though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought
related to the remainder of the sentence. (_The relief party
having arrived_, we went home. _This disposed of_, the council
proceeded to other matters. _Defeated_, he was not dismayed.)
=Antecedent.= A substantive to which a pronoun or participle
refers. Literally, _antecedent_ means _that which goes
before_; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent
word. (The _man_ who hesitates is lost. Entering the store,
_we_ saw a barrel of apples.) _Man_ is the antecedent of the
pronoun _who_, and _we_ is the antecedent of the participle
_entering_.
=Auxiliary.= _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _ought_, _may_,
_can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc., when
used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are
called auxiliary verbs.
=Case.= The relation of a substantive to other words in the
sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject
of a verb, or the predicate of the verb _to be_, is in the
nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the
"assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A
noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive
case.
=Clause.= A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a
verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains
one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal)
clause: _When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin_.
=Conjugation.= The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate
person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect.
=Declension.= The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to
indicate person, number, or case.