Berlin is well supplied with libraries, 268 being registered by P.

Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky in 1906, with about 5,000,000 printed

vols. The largest of them is the Royal Library, which was founded by

the "Great Elector" Frederick William, and opened as a public library

in a wing of the electoral palace in 1661. From 1699 the library

became entitled to a copy of every book published within the royal

territories, and it has received many valuable accessions by purchase

and otherwise. It now includes 1,230,000 printed vols. and over 30,000

MSS. The amount yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of

books, &c., is £11,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include

two general alphabetical catalogues, the one in volumes, the other on

slips, as well as a systematic catalogue in volumes. The following

annual printed catalogues are issued: _Verzeichnis der aus der neu

erschienenen Literatur von der K. Bibliothek und den Preussischen

Universitats-Bibliotheken erworbenen Druckschriften_ (since 1892);

_Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen Universitaten erschienenen

Schriften_ (since 1887); _Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen

Schulanstalten erschienenen Abhandlungen_ (since 1889). There is

besides a printed _Verzeichnis der im grossen Lesesaal aufgestellten

Handbibliothek_ (4th ed. 1909), the alphabetical _Verzeichnis der

laufenden Zeitschriften_ (last ed., 1908), and the classified

_Verzeichnis der laufenden Zeitschriften_ (1908). The catalogue of

MSS. are mostly in print, vols. 1-13, 16-23 (1853-1905). The library

is specially rich in oriental MSS., chiefly due to purchases of

private collections. The musical MSS. are very remarkable and form the

richest collection in the world as regards autographs. The building,

erected about 1780 by Frederick the Great, has long been too small,

and a new one was completed in 1909. The building occupies the whole

space between the four streets: Unter den Linden, Dorotheenstrasse,

Universitätsstrasse and Charlottenstrasse, and besides the Royal

Library, houses the University Library and the Academy of Sciences.

The conditions as to the use of the collections are, as in most German

libraries, very liberal. Any adult person is allowed to have books in

the reading-room. Books are lent out to all higher officials,

including those holding educational offices in the university, &c.,

and by guarantee to almost any one recommended by persons of standing;

borrowing under pecuniary security is also permitted. By special leave

of the librarian, books and MSS. may be sent to a scholar at a

distance, or, if especially valuable, may be deposited in some public

library where he can conveniently use them. In 1908-1909 264,000 vols.

were used in the reading-rooms, 312,000 were lent inside Berlin, and

32,000 outside. There is a regular system of exchange between the

Royal Library and a great number of Prussian libraries. It is the same

in Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that between

Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). There is either no charge

for carriage to the borrower or the cost is very small. The

reading-room and magazine hall are, with the exception of Sundays and

holidays, open daily from 9 to 9, the borrowing counter from 9 to 6.

Associated with the Royal Library are the following undertakings: the

_Gesamtkatalog der Preussischen wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken_

(describing the printed books in the Royal Library and the Prussian

University Libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the

Auskunftsbureau der Deutschen Bibliotheken (bureau to give information

where any particular book may be consulted), and the Kommission für

den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a complete catalogue of

books printed before 1500).

The University Library (1831) numbers 220,000 vols. together with

250,000 academical and school dissertations. The number of volumes

lent out in 1908-1909 was 104,000. The library possesses the right to

receive a copy of every work published in the province of Brandenburg.

Some of the governmental libraries are important, especially those of

the Statistisches Landesamt (184,000 vols.); Reichstag (181,000

vols.); Patent-Amt (118,000 vols.); Haus der Abgeordneten (100,000

vols.); Auswärtiges-Amt (118,000 vols.).

The public library of Berlin contains 102,000 vols.; connected

therewith 28 municipal Volksbibliotheken and 14 municipal

reading-rooms. The 28 Volksbibliotheken contain (1908) 194,000 vols.

The Prussian university libraries outside Berlin include Bonn (332,000

printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Breslau (330,000 printed vols., 3700 MSS.);

Göttingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best administered library

of the 18th century (552,000 printed vols., 6800 MSS.); Greifswald

(200,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.); Halle (261,000 printed vols., 2000

MSS.); Kiel (278,000 printed vols., 2400 MSS.); Königsberg (287,000

printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Marburg (231,000 printed vols, and about

800 MSS.); Münster (191,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.). Under provincial

administration are the Königliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover

(203,000 printed vols., 4000 MSS.); the Landesbibliothek at Cassel

(230,000 printed vols., 4400 MSS.); and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Bibliothek

at Posen (163,000 printed vols.). A number of the larger towns possess

excellent municipal libraries; Aix-la-Chapelle (112,000 vols.);

Breslau (164,000 vols., 4000 MSS.); Dantzig (145,600 vols., 2900

MSS.); Frankfort a/M (342,000 vols, besides MSS.); Cassel Murhardsche

Bibliothek (141,000 vols., 6300 MSS.); Cologne (235,000 vols.); Treves

(100,000 vols., 2260 MSS.); Wiesbaden (158,000 vols.).

Munich.

The libraries of Munich, though not so numerous as those of Berlin,

include two of great importance. The Royal Library, for a long time

the largest collection of books in Germany, was founded by Duke

Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-1579), who made numerous purchases from

Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the Nuremberg physician and

historian Schedel, of Widmannstadt, and of J. J. Fugger. The number of

printed vols, is estimated at about 1,100,000 and about 50,000 MSS.

The library is especially rich in incunabula, many of them being

derived from the libraries of over 150 monasteries closed in 1803. The

oriental MSS. are numerous and valuable, and include the library of

Martin Haug. The amount annually spent upon books and binding is

£5000. The catalogues of the printed books are in manuscript, and

include (1) a general alphabetical catalogue, (2) an alphabetical

repertorium of each of the 195 subdivisions of the library, (3)

biographical and other subject catalogues. A printed catalogue of MSS.

in 8 vols, was in 1910 nearly complete; the first was published in

1858. The library is open on weekdays from 8 to 1 (November to March

8.30 to 1), and on Monday to Friday (except from August 1 to September

15) also from 3 to 8. The regulations for the use of the library are

very similar to those of the Royal Library at Berlin. The building was

erected for this collection under King Louis I. in 1832-1843. The

archives are bestowed on the ground floor, and the two upper floors

are devoted to the library, which occupies seventy-seven apartments.

The University Library was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472,

and removed with the university to Munich in 1826. At present the

number of vols. amounts to 550,000; the MSS. number 2000. Forty-six

Munich libraries are described in Schwenke's _Adressbuch_, 15 of which

possessed in 1909 about 2,000,000 printed vols. and about 60,000 MSS.

After the two mentioned above the most noteworthy is the Königlich

Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek (100,000 printed vols., 1000 MSS.).

The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the Royal Library at

Bamberg (350,000 vols., 4300 MSS.) and the University Library at

Würzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic

libraries. The University Library at Erlangen has 237,000 vols. The

Staats-Kreis and Stadtbibliothek at Augsburg owns 200,000 vols., and

2000 MSS.; Nuremberg has two great collections, the Bibliothek des

Germanischen National-museums (250,000 vols., 3550 MSS.) and the

Stadtbibliothek (104,000 vols., 2500 MSS.).

Dresden.

In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries with about 1,495,000

vols. The Royal Public Library in the Japanese Palace was founded in

the 16th century. Among its numerous acquisitions have been the

library of Count Bünau in 1764, and the MSS. of Ebert. Special

attention is devoted to history and literature. The library possesses

more than 520,000 vols. (1909); the MSS. number 6000. Admission to the

reading-room is granted to any respectable adult on giving his name,

and books are lent out to persons qualified by their position or by a

suitable guarantee. Here, as at other large libraries in Germany,

works of belles-lettres are only supplied for a literary purpose. The

number of persons using the reading-room in a year is about 14,000,

and about 23,000 vols. are lent. The second largest library in

Dresden, the Bibliothek des Statistischen Landes-Amtes, has 120,000

vols.

Leipzig is well equipped with libraries; that of the University has

550,000 vols. and 6500 MSS. The Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts has

151,000 vols., the Pädagogische Central-Bibliothek der

Comenius-Stiftung 150,000 vols., and the Stadtbibliothek 125,000

vols., with 1500 MSS.

Stuttgart.

The Royal Public Library of Stuttgart, although only established in

1765, has grown so rapidly that it now possesses about 374,000 vols.

of printed works and 5300 MSS. There is a famous collection of Bibles,

containing over 7200 vols. The annual expenditure devoted to books and

binding is £2475. The library also enjoys the copy-privilege in

Württemberg. The annual number of borrowers is over 2600, who use

nearly 29,000 vols. The number issued in the reading-room is 41,000.

The number of parcels despatched from Stuttgart is nearly 23,000.

Admission is also gladly granted to the Royal Private Library, founded

in 1810, which contains about 137,000 vols.

Of the other libraries of Württemberg the University Library of

Tübingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted.

Darmstadt.

The Grand-ducal Library of Darmstadt was established by the grand-duke

Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of the still older library formed in

the 17th century, and includes 510,000 vols. and about 3600 MSS.

(1909). The number of vols. used in the course of the year is about

90,000, of which 14,000 are lent out.

Among the other libraries of the Grand Duchy of Hesse the most

remarkable are the University Library at Giessen (230,000 vols., 1500

MSS.), and the Stadtbibliothek at Mainz (220,000 vols., 1200 MSS.) to

which is attached the Gutenberg Museum.

In the Grand Duchy of Baden are the Hof- und Landesbibliothek at

Carlsruhe (202,000 vols., 3800 MSS.), the University Library at

Freiburg i/B (300,000 vols., 700 MSS.), and the University Library at

Heidelberg. This, the oldest of the German University libraries, was

founded in 1386. In 1623 the whole collection, described by Joseph

Scaliger in 1608 as "locupletior et meliorum librorum quam Vaticana,"

was carried as a gift to the pope and only the German MSS. were

afterwards returned. The library was re-established in 1703, and after

1800 enriched with monastic spoils; it now contains about 400,000

vols. and 3500 MSS. for the most part of great value.

Among the State or University libraries of other German states should

be mentioned Detmold (110,000 vols.); Jena (264,000 vols.);

Neustrelitz (130,000 vols.); Oldenburg (126,000 vols.); Rostock

(275,000 vols.); Schwerin (225,000 vols.); and Weimar (270,000), all

possessing rich collections of MSS.

Gotha.

The Ducal Library of Gotha was established by Duke Ernest the Pious in

the 17th century, and contains many valuable books and MSS. from

monastic collections. It numbers about 192,000 vols., with 7400 MSS.

The catalogue of the oriental MSS., chiefly collected by Seetzen, and

forming one-half of the collection, is one of the best in existence.

The Ducal Library at Wolfenbüttel, founded in the second half of the

16th century by Duke Julius, was made over to the university of

Helmstedt in 1614, whence the most important treasures were returned

to Wolfenbüttel in the 19th century; it now numbers 300,000 vols.,

7400 MSS.

The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are: Bremen (Stadtbibliothek,

141,000 vols.), and Lübeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000 vols.); the most

important being the Stadtbibliothek at Hamburg, made public since 1648

(383,000 vols., 7300 MSS., among them many Mexican). Hamburg has also

in the Kommerzbibliothek (120,000 vols.) a valuable trade collection,

and the largest Volksbibliothek (about 100,000 vols.) after that at

Berlin. Alsace-Lorraine has the most recently formed of the great

German collections--the Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek at

Strassburg, which, though founded only in 1871 to replace that which

had been destroyed in the siege, already ranks amongst the largest

libraries of the empire. Its books amount to 922,000 vols., the number

of MSS. is 5900.

Austria.

The _Adressbuch der Bibliotheken der Oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie_

by Bohatta and Holzmann (1900) describes 1014 libraries in Austria, 656

in Hungary, and 23 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Included in this list,

however, are private lending libraries.

The largest library in Austria, and one of the most important

collections in Europe, is the Imperial Public Library at Vienna,

apparently founded by the emperor Frederick III. in 1440, although its

illustrious librarian Lambecius, in the well-known inscription over the

entrance to the library which summarizes its history attributes this

honour to Frederick's son Maximilian. However this may be, the

munificence of succeeding emperors greatly added to the wealth of the

collection, including a not inconsiderable portion of the dispersed

library of Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to

the copy-privilege in respect of all books published in the empire. The

sum devoted to the purchase and binding of books is £6068 annually. The

number of printed vols. is 1,000,000; 8000 incunabula. The MSS. amount

to 27,000, with 100,000 papyri of the collection of Archduke Rainer. The

main library apartment is one of the most splendid halls in Europe.

Admission to the reading-room is free to everybody, and books are also

lent out under stricter limitations. The University Library of Vienna

was established by Maria Theresa. The reading-room is open to all

comers, and the library is open from 1st Oct. to 30th June from 9 a.m.

to 8 p.m.; in the other months for shorter hours. In 1909 447,391 vols.

were used in the library, 45,000 vols. lent out in Vienna, and 6519

vols. sent carriage free to borrowers outside Vienna. The number of

printed vols. is 757,000. For the purchase of books and binding the

Vienna University Library has annually 60,000 crowns from the state as

well as 44,000 crowns from matriculation fees and contributions from the

students.

The total number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Bohatta and

Holzmann is 165, and many of them are of considerable extent. One of

the oldest and most important libraries of the monarchy is the

University Library at Cracow, with 380,000 vols. and 8169 MSS.

The number of monastic libraries in Austria is very considerable. They

possess altogether more than 2,500,000 printed vols., 25,000

incunabula and 25,000 MSS. The oldest of them, and the oldest in

Austria, is that of the monastery of St Peter at Salzburg, which was

established by Archbishop Arno (785-821). It includes 70,000 vols.,

nearly 1500 incunabula. The three next in point of antiquity are

Kremsmünster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of them

dating from the 11th century. Many of the librarians of these monastic

libraries are trained in the great Vienna libraries. There is no

official training as in Prussia and Bavaria.

Hungary.

Information about income, administration, accessions, &c., of the chief

libraries in the Hungarian kingdom, are given in the Hungarian

_Statistical Year Book_ annually. The largest library in Hungary is the

Széchenyi-Nationalbibliothek at Budapest, founded in 1802 by the gift of

the library of Count Franz Széchenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols.,

16,000 MSS., and has a remarkable collection of Hungarica. The

University Library of Budapest includes 273,000 printed books and more

than 2000 MSS. Since 1897 there has been in Hungary a Chief Inspector of

Museums and Libraries whose duty is to watch all public museums and

libraries which are administered by committees, municipalities,

religious bodies and societies. He also has undertaken the task of

organizing a general catalogue of all the MSS. and early printed books

in Hungary.

The libraries of the monasteries and other institutions of the

Catholic Church are many in number but not so numerous as in Austria.

The chief among them, the library of the Benedictines at St

Martinsberg, is the central library of the order in Hungary and

contains nearly 170,000 vols. It was reconstituted in 1802 after the

re-establishment of the order. The principal treasures of this abbey

(11th century) were, on the secularization of the monasteries under

Joseph II., distributed among the state libraries in Budapest.

Switzerland.

Among the Swiss libraries, which numbered 2096 in 1868, there is none of

the first rank. Only three possess over 200,000 vols.--the University

Library at Basle founded in 1460, the Cantonal Library at Lausanne, and

the Stadtbibliothek at Berne, which since 1905 is united to the

University Library of that city. One great advantage of the Swiss

libraries is that they nearly all possess printed catalogues, which

greatly further the plan of compiling a great general catalogue of all

the libraries of the republic. A valuable co-operative work is their

treatment of Helvetiana. All the literature since 1848 is collected by

the Landes-Bibliothek at Berne, established in 1895 for this special

object. The older literature is brought together in the Bürgerbibliothek

at Lucerne, for which it has a government grant. The monastic libraries

of St Gall and Einsiedeln date respectively from the years 830 and 946,

and are of great historical and literary interest.

AUTHORITIES.--Information has been supplied for this account by

Professor Dr A. Hortzschansky, librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin.

See also _Adressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ by Paul Schwenke

(Leipzig, 1893); _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig,

1902-1910); _Berliner Bibliothekenführer_, by P. Schwenke and A.

Hortzschansky (Berlin, 1906); A. Hortzschansky, _Die K. Bibliothek zu

Berlin_ (Berlin, 1908); Ed. Zarncke, _Leipziger Bibliothekenführer_

(Leipzig, 1909); J. Bohatta and M. Holzmann, _Adressbuch der

Bibliotheken der österreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1900); Ri.

Kukula, _Die österreichischen Studienbibliotheken_ (1905); A. Hübl,

_Die österreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1908_

(1908); P. Gulyas, _Das ungarische Oberinspektorat der Museen und

Bibliotheken_ (1909); _Die über 10,000 Bände zählenden

öffentlichen-Bibliotheken Ungarns, im Jahre 1908_ (Budapest, 1910); H.

Escher, "Bibliothekswesen" in _Handbuch der Schweizer

Volkswirtschaft_, vol. i. (1903).

_Italy._

As the former centre of civilization, Italy is, of course, the country

in which the oldest existing libraries must be looked for, and in which

the rarest and most valuable MSS. are preserved. The Vatican at Rome and

the Laurentian Library at Florence are sufficient in themselves to

entitle Italy to rank before most other states in that respect, and the

venerable relics at Vercelli, Monte Cassino and La Cava bear witness to

the enlightenment of the peninsula while other nations were slowly

taking their places in the circle of Christian polity. The local rights

and interests which so long helped to impede the unification of Italy

were useful in creating and preserving at numerous minor centres many

libraries which otherwise would probably have been lost during the

progress of absorption that results from such centralization as exists

in England. In spite of long centuries of suffering and of the

aggression of foreign swords and foreign gold, Italy is still rich in

books and MSS. The latest official statistics (1896) give particulars of

1831 libraries, of which 419 are provincial and communal. In 1893 there

were 542 libraries of a popular character and including circulating

libraries.

Governmental libraries.

The governmental libraries (_biblioteche governative_) number 36 and are

under the authority of the minister of public instruction. The

_Regolamento_ controlling them was issued in the _Bolletino Ufficiale_,

5 Dec. 1907. They consist of the national central libraries of Rome

(Vittorio Emanuele) and Florence, of the national libraries of Milan

(Braidense), Naples, Palermo, Turin and Venice (Marciana); the

Biblioteca governativa at Cremona; the Marucelliana, the

Mediceo-Laurenziana and the Riccardiana at Florence; the governativa at

Lucca; the Estense at Modena; the Brancacciana and that of San Giacomo

at Naples; the Palatina at Parma; the Angelica, the Casanatense, and the

Lancisiana at Rome; the university libraries of Bologna, Cagliari,

Catania, Genoa, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, Rome and

Sassari; the Ventimiliana at Catania (joined to the university library

for administrative purposes); the Vallicelliana and the musical library

of the R. Accad. of St Cecilia at Rome; the musical section of the

Palatine at Parma; and the Lucchesi-Palli (added to the national library

at Naples). There are provisions whereby small collections can be united

to larger libraries in the same place and where there are several

government libraries in one city a kind of corporate administration can

be arranged. The libraries belonging to bodies concerned with higher

education, to the royal scientific and literary academies, fine art

galleries, museums and scholastic institutions are ruled by special

regulations. The minister of public instruction is assisted by a

technical board.

The librarians and subordinates are divided into (1) librarians, or

keepers of MSS.; (2) sub-librarians, or sub-keepers of MSS.; (3)

attendants, or book distributors; (4) ushers, &c. Those of class 1

constitute the "board of direction," which is presided over by the

librarian, and meets from time to time to consider important measures

connected with the administration of the library. Each library is to

possess, alike for books and MSS., a general inventory, an accessions

register, an alphabetical author-catalogue and a subject-catalogue. When

they are ready, catalogues of the special collections are to be

compiled, and these the government intends to print. A general catalogue

of the MSS. was in 1910 being issued together with catalogues of

oriental codices and incunabula. Various other small registers are

provided for. The sums granted by the state for library purposes must be

applied to (1) salaries and the catalogues of the MSS.; (2) maintenance

and other expenses; (3) purchase of books, binding and repairs, &c.

Books are chosen by the librarians. In the university libraries part of

the expenditure is decided by the librarians, and part by a council

formed by the professors of the different faculties. The rules (_Boll.

Ufficiale_, Sept. 17, 1908) for lending books and MSS. allow them to be

sent to other countries under special circumstances.

The 36 _biblioteche governative_ annually spend about 300,000 lire in

books. From the three sources of gifts, copyright and purchases, their

accessions in 1908 were 142,930, being 21,122 more than the previous

year. The number of readers is increasing. In 1908 there were 1,176,934,

who made use of 1,650,542 vols., showing an increase of 30,456 readers

and 67,579 books as contrasted with the statistics of the previous year.

Two monthly publications catalogue the accessions of these libraries,

one dealing with copyright additions of Italian literature, the other

with all foreign books.

The minister of public instruction has kept a watchful eye upon the

literary treasures of the suppressed monastic bodies. In 1875 there were

1700 of these confiscated libraries, containing two millions and a half

of volumes. About 650 of the collections were added to the contents of

the public libraries already in existence; the remaining 1050 were

handed over to the different local authorities, and served to form 371

new communal libraries, and in 1876 the number of new libraries so

composed was 415.

Vatican.

The Biblioteca Vaticana stands in the very first rank among European

libraries as regards antiquity and wealth of MSS. We can trace back the

history of the Biblioteca Vaticana to the earliest records of the

_Scrinium Sedis Apostolicae_, which was enshrined in safe custody at the

Lateran, and later on partly in the Turris Chartularia; but of all the

things that used to be stored there, the only survival, and that is a

dubious example, is the celebrated Codex Amiatinus now in the Laurentian

Library at Florence. Of the new period inaugurated by Innocent III.

there but remains to us the inventory made under Boniface VIII. The

library shared in the removal of the Papal court to Avignon, where the

collection was renewed and increased, but the Pontifical Library at

Avignon has only in part, and in later times, been taken into the

Library of the Vatican. This latter is a new creation of the great

humanist popes of the 15th century. Eugenius IV. planted the first seed,

but Nicholas V. must be looked upon as the real founder of the library,

to which Sixtus IV. consecrated a definite abode, ornate and splendid,

in the Court of the Pappagallo. Sixtus V. erected the present

magnificent building in 1588, and greatly augmented the collection. The

library increased under various popes and librarians, among the most

noteworthy of whom were Marcello Cervini, the first _Cardinale

Bibliotecario_, later Pone Marcel II., Sirleto and A. Carafa. In 1600 it

was further enriched by the acquisition of the valuable library of

Fulvio Orsini, which contained the pick of the most precious libraries.

Pope Paul V. (1605-1621) separated the library from the archives, fixed

the progressive numeration of the Greek and Latin MSS., and added two

great halls, called the Pauline, for the new codices. Under him and

under Urban VIII. a number of MSS. were purchased from the Convento of

Assisi, of the Minerva at Rome, of the Capranica College, &c. Especially

noteworthy are the ancient and beautiful MSS. of the monastery of

Bobbio, and those which were acquired in various ways from the monastery

of Rossano. Gregory XV. (1622) received from Maximilian I., duke of

Bavaria, by way of compensation for the money supplied by him for the

war, the valuable library of the Elector Palatine, which was seized by

Count Tilly at the capture of Heidelberg. Alexander VII. (1658), having

purchased the large and beautiful collection formerly belonging to the

dukes of Urbino, added the MSS. of it to the Vatican library. The

_Libreria della Regina_, i.e. of Christina, queen of Sweden, composed of

very precious manuscripts from ancient French monasteries, from St Gall

in Switzerland, and others--also of the MSS. of Alexandre Petau, of

great importance for their history and French literature, was purchased

and in great part presented to the Vatican library by Pope Alexander

VIII. (Ottoboni) in 1689, while other MSS. came in later with the

Ottoboni library. Under Clement XI. there was the noteworthy purchase of

the 54 Greek MSS. which had belonged to Pius II., and also the increase

of the collection of Oriental MSS. Under Benedict XIV. there came into

the Vatican library, as a legacy, the library of the Marchese Capponi,

very rich in rare and valuable Italian editions, besides 285 MSS.; and

by a purchase, the Biblioteca Ottoboniana, which, from its wealth in

Greek, Latin, and even Hebrew MSS., was, after that of the Vatican, the

richest in all Rome. Clement XIII. in 1758, Clement XIV. in 1769, and

Pius VI. in 1775 were also benefactors. During three centuries the vast

and monumental library grew with uninterrupted prosperity, but it was to

undergo a severe blow at the end of the 18th century. In 1798, as a

sequel to the Treaty of Tolentino, 500 MSS. picked from the most

valuable of the different collections were sent to Paris by the

victorious French to enrich the Bibliothèque Nationale and other

libraries. These, however, were chiefly restored in 1815. Most of the

Palatine MSS., which formed part of the plunder, found their way back to

the university of Heidelberg. Pius VII. acquired for the Vatican the

library of Cardinal Zelada in 1800, and among other purchases of the

19th century must be especially noted the splendid Cicognara collection

of archaeology and art (1823); as well as the library in 40,000 vols. of

Cardinal Angelo Mai (1856). Recent more important purchases, during the

Pontificate of Leo XIII., have been the Borghese MSS., about 300 in

number, representing part of the ancient library of the popes at

Avignon; the entire precious library of the Barberini; the Borgia

collection _De Propaganda Fide_, containing Latin and Oriental MSS., and

500 incunabula.

Few libraries are so magnificently housed as the Biblioteca Vaticana.

The famous _Codici Vaticani_ are placed in the _salone_ or great double

hall, which is decorated with frescoes depicting ancient libraries and

councils of the church. At the end of the great hall an immense gallery,

also richly decorated, and extending to 1200 ft., opens out from right

to left. Here are preserved in different rooms the codici Palatini,

Regin., Ottoboniani, Capponiani, &c. The printed books only are on open

shelves, the MSS. being preserved in closed cases. The printed books

that were at first stored in the Borgia Apartment, now with the library

of Cardinal Mai, constitute in great part the _Nuova Sala di

Consultazione_, which was opened to students under the Pontificate of

Leo XIII. Other books, on the other hand, are still divided into 1^a and

2^(da) raccolta, according to the ancient denomination, and are stored

in adjacent halls.

Well-reasoned calculations place the total number of printed books at

400,000 vols.; of incunabula about 4000, with many vellum copies; 500

Aldines and a great number of bibliographical rarities. The Latin

manuscripts number 31,373; the Greek amount to 4148; the Oriental MSS.,

of which the computation is not complete, amount to about 4000. Among

the Greek and Latin MSS. are some of the most valuable in the world,

alike for antiquity and intrinsic importance. It is sufficient to

mention the famous biblical _Codex Vaticanus_ of the 4th century, the

two Virgils of the 4th and 5th centuries, the Bembo Terence, the

palimpsest _De Republica_ of Cicero, conjectured to be of the 4th

century, discovered by Cardinal Mai, and an extraordinary number of

richly ornamented codices of great beauty and costliness. The archives

are apart from the library, and are accessible in part to the public

under conditions. Leo XIII. appointed a committee to consider what

documents of general interest might expediently be published.

The Biblioteca Vaticana is now open from October 1st to Easter every

morning between 9 and 1 o'clock, and from Easter to June 29 from 8

o'clock to 12, with the exception of Sundays, Thursdays and the

principal feast days.

Catalogues of special classes of MSS. have been published. The Oriental

MSS. have been described by J. S. Assemani, _Bibliotheca orientalis

Clementino-Vaticana_ (Rome, 1719-1728, 4 vols. folio), and _Bibl. Vat.

codd. MSS. catalogus ab S. E. et J. S. Assentano redactus_ (ib.,

1756-1759, 3 vols. folio), and by Cardinal Mai in _Script. Vet. nova

collectio_. The Coptic MSS. have been specially treated by G. Zoega

(Rome, 1810, folio) and by F. G. Bonjour (Rome, 1699, 4to). There are

printed catalogues of the Capponi (1747) and the Cicognara (1820)

libraries. The following catalogues have lately been printed: E.

Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini Graeci_ (1885), _Codd. Gr. Reg. Sueciae et

Pii II._ (1888); Feron-Battaglini, _Codd. Ottobon. Graeci_ (1893); C.

Stornaiolo, _Codd. Urbinates Gr._ (1895); E. Stevenson, _Codd. Palatini

Lat._ tom. 1 (1886); G. Salvo-Cozzo, _Codici Capponiani_ (1897); M.

Vattasso and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, _Codd. Lat. Vaticani_, tom. 1

(1902); C. Stornaiolo, _Codices Urbinates Latini_, tom. 1 (1902); E.

Stevenson, _Inventario dei libri stampali Palatino-Vaticani_

(1886-1891); and several volumes relating to Egyptian papyri by O.

Marucchi. Some of the greatest treasures have been reproduced in

facsimile.

Other Roman libraries.

The most important library in Italy for modern requirements is the

Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele. From its foundation in 1875,

incorporating the _biblioteca maior o secreta_ of the Jesuits in the

Collegio Romano, and all the cloister libraries of the Provincia

Romana which had devolved to the state through the suppression of the

Religious Orders, it has now, by purchases, by donations, through the

operation of the law of the press increased to about 850,000 printed

vols., and is continually being ameliorated. It possesses about 1600

incunabula and 6200 MSS. Noteworthy among these are the Farfensi and

the Sessoriani MSS. of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, and some of these

last of the 6th to the 8th centuries are real treasures. The library

has been recently reorganized. It is rich in the history of the

renaissance, Italian and foreign reviews, and Roman topography. A

monthly _Bollettino_ is issued of modern foreign literature received

by the libraries of Italy.

The Biblioteca Casanatense, founded by Cardinal Casanate in 1698,

contains about 200,000 printed vols., over 2000 incunabula, with many

Roman and Venetian editions, and more than 5000 MSS., among which are

examples of the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. They are arranged in

eleven large rooms, the large central hall being one of the finest in

Rome. It is rich in theology, the history of the middle ages,

jurisprudence and the economic, social and political sciences. An

incomplete catalogue of the printed books by A. Audiffredi still

remains a model of its kind (Roma, 1761-1788, 4 vols. folio, and part

of vol. v.).

The Biblioteca Angelica was founded in 1605 by Monsignor Angelo Rocca,

an Augustinian, and was the first library in Rome to throw open its

doors to the public. It contains about 90,000 vols., of which about

1000 are incunabula; 2570 MSS., of which 120 are Greek, and 91

Oriental. It includes all the authentic acts of the Congregatio de

Auxiliis and the collections of Cardinal Passionei and Lucas

Holstenius.

The Biblioteca Universitaria Alessandrina was founded by Pope

Alexander VII., with the greater part of the printed books belonging

to the dukes of Urbino, and was opened in 1676. In 1815 Pius VII.

granted to it the right to receive a copy of every printed book in the

States of the Church, which grant at the present time, by virtue of

the laws of Italy, is continued, but limited to the province of Rome.

The library possesses 130,000 printed books, 600 incunabula, 376 MSS.

The library of the Senate was established at Turin in 1848. It

contains nearly 87,000 vols. and is rich in municipal history and the

statutes of Italian cities, the last collection extending to 2639

statutes or vols. for 679 municipalities. The library of the Chamber

of Deputies contains 120,000 vols. and pamphlets. It is rich in modern

works, and especially in jurisprudence, native and foreign history,

economics and administration.

The Biblioteca Vallicelliana was founded by Achille Stazio (1581), and

contains some valuable manuscripts, including a Latin Bible of the 8th

century attributed to Alcuin, and some inedited writings of Baronius.

It now contains 28,000 vols. and 2315 MSS. Since 1884 it has been in

the custody of the R. Società Romana di Storia Patria. The Biblioteca

Lancisiana, founded in 1711 by G. M. Lancisi, is valuable for its

medical collections.

In 1877 Professor A. Sarti presented to the city of Rome his

collection of fine-art books, 10,000 vols., which was placed in charge

of the Accademia di San Luca, which already possessed a good artistic

library. The Biblioteca Centrale Militare (1893) includes 66,000

printed vols. and 72,000 maps and plans relating to military affairs;

and the Biblioteca della R. Accad. di S. Cecilia (1875), a valuable

musical collection of 40,000 volumes and 2300 MSS.

Subiaco.

Among the private libraries accessible by permission, the Chigiana

(1660) contains 25,000 vols. and 2877 MSS. The Corsiniana, founded by

Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini) is rich in incunabula, and includes one

of the most remarkable collections of prints, the series of

Marc-Antonios being especially complete. It was added to the Accademia

dei Lincei in 1884 and now extends to 43,000 vols. The library of the

Collegium de Propaganda Fide was established by Urban VIII. in 1626.

It owes its present richness almost entirely to testamentary gifts,

among which may be mentioned those of Cardinals Borgia, Caleppi and Di

Pietro. It is a private collection for the use of the congregation and

of those who belong to it, but permission may be obtained from the

superiors. There are at least thirty libraries in Rome which are more

or less accessible to the public. At Subiaco, about 40 m. from Rome,

the library of the Benedictine monastery of Santa Scolastica is not a

very large one, comprising only 6000 printed vols. and 400 MSS., but

the place is remarkable as having been the first seat of typography in

Italy. It was in this celebrated Protocoenobium that Schweynheim and

Pannartz, fresh from the dispersion of Fust and Schoeffer's workmen in

1462, established their press and produced a series of very rare and

important works which are highly prized throughout Europe. The Subiaco

library, although open daily to readers, is only visited by students

who are curious to behold the cradle of the press in Italy, and to

inspect the series of original editions preserved in their first home.

Florence.

The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence, formed from the union

of Magliabechi's library with the Palatina, is the largest after the

Vittorio Emanuele at Rome. The Magliabechi collection became public

property in 1714, and with accessions from time to time, held an

independent place until 1862, when the Palatina (formed by Ferdinand

III., Grand Duke of Tuscany), was incorporated with it. An old statute

by which a copy of every work printed in Tuscany was to be presented

to the Magliabechi library was formerly much neglected, but has been

maintained more rigorously in force since 1860. Since 1870 it receives

by law a copy of every book published in the kingdom. A _Bollettino_

is issued describing these accessions. There are many valuable

autograph originals of famous works in this library, and the MSS.

include the most important extant _codici_ of Dante and later poets,

as well as of the historians from Villani to Machiavelli and

Guicciardini. Amongst the printed books is a very large assemblage of

rare early impressions, a great number of the _Rappresentazioni_ of

the 16th century, at least 200 books printed on vellum, and a copious

collection of municipal histories and statutes, of _testi di lingua_

and of maps. The Galileo collection numbers 308 MSS. The MS.

portolani, 25 in number, are for the most part of great importance;

the oldest is dated 1417, and several seem to be the original charts

executed for Sir Robert Dudley (duke of Northumberland) in the

preparation of his _Arcano del Mare_. The library contains (1909)

571,698 printed vols., 20,222 MSS., 9037 engravings, 21,000 portraits,

3847 maps, and 3575 incunabula. In 1902 the Italian parliament voted

the funds for a new building which is being erected on the Corso dei

Tintori close to the Santa Croce Church.

Milan.

The Biblioteca Nazionale of Milan, better known as the Braidense,

founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, consists of 243,000 printed vols.

1787 MSS. and over 3000 autographs. It comprises nearly 2300 books

printed in the 15th century (including the rare _Monte Santo di Dio_

of Bettini, 1477), 913 Aldine impressions, and a xylographic _Biblia

Pauperum_. Amongst the MSS. are an early Dante and autograph letters

of Galileo, some poems in Tasso's autograph, and a fine series of

illustrated service-books, with miniatures representing the advance of

Italian art from the 12th to the 16th century. One room is devoted to

the works of Manzoni.

Naples.

The Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples, though only opened to the public

in 1804, is the largest library of that city. The nucleus from which

it developed was the collection of Cardinal Seripando, which comprised

many MSS. and printed books of great value. Acquisitions came in from

other sources, especially when in the year 1848 many private and

conventual libraries were thrown on the Neapolitan market, and still

more so in 1860. The Biblical section is rich in rarities, commencing

with the Mainz Bible of 1462, printed on vellum. Other special

features are the collection of _testi di lingua_, that of books on

volcanoes, the best collection in existence of the publications of

Italian literary and scientific societies and a nearly complete set of

the works issued by the Bodoni press. The MSS. include a palimpsest

containing writings of the 3rd, 5th and 6th centuries under a

grammatical treatise of the 8th, 2 Latin papyri of the 6th century,

over 50 Latin Bibles, many illuminated books with miniatures, and the

autographs of G. Leopardi. There are more than 40 books printed on

vellum in the 15th and 16th centuries, including a fine first Homer;

and several MS. maps and portolani, one dating from the end of the

14th century. The library contains about 389,100 printed vols., 7990

MSS. and 4217 incunabula.

Palermo.

The Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, founded from the Collegio Massimo

of the Jesuits, with additions from other libraries of that suppressed

order, is rich in 15th-century books, which have been elaborately

described in a catalogue printed in 1875, and in Aldines and

bibliographical curiosities of the 16th and following centuries, and a

very complete series of the Sicilian publications of the 16th century,

many being unique. The library contains 167,898 printed vols., 2550

incunabula, 1537 MSS.

Turin.

Venice.

The Biblioteca Nazionale Universitatia of Turin took its origin in the

donation of the private library of the House of Savoy, which in 1720

was made to the University by Vittorio Amedeo II. The disastrous fire

of January 1904 destroyed about 24,000 out of the 300,000 vols. which

the library possessed, and of the MSS., the number of which was 4138,

there survive now but 1500 in a more or less deteriorated condition.

Among those that perished were the palimpsests of Cicero, Cassidorus,

the Codex Theodosianus and the famous _Livre d'Heures_. What escaped

the fire entirely was the valuable collection of 1095 incunabula, the

most ancient of which is the _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ of 1459.

Since the fire the library has been enriched by new gifts, the most

conspicuous of which is the collection of 30,000 vols. presented by

Baron Alberto Lumbroso, principally relating to the French Revolution

and empire. The library was in 1910 about to be transferred to the

premises of the Palazzo of the Debito Publico. The Biblioteca

Marciana, or library of St Mark at Venice, was traditionally founded

in 1362 by a donation of MSS. from the famous Petrarch (all of them

now lost) and instituted as a library by Cardinal Bessarione in 1468.

The printed vols. number 417,314. The precious contents include 12,106

MSS. of great value, of which more than 1000 Greek codices were given

by Cardinal Bessarione, important MS. collections of works on Venetian

history, music and theatre, rare incunabula, and a great number of

volumes, unique or exceedingly rare, on the subject of early

geographical research. Amongst the MSS. is a Latin Homer, an

invaluable codex of the laws of the Lombards, and the autograph MS. of

Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_. Since the fall of the

republic and the suppression of the monasteries a great many private

and conventual libraries have been incorporated with the Marciana,

which had its first abode in the Libreria del Sansovino, from which in

turn it was transferred in 1812 to the Palazzo Ducale, and from this

again in 1904 to the Palazzo della Zecca (The Mint).

University libraries.

Among the university libraries under government control some deserve

special notice. First in historical importance comes the Biblioteca

della Università at Bologna, founded by the naturalist U. Aldrovandi,

who bequeathed by his will in 1605 to the senate of Bologna his

collection of 3800 printed books and 360 MSS. Count Luigi F. Marsili

increased the library by a splendid gift in 1712 and established an

Istituto delle Scienze, reconstituted as a public library by Benedict

XIV. in 1756. The printed books number 255,000 vols., and the MSS.

5000. The last comprise a rich Oriental collection of 547 MSS. in

Arabic, 173 in Turkish, and several in Persian, Armenian and Hebrew.

Amongst the Latin codices is a Lactantius of the 6th or 7th century.

The other noteworthy articles include a copy of the Armenian gospels

(12th century), the Avicenna, with miniatures dated 1194, described in

Montfaucon's _Diarium Italicum_, and some unpublished Greek texts.

Amongst the Italian MSS. is a rich assemblage of municipal histories.

Mezzofanti was for a long time the custodian here, and his own

collection of books has been incorporated in the library, which is

remarkable likewise for the number of early editions and Aldines which

it contains. A collection of drawings by Agostino Caracci is another

special feature of worth. The grand hall with its fine furniture in

walnut wood merits particular attention. The Biblioteca della

Università at Naples was established by Joachim Murat in 1812 in the

buildings of Monte Oliveto, and has thence been sometimes called the

"Biblioteca Gioacchino." Later it was transferred to the Royal

University of studies, and was opened to the public in 1827. It was

increased by the libraries of several monastic bodies. The most

copious collections relate to the study of medicine and natural

science. It possesses about 300,000 printed books, 404 incunabula, 203

Aldines, and 196 Bodoni editions, but the more important incunabula

and MSS. about the middle of the 19th century went to enrich the

Biblioteca Nazionale. Other important university libraries are those

of Catania (1755), 130,000 vols.; Genoa (1773), 132,000 vols., 1588

MSS.; Pavia (1763), 250,000 vols., 1100 MSS.; Padua (200,000 vols.,

2356 MSS.), which in 1910 was housed in a new building; Cagliari

(90,000 vols.); Sassari (74,000 vols.). Messina, destroyed in the

earthquake of 1908, preserved, however, beneath its ruins the more

important part of its furniture and fittings, and in 1910 was already

restored to active work, as regards the portion serving for the

reawakened Faculty of Law in the University.

Mediceo-Laurenziana.

Modena.

Chief among the remaining government libraries comes the world-famed

Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana at Florence, formed from the

collections of Cosimo the Elder, Pietro de' Medici, and Lorenzo the

Magnificent (which, however, passed away from the family after the

expulsion of the Medici from Florence, and were repurchased in 1508 by

Cardinal Giovanni, afterwards Leo X.). It was first constituted as a

public library in Florence by Clement VII., who charged Michelangelo

to construct a suitable edifice for its reception. It was opened to

the public by Cosimo I. in 1571, and has ever since gone on increasing

in value, the accessions in the 18th century alone being enough to

double its former importance. The printed books it contains are

probably no more than 11,000 in number, but are almost all of the

highest rarity and interest, including 242 incunabula of which 151

_editiones principes_. It is, however, the precious collection of

MSS., amounting to 9693 articles, which gives its chief importance to

this library. They comprise more than 700 of dates earlier than the

11th century. Some of them are the most valuable codices in the

world--the famous Virgil of the 4th or 5th century, Justinian's

_Pandects_ of the 6th, a Homer of the 10th, and several other very

early Greek and Latin classical and Biblical texts, as well as copies

in the handwriting of Petrarch, about 100 codices of Dante, a

_Decameron_ copied by a contemporary from Boccaccio's own MS., and

Cellini's MS. of his autobiography. Bandini's catalogue of the MSS.

occupies 13 vols. folio, printed in 1764-1778. Administratively united

to the Laurentian is the Riccardiana rich in MSS. of Italian

literature, especially the Florentine (33,000 vols., 3905 MSS.). At

Florence the Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in 1703, remarkable for

its artistic wealth of early woodcuts and metal engravings, was opened

to the public in 1753. The number of these and of original drawings by

the old masters amounts to 80,000 pieces; the printed volumes number

200,000, the incunabula 620, and the MSS. 1500. At Modena is the

famous Biblioteca Estense, so called from having been founded by the

Este family at Ferrara in 1393; it was transferred to Modena by Cesare

D'Este in 1598. Muratori, Zaccaria and Tiraboschi were librarians

here, and made good use of the treasures of the library. It is

particularly rich in early printed literature and valuable codices.

Between 1859 and 1867 it was known as the Biblioteca Palatina. The

printed vols. number 150,570, the incunabula 1600, the MSS. 3336,

besides the 4958 MSS. and the 100,000 autographs of the Campori

collection.

Parma.

The oldest library at Naples is the Biblioteca Brancacciana, with many

valuable MSS. relating to the history of Naples. Two planispheres by

Coronelli are preserved here. It was founded in 1673 by Cardinal F. M.

Brancaccio, and opened by his heirs in 1675; 150,000 vols. and 3000

MSS. The Regia Biblioteca di Parma, founded definitively in 1779, owes

its origin to the grand-duke Philip, who employed the famous scholar

Paciaudi to organize it. It is now a public library containing 308,770

vols. and 4890 MSS. Amongst its treasures is De Rossi's magnificent

collection of Biblical and rabbinical MSS. Also worthy of note are the

Bibl. Pubblica or governation of Lucca (1600) with 214,000 vols., 725

incunabula and 3091 MSS. and that of Cremona (1774), united to that of

the Museo Civico.

Ambrosiana.

Among the great libraries not under government control, the most

important is the famous Biblioteca Ambrosiana at Milan, founded in

1609 by Cardinal Fed. Borromeo. It contains 230,000 printed vols. and

8400 MSS. Amongst the MSS. are a Greek Pentateuch of the 5th century,

the famous Peshito and Syro-Hexaplar from the Nitrian convent of St

Maria Deipara, a Josephus written on papyrus, supposed to be of the

5th century, several palimpsest texts, including an early Plautus, and

St Jerome's commentary on the Psalms in a volume of 7th-century

execution, full of contemporary glosses in Irish, Gothic fragments of

Ulfilas, and a Virgil with notes in Petrarch's handwriting. Cardinal

Mai Was formerly custodian here. In 1879 Professor C. Mensinger

presented his "Biblioteca Europea," consisting of 2500 vols., 300 maps

and 5000 pieces, all relating to the literature and linguistics of

European countries. The Melzi and Trivulzio libraries should not pass

without mention here, although they are private and inaccessible

without special permission. The former is remarkable for its

collection of early editions with engravings, including the Dante of

1481, with twenty designs by Baccio Bandinelli. The latter is rich in

MSS. with miniatures of the finest and rarest kind, and in printed

books of which many are unique or nearly so. It consists of 70,000

printed vols. At Genoa the Biblioteca Franzoniana, founded about 1770

for the instruction of the poorer classes, is noteworthy as being the

first European library lighted up at night for the use of readers.

Monte Cassino.

Vercelli.

The foundation of the monastery of Monte Cassino is due to St

Benedict, who arrived there in the year 529, and established the

prototype of all similar institutions in western Europe. The library

of printed books now extends to about 20,000 vols., chiefly relating

to the theological sciences, but including some rare editions. A

collection of the books belonging to the monks contains about the same

number of volumes. But the chief glory of Monte Cassino consists of

the _archivio_, which is quite apart; and this includes more than

30,000 bulls, diplomas, charters and other documents, besides 1000

MSS. dating from the 6th century downwards. The latter comprehend some

very early Bibles and important codices of patristic and other

medieval writings. There are good written catalogues, and descriptions

with extracts are published in the _Bibliotheca Casinensis_. The

monastery was declared a national monument in 1866. At Ravenna the

Biblioteca Classense has a 10th-century codex of Aristophanes and two

14th-century codices of Dante. At Vercelli the Biblioteca dell'

Archivio Capitolare, the foundation of which can be assigned to no

certain date, but must be referred to the early days when the

barbarous conquerors of Italy had become christianized, comprises

nothing but MSS., all of great antiquity and value. Amongst them is an

Evangeliarium S. Eusebii in Latin, supposed to be of the 4th century;

also the famous codex containing the Anglo-Saxon homilies which have

been published by the Ælfric Society.

La Cava.

The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinità, at La Cava dei Tirreni

in the province of Salerno, is said to date from the foundation of the

abbey itself (beginning of the 11th century). It contains only some

10,000 vols., but these include a number of MSS. of very great rarity

and value, ranging from the 8th to the 14th century. Amongst these is

the celebrated Codex Legum Longobardorum, dated 1004, besides a

well-known geographical chart of the 12th century, over 100 Greek

MSS., and about 1000 charters beginning with the year 840, more than

200 of which belong to the Lombard and Norman periods. The library is

now national property, the abbot holding the office of Keeper of the

Archives.

Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great extent

and interest: Bologna (1801), 191,000 vols., 5060 MSS.; Brescia,

Civica Quiriniana, 125,000 vols., 1500 MSS.; Ferrara (1753), 91,000

vols., 1698 MSS., many Ferrarese rarities; Macerata, the

Mozzi-Borgetti (1783-1835, united 1855), 50,000 vols.; Mantua, 70,000

vols., 1300 MSS.; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847 and 1890), 75,000

vols.; Padua, 90,000 vols., 1600 MSS.; Palermo (1760), 216,000 vols.,

3263 MSS., coins and Sicilian collection; Perugia (1852), founded by

P. Podiani, 70,000 vols., 915 MSS.; Siena (1758), founded by S.

Bandini, fine art collection, 83,250 vols., 5070 MSS.; Venice, Museo

Civico Correr, 50,000 vols., 11,000 MSS.; Verona (1792, public since

1802), 180,000 vols., 2650 MSS.; Vicenza, Bertoliana (1708), local

literature, archives of religious corporations, 175,000 vols., 6000

MSS.

Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly

through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state

subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that 319

communes possessed _biblioteche popolari_ numbering altogether 415. Of

these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by individuals, 8

by business houses, 80 by working men's societies and 15 by ministers

of religion; 225 are open to the public, 358 lend books, 221

gratuitously, and 127 on payment of a small fee. In order to establish

these institutions throughout the kingdom, a _Bollettino_ has been

published at Milan since 1907, and a National Congress was held at

Rome in December 1908.

Information has been given for this account by Dr G. Staderini of the

Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, _Iter Italicum_

(Berlin, 1824-1836); _Notizie sulle biblioteche governative del regno

d' Italia_ (Roma, 1893); _Le biblioteche governative Italiane nel

1898_ (Roma, 1900); _Statistica delle biblioteche_ (Roma, 1893-1896, 2

pts.); _Le biblioteche popolari in Italia, relazione al Ministro della

Pubb. Istruzione_ (Roma, 1898); _Bollettino delle biblioteche

popolari_ (Milano, 1907, in progress); E. Fabietti, _Manuale per le

biblioteche popolari_ (2^(da) ediz., Milano); _Le biblioteche pop. al

1^o Congresso Naz. 1908_ (Milano, 1910).

_Latin America._

Much interest in libraries has not been shown in south, central and

other parts of Latin America. Most of the libraries which exist are

national or legislative libraries.

Cuba.

As the libraries of the republic of Cuba are more Spanish than

American in character, it will be convenient to consider them here.

The chief libraries are in Havana, and the best are the Biblioteca

Publica and the University Library. The Biblioteca Publica has within

recent years been completely overhauled, and is now one of the most

actively-managed libraries in Latin America.

Mexico.

Out of the twenty-nine states and territories of the Mexican republic

about half have public libraries, and only a small proportion of the

contents consists of modern literature. Many possess rare and valuable

books, of interest to the bibliographer and historian, which have come

from the libraries of the suppressed religious bodies. There is a

large number of scientific and literary associations in the republic,

each possessing books. The Society of Geography and Statistics,

founded in 1851 in Mexico City, is the most important of them, and

owns a fine museum and excellent library. After the triumph of the

Liberal party the cathedral, university and conventual libraries of

the city of Mexico came into the possession of the government, and

steps were taken to form them into one national collection. No

definite system was organized, however, until 1867, when the church of

San Augustin was taken and fitted up for the purpose. In 1884 it was

opened as the Biblioteca Nacional, and now possesses over 200,000

vols. Two copies of every book printed in Mexico must be presented to

this library. Most of the libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are

subscription, and belong to societies and schools of various kinds.

Argentina.

The importance of public libraries has been fully recognized in

Argentina, and more than two hundred of them are in the country. They

are due to benefactions, but the government in every case adds an

equal sum to any endowment. A central commission exists for the

purpose of facilitating the acquisition of books and to promote a

uniform excellence of administration. The most considerable is the

Biblioteca Nacional at Buenos Aires, which is passably rich in MSS.,

some of great interest, concerning the early history of the Spanish

colonies. There is also the Biblioteca Municipal with about 25,000

vols. There are libraries attached to colleges, churches and clubs,

and most of the larger towns possess public libraries.

Brazil.

The chief library in Brazil is the Bibliotheca Publica Nacional at Rio

de Janeiro (1807) now comprising over 250,000 printed vols. with many

MSS. National literature and works connected with South America are

special features of this collection. A handsome new building has been

erected which has been fitted up in the most modern manner. Among

other libraries of the capital may be mentioned those of the Faculty

of Medicine, Marine Library, National Museum, Portuguese Literary

Club, Bibliotheca Fluminense, Benedictine Monastery, and the

Bibliotheca Municipal. There are various provincial and public

libraries throughout Brazil, doing good work, and a typical example is

the public library of Maranhao.

Chile.

The Biblioteca Nacional at Santiago is the chief library in Chile. The

catalogue is printed, and is kept up by annual supplements. It

possesses about 100,000 vols. There is also a University Library at

Santiago, and a fairly good Biblioteca Publica at Valparaiso.

Peru.

The Biblioteca Nacional at Lima was founded by a decree of the

liberator San Martin on the 28th of August 1821, and placed in the

house of the old convent of San Pedro. The nucleus of the library

consisted of those of the university of San Marcos and of several

monasteries, and a large present of books was also made by San Martin.

The library is chiefly interesting from containing so many MSS. and

rare books relating to the history of Peru in viceregal times.

_Spain and Portugal._

Most of the royal, state and university libraries of Spain and Portugal

have government control and support. In Portugal the work of the

universities is to a certain extent connected up, and an official

bulletin is published in which the laws and accessions of the libraries

are contained.

The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly the

Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 600,000 with

200,000 pamphlets. Spanish literature is of course well represented,

and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from the libraries of

the suppressed convents, the classes of theology, canon law, history,

&c., are particularly complete. There are 30,000 MSS., including some

finely illuminated codices, historical documents, and many valuable

autographs. The collection of prints extends to 120,000 pieces, and

was principally formed from the important series bought from Don

Valentin Carderera in 1865. The printed books have one catalogue

arranged under authors' names, and one under titles; the departments

of music, maps and charts, and prints have subject-catalogues as well.

There is a general index of the MSS., with special catalogues of the

Greek and Latin codices and genealogical documents. The cabinet of

medals is most valuable and well arranged. Of the other Madrid

libraries it is enough to mention the Biblioteca de la Real Academia

de la Historia, 1758 (20,000 vols. and 1500 MSS.), which contains some

printed and MS. Spanish books of great value, including the well-known

Salazar collection. The history of the library of the Escorial (q.v.)

has been given elsewhere. In 1808, before the invasion, the Escorial

is estimated to have contained 30,000 printed vols. and 3400 MSS.;

Joseph removed the collection to Madrid, but when it was returned by

Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000

printed vols. The Arabic MSS. have been described by M. Casiri,

1760-1770; and a catalogue of the Greek codices by Müller was issued

at the expense of the French government in 1848. There is a MS.

catalogue of the printed books. Permission to study at the Escorial,

which is one of the royal private libraries, must be obtained by

special application. The Biblioteca Provincial y Universitaria of

Barcelona (1841) contains about 155,000 vols., and that of Seville

(1767) has 82,000 vols. Other cities in Spain possess provincial or

university libraries open to students under various restrictions,

among them may be mentioned the Biblioteca Universitaria of Salamanca

(1254) with over 80,000 vols.

Portugal.

Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacional at Lisbon

(1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely

increased from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to have

been little cared for according to a report prepared by the principal

librarian three years later. There are now said to be 400,000 vols. of

printed books, among which theology, canon law, history and Portuguese

and Spanish literature largely predominate. The MSS. number 16,000

including many of great value. There is also a cabinet of 40,000 coins

and medals. The Bibliotheca da Academia, founded in 1780, is preserved

in the suppressed convent of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia. In

1836 the Academy acquired the library of that convent, numbering

30,000 vols., which have since been kept apart. The Archivo Nacional,

in the same building, contains the archives of the kingdom, brought

here after the destruction of the Torre do Castello during the great

earthquake.

The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto is the second largest in

Portugal, although only dating from the 9th of July 1833, the

anniversary of the debarcation of D. Pedro, and when the memorable

siege was still in progress; from that date to 1874 it was styled the

Real Biblioteca do Porto. The regent (ex-emperor of Brazil) gave to

the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the northern

provinces, the municipality undertaking to defray the expense of

keeping up the collection. Recent accessions consist mainly of

Portuguese and French books. The important Camoens collection is

described in a printed catalogue (Oporto, 1880). A notice of the MSS.

may be found in _Catalogo dos MSS. da B. Publica Eborense_, by H. da

Cunha Rivara (Lisbon, 1850-1870), 3 vols. folio, and the first part of

an _Indice preparatorio do Catalogo dos Manuscriptos_ was produced in

1880. The University Library of Coimbra (1591) contains about 100,000

vols., and other colleges possess libraries.

_Netherlands._

Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both Belgium and

Holland in the development of public libraries, and several towns in the

latter country have established popular libraries after the fashion of

the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America.

Belgium.

The national library of Belgium is the Bibliothèque Royale at

Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous

Bibliothèque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian

sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had gradually accumulated

during three centuries. After suffering many losses from thieves and

fire, in 1772 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne received considerable

augmentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of Jesuits,

and was thrown open to the public. On the occupation of Brussels by

the French in 1794 a number of books and MSS. were confiscated and

transferred to Paris (whence the majority were returned in 1815); in

1795 the remainder were formed into a public library under the care of

La Serna Santander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed

by van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem a

large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was

acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne was added to the state

archives, and the whole made available for students. Van Hulthem died

in 1832, leaving one of the most important private libraries in

Europe, described by Voisin in _Bibliotheca Hulthemiana_ (Brussels,

1836), 5 vols., and extending to 60,000 printed vols, and 1016 MSS.,

mostly relating to Belgian history. The collection was purchased by

the government in 1837, and, having been added to the Bibliothèque de

Bourgogne (open since 1772) and the Bibliothèque de la Ville (open

since 1794), formed what has since been known as the Bibliothèque

Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with

30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The special

collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the Fonds van

Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fétis, for music; the Fonds

Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Müller, for physiology. The

catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed, and catalogues of

accessions and other departments are also in course of publication.

There are libraries attached to most of the departments of the

government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols. and the ministry

of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library is the

Bibliothèque Collective des Sociétés Savantes founded in 1906 to

assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of

Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued on

cards. The Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Musique (1832)

contains 12,000 vols, and 6000 dramatic works. The popular or communal

libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and those of the

adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are distributed

through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp the Stadt

Bibliothek (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly supported by

subscriptions and endowments. The valuable collection of books in the

Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be mentioned. It contains

11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books, comprising the works issued by

the Plantin family and many 15th-century books.

The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the

Bibliothèque de l'École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la

Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres,

of the College des Échevins, and of many suppressed religious

communities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in

1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the

collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under

state control. The printed volumes now amount to 353,000. There are

important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands literature,

national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical

pamphlets of the 16th and 17th centuries. The main catalogue is in MS.

on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on jurisprudence

(1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliothèque de l'Université

Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of Beyerlinck, who

bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this example was followed by

Jacques Romain, professor of medicine, but the proper organization of

the library began in 1636. There are now said to be 211,000 vols. The

Bibliothèque de l'Université of Liége dates from 1817, when on the

foundation of the university the old Bibliothèque de la Ville was

added to it. There are now 350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c.

The Liége collection (of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols.

8vo., 1872), bequeathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061

vols. and pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The

Bibliothèques Populaires of Liége established in 1862, now number

five, and contain among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the

extent of 130,000 per annum among the school children. The

Bibliothèque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books

and MSS., housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or

douane, 1477. There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath

(1842), Courtrai, Malines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend

(1861), Tournai (1794, housed in the Hôtel des Anciens Prêtres, 1755),

Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the

French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000 to

40,000 vols, and they are open as a rule only part of the day. Every

small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them,

together with much other information, will be found in the _Annuaire

de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et littéraire_ (Brussels 1908

and later issues).

Holland.

The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at

Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to join the

library of the princes of Orange with those of the defunct government

bodies in order to form a library for the States-General, to be called

the Nationale Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; and

since 1815 it has become the national library. In 1848 the Baron W. Y.

H. van Westreenen van Tiellandt bequeathed his valuable books, MSS.,

coins and antiquities to the country, and directed that they should be

preserved in his former residence as a branch of the royal library.

There are now upwards of 500,000 vols. of printed books, and the MSS.

number 6000, chiefly historical, but including many fine books of

hours with miniatures. Books are lent all over the country. The

library boasts of the richest collection in the world of books on

chess, Dutch incunabula, Elzevirs and Spinozana. There is one general

written catalogue arranged in classes, with alphabetical indexes. In

1800 a printed catalogue was issued, with four supplements down to

1811; and since 1866 a yearly list of additions has been published.

Special mention should be made of the excellent catalogue of the

incunabula published in 1856.

The next library in numerical importance is the famous Bibliotheca

Academiae Lugduno-Batavae, which dates from the foundation of the

university of Leiden by William I., prince of Orange, on the 8th of

February 1575. It has acquired many valuable additions from the books

and MSS. of the distinguished scholars, Golius, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac

Voss, Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. The MSS. comprehend many of great

intrinsic importance. The library of the Society of Netherland

Literature has been placed here since 1877; this is rich in the

national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental MSS. known as

the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and interest; and the

collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenhuis is also

noteworthy. The library is contained in a building which was formerly

a church of the Béguines, adapted in 1860 somewhat after the style of

the British Museum. The catalogues (one alphabetical and one

classified) are on slips, the titles being printed. A catalogue of

books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of books added between 1814

and 1847 and a supplementary part of MSS. only in 1850. A catalogue of

the Oriental MSS. was published in 6 vols. (1851-1877). The

Bibliotheek der Rijks Universiteit (1575) at Leiden contains over

190,000 vols.

The University Library at Utrecht dates from 1582, when certain

conventual collections were brought together in order to form a public

library, which was shortly afterwards enriched by the books bequeathed

by Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio. Upon the foundation of the

university in 1636, the town library passed into its charge. Among the

MSS. are some interesting cloister MSS. and the famous "Utrecht

Psalter," which contains the oldest text of the Athanasian creed. The

last edition of the catalogue was in 2 vols. folio, 1834, with

supplement in 1845, index from 1845-1855 in 8vo., and additions

1856-1870, 2 vols. 8vo. A catalogue of the MSS. was issued in 1887.

The titles of accessions are now printed in sheets and pasted down for

insertion. There are now about 250,000 vols. in the library.

The basis of the University Library at Amsterdam consists of a

collection of books brought together in the 15th century and preserved

in the Nieuwe Kerk. At the time of the Reformation in 1578 they became

the property of the city, but remained in the Nieuwe Kerk for the use

of the public till 1632, when they were transferred to the Athenaeum.

Since 1877 the collection has been known as the University Library,

and in 1881 it was removed to a building designed upon the plan of the

new library and reading-room of the British Museum. The library

includes the best collection of medical works in Holland, and the

Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana of Hebrew and Talmudic literature is of

great fame and value; a catalogue of the last was printed in 1875. The

libraries of the Dutch Geographical and other societies are preserved

here. A general printed catalogue was issued in 6 vols. 8vo.,

Amsterdam (1856-1877); one describing the bequests of J. de Bosch

Kemper, E. J. Potgieter and F. W. Rive, in 3 vols., 8vo. (1878-1879);

a catalogue of the MSS. of Professor Moll was published in 1880, and

one of those of P. Camper in 1881. Other catalogues have been

published up to 1902, including one of the MSS. The library contains

about half a million volumes. There are popular subscription libraries

with reading-rooms in all parts of Holland, and in Rotterdam there is

a society for the encouragement of social culture which has a large

library as part of its equipment. At Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, Dordrecht

and other towns popular libraries have been established, and there is

a movement of recent growth, in favour of training librarians on

advanced English lines.

The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen at Batavia

contains books printed in Netherlandish India, works relating to the

Indian Archipelago and adjacent countries, and the history of the

Dutch in the East. There are 20,000 printed vols. and 1630 MSS., of

which 243 are Arabic, 445 Malay, 303 Javanese, 60 Batak and 517 on

lontar leaves, in the ancient Kawi, Javanese and Bali languages, &c.

Printed catalogues of the Arabic, Malay, Javanese and Kawi MSS. have

been issued.

_Scandinavia._

Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians having been trained and

employed in American libraries, a greater approach has been made to

Anglo-American library ideals in Norway, Sweden and Denmark than

anywhere else on the continent of Europe.

Denmark.

The beginning of the admirably managed national library of Denmark,

the great Royal Library at Copenhagen (Det Store Kongelige Bibliothek)

may be said to have taken place during the reign of Christian III.

(1533-1559), who took pride in importing foreign books and choice

MSS.; but the true founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is

mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the

acquisition of Tycho Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the

Christiansborg castle) was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may

be mentioned the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld

(8000 vols. and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6039

vols. printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over

100,000 vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was

opened to the public, and it has since remained under state control.

Two copies of every book published within the kingdom must be

deposited here. The incunabula and block books form an important

series. There is a general classified catalogue in writing for the use

of readers; and an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the

officials. A good catalogue of the de Thott collection was printed in

12 vols. 8vo. (1789-1795); a catalogue of the French MSS. appeared in

1844; of Oriental MSS., 1846; of the Danish collection, 1875, 8vo.

Annual reports and accounts of notable MSS. have been published since

1864. The library now contains over 750,000 vols.

The University Library, founded in 1482, was destroyed by fire in

1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every Danish

publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the famous

Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000 vols. in this

library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses about 200,000

vols. and the Landsbókasafn Islands (National Library) of Reykjavik,

Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and 5500 MSS. In Copenhagen

there are 11 popular libraries supported in part by the city, and

there are at least 50 towns in the provinces with public libraries and

in some cases reading-rooms. An association for promoting public

libraries was formed in 1905, and in 1909 the minister of public

instruction appointed a special adviser in library matters. About 800

towns and villages are aided by the above named association, the state

and local authorities, and it is estimated that they possess among

them 500,000 vols., and circulate over 1,000,000 vols. annually.

Norway.

The chief library in Norway is the University Library at Christiania,

established at the same time as the university, September 2nd, 1811,

by Frederick II., with a donation from the king of many thousands of

duplicates from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, and since augmented

by important bequests. Annual catalogues are issued and there are now

over 420,000 vols. in the collection. The Deichmanske Bibliothek in

Christiania was founded by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library.

In 1898 it was reorganized, and in 1903 the open shelf method was

installed by Haakon Nyhuus, the librarian, who had been trained in the

United States. The library is partly supported by endowment, partly by

grants from the municipality. It now contains about 85,000 vols., and

is a typical example of a progressive library. The Free Library at

Bergen (1872) has about 90,000 vols. and has recently been re-housed

in a new building. A free library, with open shelves, has also been

opened at Trondhjem. The library connected with the Kongellige

Videnskabers Selskab at Trondhjem now contains about 120,000 vols.

Owing to the absence of small towns and villages in Norway, most of

the library work is concentrated in the coast towns.

Sweden.

The Royal Library at Stockholm was first established in 1585. The

original collection was given to the university of Upsala by Gustavus

II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the library

brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697. The

present library was organized shortly afterwards. The

Benzelstjerna-Engeström Library (14,500 printed vols. and 1200 MSS.)

rich in materials for Swedish history, is now annexed to it. Natural

history, medicine and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among

the MSS. the _Codex Aureus_ of the 6th or 7th century, with its

interesting Anglo-Saxon inscription, is particularly noteworthy. The

catalogues are in writing, and are both alphabetical and classified;

printed catalogues have been issued of portions of the MSS. The

present building was opened in 1882. The library now contains about

320,000 printed books and over 11,000 MSS. The Karolinska Institutet

in Stockholm, contains a library of medical books numbering over

40,000.

The University Library at Upsala was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in

1620, from the remains of several convent libraries; he also provided

an endowment. The MSS. chiefly relate to the history of the country,

but include the _Codex Argenteus_, containing the Gothic gospels of

Ulfilas. The general catalogue is in writing. A catalogue was printed

in 1814; special lists of the foreign accessions have been published

each year from 1850; the Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS. are

described by C. J. Tornberg, 1846. It now contains about 340,000

printed books and MSS. The library at Lund dates from the foundation

of the university in 1668, and was based upon the old cathedral

library. The MSS. include the de la Gardie archives, acquired in 1848.

There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. The Stadsbibliotek of

Gothenburg contains about 100,000 vols., and has a printed catalogue.

_Russia._

The imperial Public Library at St Petersburg is one of the largest

libraries in the world, and now possesses about 1,800,000 printed vols.

and 34,000 MSS., as well as large collections of maps, autographs,

photographs, &c. The beginning of this magnificent collection may be

said to have been the books seized by the Czar Peter during his invasion

of Courland in 1714; the library did not receive any notable

augmentation, however, till the year 1795, when, by the acquisition of

the famous Zaluski collection, the Imperial Library suddenly attained a

place in the first rank among great European libraries. The Zaluski

Library was formed by the Polish count Joseph Zaluski, who collected at

his own expense during forty-three years no less than 200,000 vols.,

which were added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of Cracow, by whom in

1747 the library was thrown open to the public. At his death it was left

under the control of the Jesuit College at Warsaw; on the suppression of

the order it was taken care of by the Commission of Education; and

finally in 1795 it was transferred by Suwaroff to St Petersburg as a

trophy of war. It then extended to 260,000 printed vols. and 10,000

MSS., but in consequence of the withdrawal of many medical and

illustrated works to enrich other institutions, hardly 238,000 vols.

remained in 1810. Literature, history and theology formed the main

features of the Zaluski Library; the last class alone amounted to

one-fourth of the whole number. Since the beginning of the 19th century,

through the liberality of the sovereigns, the gifts of individuals,

careful purchases, and the application of the law of 1810, whereby two

copies of every Russian publication must be deposited here, the Imperial

Library has attained its present extensive dimensions. Nearly one

hundred different collections, some of them very valuable and extensive,

have been added from time to time. They include, for example, the

Tolstoi Sclavonic collection (1830), Tischendorf's MSS. (1858), the

Dolgorousky Oriental MSS. (1859), and the Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite)

collection (1862-1863), the libraries of Adelung (1858) and Tobler

(1877), that of the Slavonic scholar Jungmann (1856), and the national

MSS. of Karamzin (1867). This system of acquiring books, while it has

made some departments exceedingly rich, has left others comparatively

meagre. The library was not regularly opened to the public until 1814;

it is under the control of the minister of public instruction. There are

fine collections of Aldines and Elzevirs, and the numerous incunabula

are instructively arranged.

The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs, 4689 charters

and 576 maps. The glory of this department is the celebrated _Codex

Sinaiticus_ of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St Catherine

on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in 1859. Other important Biblical and

patristic codices are to be found among the Greek, and Latin MSS.; the

Hebrew MSS. include some of the most ancient that exist, and the

Samaritan collection is one of the largest in Europe; the Oriental MSS.

comprehend many valuable texts, and among the French are some of great

historical value. The general catalogues are in writing, but many

special catalogues of the MSS. and printed books have been published.

The nucleus of the library at the Hermitage Palace was formed by the

empress Catherine II., who purchased the books and MSS. of Voltaire

and Diderot. In the year 1861 the collection amounted to 150,000

vols., of which nearly all not relating to the history of art were

then transferred to the Imperial Library. There are many large and

valuable libraries attached to the government departments in St

Petersburg, and most of the academies and colleges and learned

societies are provided with libraries.

The second largest library in Russia is contained in the Public Museum

at Moscow. The class of history is particularly rich, and Russian

early printed books are well represented. The MSS. number 5000,

including many ancient Sclavonic codices and historical documents of

value. One room is devoted to a collection of Masonic MSS., which

comprehend the archives of the lodges in Russia between 1816 and 1821.

There is a general alphabetical catalogue in writing; the catalogue of

the MSS. has been printed, as well as those of some of the special

collections. This large and valuable library now contains close upon

1,000,000 printed books and MSS. The Imperial University at Moscow

(1755) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and the Duchovnaja Academy

has 120,000 vols. The Imperial Russian Historical Museum (1875-1883)

in Moscow contains nearly 200,000 vols. and most of the state

institutions and schools are supplied with libraries. All the Russian

universities have libraries, some of them being both large and

valuable--Dorpat (1802) 400,000 vols.; Charkov (1804) 180,000 vols.;

Helsingfors (1640-1827) 193,000 vols.; Kasan (1804) 242,000 vols.;

Kiev (1832) 125,000 vols.; Odessa (1865) 250,000 vols.; and Warsaw

(1817) 550,000 vols. There are also communal or public libraries at

Charkov (1886) 110,000 vols.; Odessa (1830) 130,000 vols.; Reval

(1825) 40,000 vols.; Riga, 90,000 vols.; Vilna (1856) 210,000 vols.

and many other towns. A text-book on library economy, based on Graesel

and Brown, was issued at St Petersburg in 1904.

_Eastern Europe._

At Athens the National Library (1842) possesses about 260,000 vols., and

there is also a considerable library at the university. The Public

Library at Corfu has about 40,000 vols. Belgrade University Library has

60,000 vols. and the University Library of Sofia has 30,000 vols.

Constantinople University in 1910 had a library in process of formation,

and there are libraries at the Greek Literary Society (20,000 vols.) and

Theological School (11,000 vols.).

_China._

Chinese books were first written on thin slips of bamboo, which were

replaced by silk or cloth scrolls in the 3rd century B.C., paper coming

into use in the beginning of the 2nd century. These methods were

customary down to the 10th or 11th century. There were no public

libraries in the western sense.

The practice of forming national collections of the native literature

originated in the attempts to recover the works destroyed in the

"burning of the books" by the "First Emperor" (220 B.C.). In 190 B.C.

the law for the suppression of literary works was repealed, but

towards the close of the 1st century B.C. many works were still

missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 B.C.) formed the plan of Repositories, in

which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them. Liu

Hsiang (80-9 B.C.) was specially appointed to classify the literature

and form a library. His task was completed by his son, and the

_resumé_ of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable notes

describing 11,332 "sections" (volumes) by 625 authors. Similar

national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding dynasty.

The high estimation in which literature has always been held has led

to the formation of very large imperial, official and private

collections of books. Large numbers of works, chiefly relating to

Buddhism and Taoism, are also stored in many of the temples. Chinese

books are usually in several, and frequently in many volumes. The

histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast dimensions.

Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or on open shelves,

placed on their sides, each set (_t'ao_) of volumes (_pên_) being

protected and held together by two thin wooden or card boards, one

forming the front cover (in a European book) and the other the back

cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round the whole. By

untying and tying these tapes the _t'ao_ is opened and closed. The

titles of the whole work and of each section are written on the edge

(either the top or bottom in a European book) and so face outwards as

it lies on the shelf. Catalogues are simple lists with comments on the

books, not the systematic and scientific productions used in Western

countries. There are circulating libraries in large numbers in Peking,

Canton and other cities.

See E. T. C. Werner, "Chinese Civilisation" (in H. Spencer's

_Descriptive Sociology_, pt. ix.).

_Japan._

The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that of China,

with whose civilization and literature it had close relations. Since

about 1870, however, the great cities and institutions have established

libraries on the European model.

Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the

Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokio with over 500,000 vols., consisting

of the collections of the various government departments, and is for

official use alone. The University Library (1872) is the largest open

to students and the public; it contains over 400,000 vols. of which

230,000 are Chinese and Japanese. The Public Library and reading-room

(Tosho-Kwan) at Ueno Park (1872) was formed in 1872 and contains over

250,000 vols., of which about one-fifth are European books. At Tokio

are also to be found the Ohashi Library (1902) with 60,000 vols. and

the Hibaya Library (1908) with 130,000 vols. and the Nanki Library

(1899) with 86,000 vols. The library of the Imperial University of

Kyoto contains nearly 200,000 vols., of which over 90,000 are in

European languages. To this is attached the library of the Fukuoka

Medical College with 113,000 vols. The Municipal Library of Kyoto

(1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other important municipal libraries in

Japan are those at Akita in the province Of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols.,

at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908), 25,000 vols., Narita, province of

Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province

of Suó (1907), 23,000 vols. The libraries of the large temples often

contain books of value to the philologist. Lending libraries of native

and Chinese literature have existed in Japan from very early times.