incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the
meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words
is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker.
Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the
reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples
of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your
sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go
if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice.
=Gerund.= A verbal in _-ing_ used as a noun. (I do not object to
your _telling_. His _having deserted_ us makes little
difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of
the infinitive.
=Infinitive.= A verbal ordinarily introduced by _to_ and used as
a noun (_To err_ is human). In such sentences as "The road to
follow is the river road," _follow_ may be regarded as the noun
of a phrase (compare _the road to Mandalay_), or the entire
phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He
hastened to comply," _comply_ may be regarded as a noun or _to
comply_ as an adverb. After certain verbs (_bid_, _dare_,
_help_, _make_, _need_, etc.) the _to_ is omitted from the
infinitive group. (He bids me _go_. I need not _hesitate_.)
=Inflection.= Change in the form of a word to show a modification
or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language
there was a separate form for practically every modification.
Although separate forms are now less numerous, _inflection_ is
still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it
includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives
and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs.
=Modify.= To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or
alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man,"
_the_ and _old_ modify _man_, and _very_ modifies _old_.
=Participle.= A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective
with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest,
is also the best liked," _being oldest_ refers exclusively, or
almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival.
In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running
down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the
participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore
adverbial as well as adjectival.
=Phrase.= A group of words forming a subordinate part of a
sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples:
_With a whistle and a roar_ the train arrived [prepositional
phrase]. _Bowing his head_, the prisoner listened to the
verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose,
untechnical sense _phrase_ may refer to any short group of
words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb.
=Predicate.= The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an
assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with
or without objects or modifiers.
=Predicate adjective.= An adjective in the predicate, usually
linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_ (_is_,
_was_, _were_, etc.). (John is _lazy_. The soldiers were very
_eager_.)
=Predicate noun.= A noun linked with the subject by some form of
the verb _to be_. (John is _halfback._ They were our
_neighbors._)
=Sentence.= A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a
subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or
without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words
outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related
in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex;
sentences of type 2 are compound. A =simple sentence= contains
one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A =complex
sentence= contains one independent clause and one or more
subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A
=compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses (The
dog barks, and the thief runs).
=Substantive.= A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The
_king_ summoned _parliament_. The _bravest_ are the
_tenderest_. _She_ was inconsolable.) A =substantive phrase= is a
phrase used as a noun. (_From Dan to Beersheba_ is a term for
the whole of Israel.) A =substantive clause= is a clause used as
a noun. (_That he owed the money_ is certain.)
=Syntax.= Construction; the grammatical relation between the
words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.
=Verbal.= Any form of the verb used as another part of speech.
Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are
used to express action without asserting it, and cannot,
therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs.
=Abridged Conjugation of the verb _to take_=
=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=
=Indicative Mode=
=Present= I take I am taken
=Past= I took I was taken
=Future= I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken
=Perfect= I have taken I have been taken
=Past Perfect= I had taken I had been taken
=Future Perfect= I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken
=Subjunctive Mode=
=Present= If I take If I be taken
=Past= If I took If I were taken
=Perfect= If I have taken If I have been taken
=Past Perfect= If I had taken If I had been taken
=Imperative Mode=
=Present= Take
=Modal Aspects=
(Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give
special meanings--emphatic, progressive, etc.--to the primary modes.
Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a
few can be enumerated here.)
=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=
{ =Emphatic:= I do take
{ =Progressive:= I am taking I am being taken
=Present= { =Contingent:= I may take I may be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I can take I can be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=
{ =Emphatic:= I did take
{ =Progressive:= I was taking I was being taken
=Past= { =Contingent:= I might take I might be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I could take I could be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=
{ =Emphatic:= If I do take
{ =Progressive:= If I be taking
=Present= { =Contingent:= If I might take
=Subjunctive= { =Potential:= If I could take
{ =Obligative:= If I must take
{ =Etc.=
=Present= { =Emphatic:= Do take
=Imperative= { =Progressive:= Be taking
=Verbals=
=Infinitive=
=Active Voice= =Passive Voice=
=Present:= To take To be taken
=Perfect:= To have taken To have been taken
=Gerund=
=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken
=Participle=
=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Past:= Taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken
Exercise:
Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces
between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word.
This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For
example:
"Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet
_noun_ _part._ _prep._ _art._ _adv._ _adj._
slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man
_noun_ _verb_ _conj._ _pers pro._ _verb_ _art._ _adj._ _noun_
who stood beside a window."
_rel. pro._ _verb_ _prep._ _art._ _noun_
=59.= EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR
=A. Case of Pronouns=
Determine the correct form of the pronoun.
1. It is (I, me).
2. No one knows better than (she, her).
3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me).
4. It was (they, them).
5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him).
6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car.
7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me).
8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the
questionable honor.
9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the
theater.
10. Others are older than (we, us).
11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president?
12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass.
13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it.
14. That seems strange to you and (I, me).
15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her).
16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often
the wisest.
17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry.
18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never
entered my mind.
19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was.
20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever,
whomever) recovers it.
=B. Agreement=
Determine the correct form of the verb.
1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music.
2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good.
3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of
gold.
4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are)
hauled to the smelter.
5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two
cards (is, are) used.
6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the
great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of
economy.
7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three
hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were)
completed.
8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always
noises.
9. The exact meaning of such words as _inspiration_,
_prophecy_, and _orthodox_ (puzzles, puzzle) laymen.
10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country
people.
11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic
exploration.
12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by
careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity.
13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights
or oratory.
14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired.
15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing
as the circus was unloaded.
16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of
students who are socially submerged.
17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives.
18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this
magazine.
19. No people (lives, live) in that house.
20. The corporal, together with two other members of the
patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy.
=C. _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=
Determine the correct form of the verb.
1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go.
2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car.
3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of
excitement.
4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they
never (shall, will).
5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further
begging was useless.
6. As we (shall, will) find by investigation, our coast
fortifications are few.
7. I (shouldn't, wouldn't) do that for anything.
8. I (should, would) think you (should, would) enjoy your
bicycle.
9. (Shall, will) you go driving with us?
10. Do you think it (shall, will) rain?
11. Where (shall, will) I hang my hat?
12. (Should, would) you go if I (should, would) ask you?
13. Rover (should, would) stay in the house all the time, if we
(should, would) let him.
14. I promised that I (should, would) be at the station early,
lest we (should, would) miss the train.
15. You (shall, will) have much trouble with that cold, I'm
afraid.
=D. _Lie_, _lay_; _sit_, _set_; _rise_, _raise_=
Fix in mind the following principal parts:
I lie I lay I have lain
I lay I laid I have laid
I sit I sat I have sat
I set I set I have set
I rise I rose I have risen
I raise I raised I have raised
_Lie_, _sit_, _rise_ are used intransitively; _lay_, _set_,
_raise_ are used transitively. _Lay_, _set_, _raise_ are
causatives; that is, _to lay_ means _to cause to lie_, etc.
Insert a correct form of the verb _lie_ or _lay_:
1. I ---- here and watch the clouds. My dog is ----ing at my
feet.
2. In the evening I ---- aside all cares. I ---- down on the
couch and read. Yesterday I ---- there an hour.
3. The children have ---- in bed until seven o'clock. John has
---- his coat on a chair. He ---- there asleep now.
4. ---- the shovel down. The garden is now ---- out in rows.
---- down and take a little rest.
5. Smoke ---- along the horizon. Snow was ----ing here
yesterday. He is ----ing plans for the future.
Insert a correct form of the verb _sit_ or _set_:
6. Jerome ---- the box on the floor. Then he ---- on the box.
7. Four people are ----ing at the table. Who ---- the lamp
there?
8. I had ---- there an hour. They had ---- the pitcher outside
the door.
9. I often ---- up late. Last night I ---- up late. I must
----the alarm clock.
10. ---- the package down. ---- down and rest. While we are
----ing there the gardener is ----ing out the plants.
Insert a correct form of the verb _rise_ or _raise_:
11. ---- up and speak! ---- the window.
12. He quickly ---- his head. The cork had gone under, but now
it ---- again to the surface.
13. During the night the bread ---- to the top of the pan.
14. The invalid slowly ---- himself in his bed.
15. The river has already ---- and overflowed its banks.
=E. Principal Parts of Verbs=
In the following sentences supply the correct form of the verb.
1. He ---- (past tense of _come_) to this country in 1887.
2. He has ---- (past participle of _eat_) breakfast and ----
(past participle of _go_) to the office.
3. Have you ---- (past participle of _ride_) far? I have
----(past participle of _drive_) ten miles.
4. I am sure it was Henry who ---- (past tense of _do_) it, for
I ---- (past tense of _see_) him running away as fast as he
could go.
5. The wind has ---- (past participle of _tear_) down the
chimney and ---- (past participle of _blow_) down the tree.
6. After he ---- (past tense of _lie_) down, he remembered he
had left his books ---- (present participle of _lie_) in the
orchard.
7. He ---- (past tense of _throw_) the ball so hard that the
window was ---- (past participle of _break_) into a hundred
pieces.
8. The man ---- (past tense of _give_) warning before we had
---- (past participle of _go_) too far.
9. After we had ---- (past participle of _ride_) about ten
miles we ---- (past tense of _come_) upon a stretch of hard
road.
10. Where ---- (past tense of _be_) you? You ----n't (past
tense of _be_) at home when I ---- (past tense of _ring_) the
bell.
11. The harness was ---- (past participle of _break_ or
_burst_) beyond repair. Who ---- (past tense of _break_) it?
12. I ---- (past tense of _take_) four shots at the rabbit, but
every shot ---- (past tense of _go_) wild.
13. He has ---- (past participle of _swim_) across the harbor,
and has ---- (past participle of _break_) the record.
14. I had ---- (past participle of _drink_) buttermilk for
several weeks. I ---- (past tense of _begin_) to gain weight.
15. When we had ---- (past participle of _sit_) there an hour
and ---- (past participle of _eat_) all we wanted, Jim ----
(past tense of _draw_) out his purse and ---- (past tense of
_give_) the waiter a dollar.
=F. General=
Improve the grammar of the following sentences.
1. Those kind of lamps are ugly.
2. It don't interest me any more.
3. Nobody may enter the hall tonight without their admittance
cards.
4. One does not need to strain their ears while at the movies.
5. Nearly all people eat too much, too fast, and too irregular.
6. Don't take this letter too serious.
7. He done the best he could with these kind of tools.
8. Every person with a cold was blowing their nose.
9. It would help considerable if you would speak to the manager
about existing conditions.
10. If I were the mayor, I could not do as good as he does.
11. Talk polite to your customers.
12. It is important that a salesman has a good memory.
13. Each tube must be capable of withstanding a pressure of
five hundred pounds per square inch before they are lowered
into place.
14. She is as tall, if not taller, than he is.
15. He always has and always will say that.
16. He is one of the worst, if not the very worst, player on
the team.
17. Final examinations require time and study that would not
otherwise be done.
18. I feel badly. He talks rude. It smells fragrantly.
DICTION
=Wordiness=
=60. Avoid wordiness. Strike out words not essential to the thought.=
Roundabout impersonal construction: There are many interesting
things which may be seen in New York. [12 words.]
Better: Many interesting things may be seen in New York. [9
words.]
Clause to be reduced to a phrase: The skeleton which stood in
the office of Dr. Willard was terrifying to little Cecil. [15
words.]
Right: The skeleton in Dr. Willard's office was terrifying to
little Cecil. [11 words.]
Clause and phrase each to be reduced to a word: Men who cared
only for their individual interests were now in a state of
discouragement. [15 words.]
Right: Selfish men were now discouraged. [5 words.]
Separate predication in excess: That day I was shocking wheat
behind the binder. Shocking wheat behind the binder was my
usual job in harvest. That day while I was working at this job,
I found a nest full of partridge eggs. [37 words.]
Right: That day, while shocking wheat behind the binder, my
usual job in harvest, I found a nest full of partridge eggs.
[21 words.]
Ponderous scientific terms for simple ideas: Since, according
to the physicists, the per cent of efficiency of a machine is
equal to the amount of energy put in, divided by the amount of
useful work performed, it naturally follows that in all human
activities, unnecessary friction, since it lowers the amount of
nervous energy, is going to lower the per cent of efficiency.
While we may never reach an astonishing degree of efficiency by
economizing nervous energy, nevertheless, if we consistently
and perseveringly try to spare ourselves all unnecessary labor
and exertion, we shall have an abundant supply of energy to
direct into channels of usefulness. [100 words.]
Right: If we economize our strength, we can make our actions
more efficient and useful. [14 words.]
Inflated writing: She was supreme in beauty among the daughters
of Eve whom his ravished eyes had hitherto beheld. [17 words.]
Right: She was the most beautiful woman he had ever seen. [10
words.]
Note.--A special form of wordiness is tautology--the useless repetition
of an idea in different words.
Gross tautology: He had an entire monopoly of the whole fruit
trade. [This is like saying "black blackbird."]
Right: He had a monopoly of the fruit trade.
Tautological expressions:
this here
where at
return back
ascend up
repeat again
biography of his life
good benefits
fellow playmates
Hallowe'en evening
important essentials
indorse on the back
connect up
meet up with
combined together
perfectly all right
utter absence of
quite round
absolutely annihilated
still continue to
absolutely new creation
necessary requisite
total effect of all this
Exercise:
1. The people who act the parts in a play want the people who
witness the performance to applaud them.
2. There is an oily grass which is found on the prairie, and
which is called mesquite grass, and it covers the prairie.
3. You wish to call the operator. You take the receiver from
the hook. By taking the receiver from the hook you call the
operator.
4. At last the employer of the men, and those who were employed
by him, having compromised their difficulties, effected a
settlement, and reached an amicable understanding agreeable to
both parties.
5. The two merchants joined up their forces together in order
to secure a monopoly of the entire trade of the village. There
was one absolutely essential preliminary which they thought
must necessarily precede everything else. It was that they
should take all the old shop-worn articles and dispose of them
by selling them as bargains at a reduced rate.
=Triteness=
=61. Avoid trite or hackneyed expressions.= Such expressions may be tags
from everyday speech (_the worse for wear_, _had the time of my life_);
or stale phrases from newspapers (_taken into custody_, _the officiating
clergyman_); or humorous substitutions (_ferocious canine_, _paternal
ancestor_); or forced synonyms (_gridiron heroes_, _the Hoosier
metropolis_); or conventional fine writing (_reigns supreme_, _wind
kissed the tree-tops_); or oft-repeated euphemisms (_limb_ for _leg_,
_pass away_ for _die_); or overworked quotations from literature
(_monarch of all I survey_, _footprints on the sands of time_).
List of trite expressions:
along these lines
meets the eye
feathered songsters
a long-felt want
the last sad rites
launched into eternity
last but not least
doomed to disappointment
at one fell swoop
sadder but wiser
did justice to a dinner
a goodly number
budding genius
beggars description
a dull thud
silence broken only by
wended their way
abreast of the times
trees stood like sentinels
method in his madness
sun-kissed meadows
tired but happy
hoping you are the same
nipped in the bud
the happy pair
seething mass of humanity
specimen of humanity
with bated breath
green with envy
the proud possessor
too full for utterance
a pugilistic encounter
conspicuous by its absence
with whom they come in contact
exception proves the rule
favor with a selection
as luck would have it
more easily imagined than described
where ignorance is bliss
Exercise:
1. Halleck returned from his trip considerably the worse for
wear.
2. The baby whom she had promised to keep quiet proved to be a
foeman worthy of her steel.
3. I first saw the light of day in New Orleans. It was in the
Crescent City also that my dear mother passed away.
4. Americans come off second best in a vocalizing encounter
with umlauted _u_, while Germans and Frenchmen wage sanguinary
battles with our _th_.
5. The daily scramble for dear life to get aboard a trolley was
like taking arms against a sea of troubles. Even standing room
was conspicuous by its absence. Sheridan began to think along
the line of getting to the office in some other way.
=The Exact Word=
=62. Find the exact word. Do not be content with a loose meaning. Seek
the verb, the noun, the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which
expresses your thought with precision.= Such words as _said_,
_proposition_, and _nice_ are often used too loosely. Observe the
possible gain in definiteness by substitution.
For _said_ (verb): _declared_, _related_, _insisted_,
_exclaimed_, _added_, _repeated_, _replied_, _admitted_,
_commented_, _corrected_, _protested_, _explained_,
_besought_, _interrupted_, _inquired_, _stammered_, _sighed_,
_murmured_, or _thundered_.
For _proposition_ (noun): _transaction_, _undertaking_,
_venture_, _recourse_, _suggestion_, _overture_, _proposal_,
_proffer_, _convenience_, _difficulty_, _thesis_, or
_doctrine_.
For _nice_ (adjective): _discriminating_, _precise_,
_fastidious_, _dainty_, _neat_, _pretty_, _pleasant_,
_fragrant_, _delicious_, _well-behaved_, _good_, or _moral_.
Inexact verb: He had not sufficiently _regarded_ the
difficulties of the task [Use _considered_].
Inexact noun: Promptness is an _item_ which a manager should
possess [Use _quality_].
Inexact adjective: He looked _awfully funny_ when I told him he
had made a mistake [Use _surprised_].
Inexact phrasing throughout: Health is first in every line of
activity. A man who has it does not hold it with enough
respect, and make efforts enough to keep it.
Right: Health is indispensable to success in any work. Even
those who have it do not realize its value.
Exercise:
1. He was proud of the honorable record he had gained.
2. He resolved that some day he would be a banker, and I shall
tell you how he tried to do so.
3. Isn't the sunset grand? Isn't it nice to be out of doors?
4. The mystery as to which ones of the piano keys to play was
hard for him to acquire.
5. If the package comes by freight, you must negotiate the
proposition of getting it home; but if it comes by express, the
delivery is done free.
=Concreteness=
=63. Concrete words are often more effective than vague, general, or
abstract words.=
Not specific: She held herself aloof from her brothers' games
and amusements.
Concrete: She never played soldier or sailed paper boats with
her brothers.
No appeal to the senses: I liked to watch the servant girl as
she moved about the kitchen, preparing our morning repast.
Concrete: I liked to watch Norah as she fried our crisp
breakfast bacon and browned our buckwheat cakes.
Flat, not readily visualized: The first inhabitants overcame
the barriers to settlement about a century ago.
Concrete: Rough backwoodsmen broke through the underbrush and
swamp-land a century ago.
Exercise:
1. The scientist discovered a bird in a tree.
2. Our hostess set before us many good things to eat.
3. The sailor was carving queer figures on a piece of soft
wood.
4. The night watchman heard something that made him suspicious.
5. I stood at the door of the shop to watch the astonishing
things the blacksmith was doing.
=Sound=
=64. Avoid the frequent repetition of a sound, especially if it be harsh
or unpleasant.=
Bad: He is an exceedingly orderly secretary.
Better: As a secretary he is very systematic. [Or] The
secretary is very systematic.
Bad: Immediately the squirrel hid himself behind the hickory
tree.
Better: Immediately the squirrel dodged behind the hickory
tree.
Unfortunate rime: Bert did not dare to go home with wet hair.