the word it modifies, and separated from words which it might falsely
seem to modify. Such a conjunction as _nevertheless_, if required with a
clause, should usually be placed near the beginning.=
Illogical: I only need a few dollars.
Right: I need only a few dollars.
Illogical: I don't ever intend to go there again.
Right: I don't intend ever to go there again. [Or] I intend
never to go there again.
Illogical: She has the sweetest voice I nearly ever heard.
Right: She has nearly [or _almost_] the sweetest voice I ever
heard.
Tardy use of conjunction: I intend to try. I do not expect to
accomplish much, however.
Right: I intend to try. I do not, however, expect to accomplish
much.
Exercise:
1. Students are only admitted to one lecture.
2. This is the smallest book I almost ever saw.
3. He is so poor he hasn't any food, scarcely.
4. She had one dress that she never expected to wear.
5. The difficulties were tremendous. He said that he would do
his best, nevertheless.
=Split Construction=
=28. Elements that have a close grammatical connection should not be
separated awkwardly or carelessly. These elements are: (a) subject and
verb, or verb and object; (b) the parts of a compound verb; and (c) the
parts of an infinitive.=
Awkward: One in the struggle for efficiency should not become a
machine.
Better: In the struggle for efficiency one should not become a
machine.
Awkward: What use of an education could a girl who married a
penniless rogue and afterwards knew
nothing but hard labor, make?
Better: What use of an education could a girl make who married
a penniless rogue and afterward knew nothing but hard labor?
Crude: He was unable to even so much as stir a foot.
Better: He was unable even to stir a foot.
Note.--It is often desirable to separate the forms enumerated under (a)
and (b) above, either for emphasis (See 40) or to avoid a bunching of
modifiers at the end of a sentence (See 24). The whole point of rule 28
is not to depart from a natural order needlessly.
Exercise:
1. One thing the beginner must remember is to not get excited.
2. Ralph, when he heard the news, came flying out of the house.
3. The president called together, for the need was urgent, his
cabinet.
4. Bryce said that it is more patriotic to judiciously vote
than to frantically wave the American flag.
5. About the time Florence Nightingale had to give up her
plans, a war between Turkey, England, and France on one side
and Russia on the other, broke out.
=29.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT
=A. Reference of Pronouns=
In the following sentences make the reference of pronouns exact and
unmistakable.
1. Brown wrote to Roberts that he had made a mistake.
2. We heard a voice through the door which told us to enter.
3. There is a walk leading from the street to the house which
is made of thin slabs of stone.
4. A milking stool was beside the cow on which he was
accustomed to sit.
5. Should a community, such as a small village, spend the money
they do on roads?
6. This magazine prints many special articles on politics and
social reforms that are always instructive.
7. I wish I could do something for the protection of birds in
our country which is neglected.
8. After a man has failed in one business, it is no sign he
will fail in every other.
9. Sometimes cane syrup is mixed with the maple syrup, which
reduces the value of the product.
10. It means hard and diligent work to study Latin, but it
strengthens our brain or at least it gives it good exercise.
11. In the class room the students become acquainted, which may
develop into lifelong friendships.
12. He was delighted with a ride on horseback, which animal he
had been familiar with in his childhood on the farm.
13. It says in our history that the battle of New Orleans was
fought after the treaty of peace had been signed.
14. Sparks flew about in the air, and it reminded me of a huge
Fourth of July celebration.
15. The doctor gave me medicine to stop the dull pain in my
head. This made me feel much better.
=B. Dangling Modifiers=
Remembering that a participle is used as an adjective and must therefore
refer to a noun or pronoun, correct the following sentences. Gerund
phrases and a few elliptical sentences are included in the list.
1. Having planned the basement, the next thing considered was
the first floor.
2. Glancing around the room, the ugly wall paper at once
confronted me.
3. After ringing the bell, and waiting a few moments, a maid
came to the door.
4. When selecting a site for an orchard, it should be well
drained.
5. Not being a skilled dancer, my feet moved awkwardly.
6. Having no watch, the clock must be consulted.
7. He was sick, caused by eating too much dessert.
8. Radium is very difficult to get, making it the most valuable
metal.
9. One man goes home and beats his wife, resulting in internal
injuries.
10. Over the paper and kindling a few small chunks of coal are
scattered, taking care not to choke the draft.
11. In speaking of character, it does not mean to be a governor
or a general.
12. This town draws trade for a radius of twenty miles, thus
accounting for the large volume of business.
13. While talking to Ralph yesterday, he spoke about his recent
success in the hardware business.
14. The bus holds fifteen people, and when full, the bus man
shuts the door.
15. If bright and pleasant, the rabbit will be found sitting at
the entrance of his burrow.
=C. Coherence=
Secure a clear, smooth, natural order for the following sentences.
1. I have a lot for sale near the city limits.
2. Many men can only speak their native tongue.
3. I saw yesterday, crossing the street, a beautiful woman.
4. They entered the room, and sitting on the floor they saw a
baby.
5. I put down my book when the clock struck and yawned.
6. She dropped the money on the sidewalk which she was carrying
home.
7. The horse did not notice that the gate was open for several
minutes.
8. It was worth the trouble. I do not wish to have the
experience again, however.
9. My first trip away from home, of any distance, was made on a
steamboat from St. Louis to New Orleans.
10. He gazed at a young man who was waving his hands violently,
called a cheer leader.
11. Any soil will grow some variety of strawberry, except sand
and clay.
12. I turned triumphantly to Will, who was still gazing at the
place where the muskrat sank with a beaming face.
13. Only the interest, the principal being kept intact, is
spent.
14. A student should see that external conditions are favorable
for study, such as light, temperature, and clothing.
15. Draw a heavy line using a ruler to connect New York and San
Francisco across the map.
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
When the structure of a sentence is simple and uniform, the important
words strike the eye at once. Compare the following:
Parallel: Beggars must not be choosers.
Confusing: Beggars must not be the one who choose.
A reader gives attention partly to the structure of a sentence, and
partly to the thought. The less we puzzle him with our structure, the
more we shall impress him with our thought.
Parallel: Seeing is believing. [Attention goes to the thought.]
Confusing: Seeing is to believe. [Attention is diverted to
_structure_.]
The reader's expectation is that uniform structure shall accompany
uniform ideas, and that a departure from uniformity shall indicate a
change of thought.
=Parallel Structure for Parallel Thoughts=
=30. Give parallel structure to those parts of a sentence which are
parallel in thought. Do not needlessly interchange an infinitive with a
participle, a phrase with a clause, a single word with a phrase or
clause, a main clause with a dependent clause, one voice or mode of the
verb with another, etc.=
Faulty: Riding is sometimes better exercise than to walk.
Right: Riding is sometimes better exercise than walking. [Or]
To ride is sometimes better exercise than to walk.
Faulty: He had two desires, of which the first was for money;
in the second place, he wanted fame.
Right: He had two desires, of which the first was for money and
the second for fame. [Or] He had two desires: in the first
place, he wanted money; in the second, fame.
Faulty: His rival handled cigars of better quality and having a
higher selling price.
Right: His rival handled cigars of better quality and higher
price.
Faulty: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears,
and after a little practice you will be a good driver.
Right: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears,
and had a little practice, you will be a good driver. [Or]
After you master the gears and have a little practice, you will
be a good driver.
Faulty. These are the duties of the president of a literary
society:
(a) To preside at regular meetings,
(b) He calls special meetings,
(c) Appointment of committees.
Right: These are the duties of the president of a literary
society:
(a) To preside at regular meetings,
(b) To call special meetings,
(c) To appoint committees.
Faulty: She was actively connected with the club, church, and
with several organized charities. [Here parallelism is obscured
by the omission from the second phrase of both the preposition
and the article.]
Right: She was actively connected with the club, with the
church, and with several organized charities.
Faulty: He was red-faced, awkward, and had a disposition to eat
everything on the table. [The third element is like the others
in thought, and should have similar form.]
Right: He had a red face, an awkward manner, and a disposition
to eat everything on the table. [Or] He was red-faced, awkward,
and voracious.
Note.--Avoid misleading parallelism. For ideas _different_ in kind, do
_not_ use parallel structure.
Wrong: He was hot, puffing, and evidently had run very hard.
[The third element is unlike the others in thought; hence the
_and_ is misleading.]
Right: He was hot and puffing; evidently he had run very hard.
Confusing: He was admired for his knowledge of science, and for
his taste for art, and for this I too honor him. [The last
_for_ gives a false parallelism to unlike thoughts.]
Better: He was admired for his scientific knowledge and for his
artistic taste. I honor him for both these qualities.
Exercise:
1. The duties of the secretary are to answer correspondence,
and keeping the minutes of the meetings.
2. This process is the most difficult; it costs the most; and
is most important.
3. I make it a rule to be orderly, spend no money foolishly,
and keep still when I have nothing to say.
4. The cotton is put up in bales about five feet in length and
three feet wide and four thick, and one of them weighing about
five hundred pounds.
5. Considerations of economy that one should bear in mind when
planning a house are: first, a rectangular ground-plan; second,
a one-chimney plan; third, to have only one stairway; fourth,
eliminate as many doors as possible; fifth, the bathroom should
be above the kitchen so as to reduce the cost of plumbing; and
lastly, the rooms should be few and large rather than small and
many of them.
=Correlatives=
Conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlatives; for
example, _not only_ ... _but also_ ..., _both_ ... _and_
..., _either_ ... _or_ ..., _neither_ ... _nor_ ..., _not_ ... _or_ ...,
_whether_ ... _or_ ....
=31. Correlatives should usually be followed by elements parallel in
form; if a predicate follows one, a predicate should follow the other;
if a prepositional phrase follows one, a prepositional phrase should
follow the other; and so on.=
Faulty: He was not only courteous to rich customers but also to
poor ones. [Here the phrases intended to be balanced against
each other are _to rich customer's_ and _to poor ones_. As the
sentence stands, it is the word _courteous_ that is balanced
against _to poor ones_.]
Right: He was courteous not only to rich customers but also to
poor ones.
Faulty: She could neither make up her mind to go nor could she
decide to stay.
Right: She could neither make up her mind to go nor decide to
stay. [Or] She could not make up her mind either to go or to
stay.
Faulty: I talked both with Brown and Miller. [Here one
conjunction is followed by a preposition and the other by a
noun.]
Right: I talked with both Brown and Miller. [Or] I talked both
with Brown and with Miller.
Exercise:
1. He was courteous to both friends and his enemies.
2. Such conduct is not only dangerous to society but becomes a
national disgrace as well.
3. She had neither affectation of manners nor was she
sharp-tongued.
4. After reading Thoreau's _Walden_ I appreciate not only the
style but also I am inclined to believe in his ideas.
5. The good that the delegates derive from the convention not
only helps them, but they tell others what happened.
CONSISTENCY
=Shift in Subject or Voice=
=32. Do not needlessly shift the subject, voice, or mode in the middle of
a sentence. Keep one point of view, until there is a reason for
changing.=
Faulty: In the stream which the road led over, fish were
plentiful. [Here the first mental picture is of a stream. Then
the thought is jerked away to the road above. Then it returns
to the fish in the stream.]
Right: In the stream which flowed under the roadway, fish were
plentiful.
Faulty: Mark Twain was born in the West, but the East was his
home in later years. [The change of subject is uncalled for.]
Right: Mark Twain was born in the West, but lived in the East
in his later years. [Or] The West was the birthplace of Mark
Twain, and the East was his home in his later years.
Faulty: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of
gasoline, and at the same time very little lubricating oil is
used. [The shift from active to passive voice is awkward and
confusing.]
Right: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of
gasoline, and at the same time use very little lubricating oil.
Faulty: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when we wish
to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of
mathematics is indispensable.
Right: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when certain
formulas are to be calculated, a knowledge of mathematics is
indispensable. [Or] When we face a problem in chemistry, or
wish to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of
mathematics is indispensable.
Faulty: Next the ground should be harrowed. Then you sow the
wheat. [The subject changes from _ground_ to _you_. One verb
explains what _should_ be done, the other what somebody
_does_.]
{is }
Right: Next the ground { } harrowed. Then it
{should be}
{is }
{ } sown to wheat. [Or] Next you should harrow
{should be}
the ground. Then you should sow the wheat.
Exercise:
1. One end of a camera carries the film, and the lens and
shutter are in the other end.
2. When an athlete is in training, good healthful food should
be eaten.
3. An engineer's time is not devoted to one branch of science,
but should include many.
4. By having only five men in charge of our city government,
they would have more power, and we could then fix
responsibility.
5. There are two main classes of cake, sponge and butter. We
are taught to make both in cooking school. I like the sponge
cake. The butter cake is preferred by most persons.
=Shift in Number, Person, or Tense=
=33. Avoid an inconsistent change in number, person, or tense.=
Faulty change in number: One should save their money.
Right: People should save their money. [Or] A man should save
his money.
Faulty change in person: Place the seeds in water, and in a few
days a person can see that they have started to grow.
Right: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days you will see
that they have started to grow.
Faulty change in number: Take your umbrella with you. They will
be needed today.
Right: Take your umbrella with you. You will need it today.
Faulty change in tense: Freedom means that a man may conduct
his affairs as he pleases so long as he did not injure anybody
else.
Right: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he
pleases so long as he does not injure anybody else.
Faulty change in tense: When he heard the news, he hurries down
town and buys a paper.
Right: When he heard the news, he hurried down town and bought
a paper.
Note.--A change of tense within a sentence is desirable and necessary in
certain instances, for which see 55.
Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, past events are described in the
present tense, as if they were taking place before our eyes. This usage
is called the _historical present_. A shift to the historical present
should not be made abruptly, or frequently, or for any subject except an
important crisis.
Exercise:
1. A person should be careful of their conduct.
2. Sentences should be so formed that the reader feels it to be
a unit.
3. One should make the best of their surroundings and their
possessions, provided they cannot better them.
4. When he sees me coming, he looked the other way.
5. Silas Marner lost many of his habits of solitude, and goes
out among his neighbors.
=Mixed Constructions=
=34. Do not make a compromise between two constructions.=
Faulty: I cannot help but go.
Right: I cannot help going. [Or] I cannot but go. [Or] I can
but go.
Faulty: They are as following:
Right: They are as follows: [Or] They are the following:
Faulty: He tried, but of no avail.
Right: He tried, but to no avail. [Or] He tried, but his effort
was of no avail.
Faulty: There is no honor to be on this committee.
Right: It is no honor to be on this committee. [Or] There is no
honor in being on this committee.
Faulty: Sparks from the chimney caught the house on fire.
Right: Sparks from the chimney set the house on fire. [Or] The
house caught fire from the sparks from the chimney.
Note.--The double negative and kindred expressions (_not hardly_, _not
scarcely_, etc.) are an especially gross form of mixed construction.
Wrong: He isn't no better now than he was then. [Logically, not
no better means _better_. The two negatives cancel each other
and leave an affirmative.]
Right: He isn't any better now than he was then. [Or] He is no
better now than he was then.
Wrong: She couldn't see her friend nowhere.
Right: She couldn't see her friend anywhere. [Or] She could see
her friend nowhere.
Wrong: We couldn't hardly see through the mist.
Right: We could hardly see through the mist. [Or] We couldn't
see well through the mist.
Exercise:
1. He doesn't come here no more.
2. I cannot help but make this error.
3. I remember scarcely nothing of the occurrence.
4. I would not remain there only a few days.
5. John would not do this under no circumstances.
=Mixed Imagery=
=35. Avoid phrases which may call up conflicting mental images. When
using metaphor, simile, etc., carry one figure of speech through,
instead of shifting to another, or dropping suddenly back into literal
speech.=
Crude: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the heart of
the cotton belt.
Right: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the South.
Crude: He traveled a rough road and climbed with his burden the
ladder of success, where he is a glowing example and guide to
other men. [The suggestion which a reader with a sense of humor
may get is, that a man starts out as a traveler, suddenly
becomes a hod-carrier, and is then transformed into a bonfire
or a lighthouse.]
Right: He traveled a rough road, but found success. Other men
followed in his steps.
Incongruous: Spring came scattering flowers, and there was rain
a great per cent of the time. [This sentence mingles the
language of poetry with the language of science. It should be
fanciful, or else literal, throughout.]
Right: Spring came scattering flowers and rain. [Or] Spring
came with much rain and many flowers.
Inconsistent use of irony: The phonograph was shrieking, "Waltz
me around again, Willie." I am sure I love that beautiful song.
The taste of the people who attend these cheap theaters is
deplorable. [The three sentences should be ironical throughout,
or not ironical at all.]
Exercise:
1. We should meet the future from the optimistic point of view.
2. General Wolfe put every ounce of his life into the capture
of Quebec.
3. A key-note of sincerity should be the mainspring of a
well-built speech.
4. He went drifting down the sands of time on flowery beds of
ease.
5. The blank in my mind crystallized into action.
USE OF CONNECTIVES
=The Exact Connective=
=36. Use a connective which expresses the exact relation between two
clauses. Distinguish between time and cause, concession and condition,
etc. Do not overwork _and_, _so_, or _while_.=
Misleading: _While_ he is sick, he is able to walk. [Use
_though_.]
Misleading: Miss Brown sang, _while_ her sister spoke a piece.
[Use _but_.]
Faulty. Work hard _when_ you want to succeed. [Use _if_.]
Faulty: They will be sorry _without_ they do this. [Use
_unless_.]
Faulty: Little poetry is read, _only_ at times when it is
compulsory. [Use _except_.]
Faulty. The early morning and evening are the best times to
find ducks, _and_ we did not see many flying. [Use _and for
that reason_.]
Faulty: Corbin says: "In America sportsmanship is almost a
passion," _and_ in England "the player very seldom forgets that
he is a man first and an athlete afterward." [Use _whereas_.]
Note.--_So_ is an elastic word that covers a multitude of vague
meanings. Language has need of such a word, and in many instances
(especially when the relation between clauses is obvious and does not
need to be pointed out) _so_ serves well enough. Use it, but not as a
substitute for more exact connectives. Beware of falling into the
"_so_-habit."
Abuse of _so_ as a vague coördinating connective: So I went to
call on Mrs. Woods, and so she told me about Mrs. White's new
gown; so then I missed the car, and so of course our supper is
late. [Strike out every _so_.]
Abuse of _so_ as a subordinating connective: You may go, _so_
you keep still. [Use _provided_.] _So_ you do only that, I
shall be satisfied. [Use _though_.]
Permissible: I was excited, so I missed the target.
_So_ may sometimes be used to express result. But when a clause of
result is important and needs emphasis, it is perhaps better to strike
out _so_ and subordinate the preceding clause.
Right: In my excitement I missed the target.
Right: Because I was excited, I missed the target.
Right: Being excited, I missed the target.
=List of Connectives=
=A. With Coördinate Clauses, expressing=
=1. Addition:= and, besides, furthermore, again, in addition, in
like manner, likewise, moreover, then too, and finally.
=2. Contrast:= but, and yet, however, in spite of, in contrast to
this, nevertheless, notwithstanding, nor, on the contrary, for
all that, rather still, but unhappily, yet unfortunately,
whereas.
=3. Alternative:= or, nor, else, otherwise, neither, nor, or on
the other hand.
=4. Consequence:= therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in
this way, it follows that, the consequence is, and under such
circumstances, wherefore, thus, as a result, as a consequence.
=5. Explanation:= for example, for instance, in particular, more
specifically, for, because.
=6. Repetition for emphasis:= in other words, that is to say, and
assuredly, certainly, in fact, and in truth, indeed it is
certain, undoubtedly, for example, in the same way, as I have
said.
=B. With Subordinate Adverb Clauses, expressing=
=1. Time:= when, then, before, while, after, until at last, as
long as, now that, upon which, until, whenever, whereupon,
meanwhile.
=2. Place:= where, whence, whither, wherever.
=3. Degree or Comparison:= as, more than, rather than, than, to
the degree in which.
=4. Manner:= as, as if, as though.
=5. Cause:= because, for, as, inasmuch as, since, owing to the
fact that, seeing that, in that.
=6. Purpose:= that, so that, in order that, lest.
=7. Result:= that is, so that, but that.
=8. Condition:= if, provided that, in case that, on condition
that, supposing that, unless.
=9. Concession:= though, although, assuming that, admitting that,
granting that, even if, no matter how, notwithstanding, of
course.
=C. With Adjective Clauses.= Adjective or relative clauses are introduced
by who, which, that, or an equivalent compound.
Exercise:
Insert within the parentheses all the connectives that might
conceivably be used, and underscore the one which you consider
to be most exact:
1. He is not a broad-minded man; ( ) he has many prejudices.
2. A number of friends came in, bringing refreshments, ( )
we spent a delightful evening.
3. We ought to return now, for it is growing dark; ( ) I
told Mary we would be home at six o'clock.