The main points in British library legislation are as follows:--

(a) The acts are permissive in character and not compulsory, and can

only be put in force by a vote of a majority of members in an urban

district or city, or of a majority of voters in rural districts.

(b) The amount of rate which can be collected is limited to one penny

in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in some

towns power has been obtained by special legislation for local

purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at

Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny in

the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over £25,000

in a large city.

(c) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the

local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all their

powers and duties under section 15 of the act of 1892. The local

authorities in England have also power to appoint persons on such

committees who are not members of the council. By the Scottish

principal act of 1887 committees are to consist of one-half

councillors and one-half non-councillors, not to exceed a total of 20,

and these committees become independent bodies not subject to the

councils. Glasgow has contracted out of this arrangement by means of a

special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much on the same

system as in England.

(d) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for science,

art galleries, and schools for art. Needless to say it is impossible

to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited means

provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted to do so. The

Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an additional rate of ½d.

to be raised for either purpose, and many places which have

established museums or art galleries under the provisions of the

Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in order to increase

their revenues.

(e) The regulation and management of public libraries are entrusted to

the library authority, which may either be the local authority, or a

committee with a full or partial delegation of powers. The library

authority can buy books, periodicals, specimens of art and science,

and make all necessary rules for the proper working of the libraries.

A staff can be appointed, and arrangements may be made with adjoining

local authorities for the joint use of one or more libraries.

Buildings may also be erected, and money borrowed for the purpose on

the security of the local rates. These are the main provisions of the

library legislation of the United Kingdom as at present existing.

Revision and amendment are wanted as regards the abolition or raising

of the rate limitation, and some clearer definitions as to powers

which can be exercised, as, for example, the right to spend money on

lectures. The rate limitation is the most serious obstacle to

progress, and it affects the smaller towns to a much greater degree

than large cities or areas.

Between 1850 and 1910 about 630 local government areas of all kinds

adopted the Public Libraries Acts. Of these a considerable number had in

1910 not yet put the acts in operation, whilst the London Government Act

1899, by joining various previously independent vestries or boards,

extinguished about 23 library areas. The Metropolitan County of London

in 1910 comprised 25 library areas, or counting also the City, 26, and

only Marylebone, Bethnal Green and parts of Finsbury and Paddington

remained unprovided. Practically every large city or district council

has adopted the Public Libraries Acts or obtained special legislation,

and the only important places, in addition to Marylebone and Bethnal

Green, unprovided in 1910 were Bacup, Crewe, Dover, Jarrow, Scarborough,

Swindon, Weymouth, Llandudno, Govan, Leith, Pollokshaws and Wishaw. In

all, 556 places had library systems in operation, and among them they

possessed about 925 buildings.

The progress of the public library movement was very slow up to 1887,

the year of Queen Victoria's jubilee. From 1887, however, when many

districts established libraries as memorials to Queen Victoria, the

progress has been much more rapid. An immense stimulus to the movement

was given from about 1900, when Mr Andrew Carnegie (q.v.) began to

present library buildings to towns in England as well as to Scotland

and the United States. The result of this action was to increase the

number of municipal libraries from 146 in 1886 to 556 in 1910; and in

the 10 years up to 1910 during which Mr Carnegie's gifts had been

offered, no fewer than 163 places had put the acts in operation, a

yearly average of over 16 adoptions.

There is one municipal library whose importance demands special mention,

although it is not rate-supported under the provisions of the Public

Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall library of the Corporation of the

City of London, which is a free public reference library with a

periodicals reading-room, and a lending department for officials and

members of the corporation. A library was established for London by Sir

Richard Whittington between 1421-1426, and several notices in the civic

records show how well in those times the citizens cared for their books.

But it did not remain without accident; in 1522 the Lord Protector

Somerset carried off three cart-loads of books, and during the great

fire of 1666 the remainder was destroyed together with the library

buildings. Nothing was done to repair the loss until 1824, when a

committee was appointed, and rooms set apart for library purposes. In

1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was printed, and in 1859 a second was

prepared of 40,000 vols. In consequence of the large and increasing

number of the readers, the present fine building was commenced about ten

years later, and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a

free public library.

There are now upwards of 136,000 printed vols. and 5900 MSS. in the

Guildhall library. The contents are of a general character, and

include a special collection of books about London, the Solomons

Hebrew and rabbinical library, and the libraries of the Clockmakers

Company and the old Dutch church in Austin Friars. Recently the fine

collection of books by and about Charles Dickens, called the National

Dickens Library, was added, and other special libraries of a valuable

nature, as well as an extensive and well-cared-for collection of

London prints, and drawings.

British library administration.

There is such a variety of library buildings in the United Kingdom that

it is not possible to single out examples for special description, but a

brief statement of their work and methods will help to give some idea of

the extent of their activities.

The total number of borrowers enrolled in 1910 was[11] about 2,200,000,

59% males and 41% females, 48% under 20 years of age and 52% over 20.

Industrial and commercial occupations were followed by 49% of the

borrowers, the balance of 51% being domestic, professional, unstated,

and including 20% of students and scholars. To these borrowers

60,000,000 vols. are circulated every year for home-reading, and of this

large number 54% represented fiction, including juvenile literature. The

Reference libraries issued over 11,000,000 vols., exclusive of books

consulted at open shelves, and to the Reading-rooms, Magazines,

Newspapers, Directories, Time-tables, &c., allowing only one

consultation for each visit, 85,000,000 visits are made per annum.

Allowing 5% for the reading of fiction in current magazines, it appears

that the percentage of fiction read in British municipal libraries,

taking into account the work of every issuing or consulting department,

is only about 24%. This fact should be carefully recorded, as in the

past municipal libraries have suffered in the esteem of all sections of

the public, by being erroneously described as mere centres for the

distribution of common novels. The quality of the fiction selected is

the best obtainable, and, as shown above, it is not read to an

unreasonable or unnecessary extent.

The changes in character, policy and methods which have marked library

administration in the United Kingdom, have affected libraries of all

kinds, but on the whole the municipal libraries have been most active in

the promotion of improvements. It is evident, moreover, even to the most

casual observer, that a complete revolution in library practice has been

effected since 1882, not only in the details of administration, but in

the initiation of ideas and experiments. One of the most notable changes

has been the gradual disappearance of the unclassified library. Previous

to 1882 very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific

classification schemes equipped with suitable notations, although the

Decimal method of Mr Melvil Dewey had been applied in the United States.

After that date this system began to be adopted for reference

departments in British municipal libraries, till in 1910 at least 120

places had been classified by means of the scheme. An English scheme,

called the "Adjustable," with a notation, but not fully expanded, has

been adopted in 53 places, and a very complete and minute scheme called

the "Subject," also English, has been used in nearly 40 libraries,

although it only dates from 1906. That much remains to be accomplished

in this direction is indicated by the fact that over 340 municipal

libraries were in 1910 not closely classified, but only arranged in

broad numerical or alphabetical divisions. The adoption of exact schemes

of classification for books in libraries may be said to double their

utility almost mechanically, and in course of time an unclassified

municipal library will be unknown. The other kinds of library--state,

subscription, university, &c.--are very often not classified, but some

use the Decimal system, while others, like the Patent Office, have

systems peculiar to themselves.

The catalogue, as a means of making known the contents of books, has

also undergone a succession of changes, both in policy and mechanical

construction. At one period, before access to the shelves and other

methods of making known the contents of libraries had become general,

the printed catalogue was relied upon as practically the sole guide to

the books. Many excellent examples of such catalogues exist, in author,

subject and classified form, and some of them are admirable

contributions to bibliography. Within recent years, however, doubts have

arisen in many quarters, both in Europe and America, as to the wisdom of

printing the catalogues of general popular libraries which possess

comparatively few rare or extraordinary books. A complete catalogue of

such a library is out of date the moment it is printed, and in many

cases the cost is very great, while only a small number is sold. For

these and other reasons, modern libraries have begun to compile complete

catalogues only in MS. form, and to issue comparatively cheap

class-lists at intervals, supplemented by monthly or quarterly bulletins

or lists of recent accessions, which in combination will answer most of

the questions likely to be put to a catalogue. Various improvements in

the mechanical construction of manuscript catalogues have contributed to

popularize them, and many libraries use the card, sheaf and other

systems which allow constant and infinite intercalation coupled with

economy and ease in making additions.

The idea of using separate slips or cards for cataloguing books, in

order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision is not new,

having been applied during the French revolutionary period to the

cataloguing of libraries. More recently the system has been applied to

various commercial purposes, such as book-keeping by what is known as

the "loose-leaf ledger," and in this way greater public attention has

been directed to the possibilities of adjustable methods both in

libraries and for business. The card system is perhaps the most

generally used at present, but many improvements in the adjustable

binders, called by librarians the "sheaf system," will probably result

in this latter form becoming a serious rival. The card method consists

of a series of cards in alphabetical or other order kept on edge in

trays or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to

facilitate reference. Entries are usually made on one side of the card,

and one card serves for a single entry. The sheaf method provides for

slips of an uniform size being kept in book form in volumes capable of

being opened by means of a screw or other fastening, for the purpose of

adding or withdrawing slips. In addition to the advantage of being in

book-form the sheaf system allows both sides of a slip to be used, while

in many cases from two to twelve entries may be made on one slip. This

is a great economy and leads to considerable saving of space. A great

advantage resulting from the use of an adjustable manuscript catalogue,

in whatever form adopted, is the simplicity with which it can be kept

up-to-date. This is an advantage which in the view of many librarians

outweighs the undoubted valuable qualities of comparative safety and

multiplication of copies possessed by the printed form. There are many

different forms of both card and sheaf systems, and practically every

library now uses one or other of them for cataloguing or indexing

purposes.

One other modification in connexion with the complete printed catalogue

has been tried with success, and seems worthy of brief mention. After a

complete manuscript catalogue has been provided in sheaf form, a select

or eclectic catalogue is printed, comprising all the most important

books in the library and those that represent special subjects. This,

when supplemented by a printed list or bulletin of additions, seems to

supply every need.

The most striking tendency of the modern library movement is the great

increase in the freedom allowed to readers both in reference and lending

departments. Although access to the shelves was quite a common feature

in the older subscription libraries, and in state libraries like the

British Museum and Patent Office, it is only within comparatively recent

years that lending library borrowers were granted a similar privilege.

Most municipal reference libraries grant access to a large or small

collection of books, and at Cambridge, Birmingham and elsewhere in the

United Kingdom, the practice is of long standing. So also in the United

States, practically every library has its open shelf collection. On the

continent of Europe, however, this method is not at all general, and

books are guarded with a jealousy which in many cases must militate

against their utility. The first "safe-guarded" open access municipal

lending library was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in

1893, and since then over one hundred cities and districts of all sizes

in Britain have adopted the system. The British municipal libraries

differ considerably from those of the United States in the safeguards

against abuse which are employed, and the result is that their losses

are insignificant, whilst in America they are sometimes enormous.

Pawtucket and Cleveland in America were pioneers to some extent of the

open shelf system for lending libraries, but the methods employed had

little resemblance to the safe-guarded system of British libraries. The

main features of the British plan are: exact classification; class,

shelf and book guiding; the provision of automatic locking wickets to

regulate the entrance and exit of borrowers, and the rule that borrowers

must be registered before they can obtain admission. This last rule is

not always current in America, and in consequence abuses are liable to

take place. The great majority of British and American libraries,

whether allowing open access or not, use cards for charging or

registering books loaned to borrowers. In the United Kingdom a

considerable number of places still use indicators for this purpose,

although this mechanical method is gradually being restricted to

fiction, save in very small places.

Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both Britain

and America are courses of lectures, book exhibitions, work with

children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign residents,

travelling libraries and the education of library assistants. In many

of the recent buildings, especially in those erected from the gifts of

Mr Andrew Carnegie, special rooms for lectures and exhibitions and

children are provided. Courses of lectures in connexion with the

Liverpool and Manchester public libraries date from 1860, but during

the years 1900-1910 there was a very great extension of this work. As

a rule these courses are intended to direct attention to the

literature of the subjects treated, as represented in the libraries,

and in this way a certain amount of mutual advantage is secured. In

some districts the libraries work in association with the education

authorities, and thus it is rendered possible to keep schools supplied

with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise supervision.

This connexion between libraries and schools is much less common in

the United Kingdom than in the British colonies and the United States,

where the libraries are regarded as part of the national system of

education. Excellent work has been accomplished within recent years by

the Library Association in the training of librarians, and it is usual

for about 300 candidates to come forward annually for examination in

literary history, bibliography, classification, cataloguing, library

history and library routine for which subjects certificates and

diplomas are awarded. The profession of municipal librarian is not by

any means remunerative as compared with employment in teaching or in

the Civil Service, and until the library rate is increased there is

little hope of improvement.

The usefulness of public libraries has been greatly increased by the

work of the Library Association, founded in 1877, during the first

International Library Conference held in London in October 1877. A

charter of incorporation was granted to the association in 1898. It

holds monthly and annual meetings, publishes a journal, conducts

examinations, issues certificates, holds classes for instruction, and

has greatly helped to improve the public library law. The Library

Assistants Association (1895) publishes a journal. A second

International Library Conference was held at London in 1897, and a

third at Brussels in 1910. Library associations have been started in

most of the countries of Europe, and the American Library Association,

the largest and most important in existence, was established in 1876.

These associations are giving substantial aid in the development and

improvement of library methods and the status of librarians, and it is

certain that their influence will in time produce a more scientific

and valuable type of library than at present generally exists.

_British Colonies and India._

The majority of the British Colonies and Dependencies have permissive

library laws on lines very similar to those in force in the mother

country. There are, however, several points of difference which are

worth mention. The rate limit is not so strict in every case, and an

effort is made to bring the libraries into closer relations with the

educational machinery of each colony. There is, for example, no rate

limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may raise a library rate

equivalent to 3d. in the £, although, in both cases, owing to the

absence of large towns, the legislation existing has not been adopted.

In Africa, Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public

libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-rooms

are open to the public, and some of the legislatures are even in closer

touch with the libraries. The Canadian and Australian libraries are

administered more or less on American lines, whilst those of South

Africa, India, &c., are managed on the plan followed in England.

_Africa._

There are several important libraries in South Africa, and many small

town libraries which used to receive a government grant equal to the

subscriptions of the members, but in no case did such grants exceed £150

for any one library in one year. These grants fluctuate considerably

owing to the changes and temper of successive governments, and since the

last war they have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the

oldest libraries is the South African Public Library at Cape Town

established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege of receiving

a free copy of every publication issued in Cape Colony. This library

contains the great collection of colonial books bequeathed by Sir George

Grey. The libraries of the various legislatures are perhaps the best

supported and most important, but mention should be made of the public

libraries of Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, which published an excellent

catalogue, and the public libraries at Kimberley; Durban, Natal;

Bloemfontein, Orange River Colony; Bulawayo, Rhodesia; Johannesburg,

Transvaal; and the public and university libraries at Pretoria. None of

the libraries of North Africa are specially notable, although there are

considerable collections at Cairo and Algiers.

_Australasia._

All the public libraries, mechanics' institutes, schools of arts and

similar institutes receive aid from the government, either in the form

of grants of money or boxes of books sent from some centre. The public

library of New South Wales, Sydney (1869), which includes the Mitchell

Library of over 50,000 vols., now possesses a total of nearly 250,000

vols., and circulates books to country libraries, lighthouses and

teachers' associations to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum.

The public library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000

vols., also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which

among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually considerably

over 2½ million vols. The university library at Melbourne (1855) has

over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected with the parliament and

various learned societies are important. The public library of South

Australia, Adelaide, has about 75,000 vols., and is the centre for the

distribution of books to the institutes throughout the colony. These

institutes possess over 325,000 vols. There is a good public library at

Brisbane, Queensland, and there are a number of state-aided schools of

arts with libraries attached. The Library of Parliament in Brisbane

possesses over 40,000, and the Rockhampton School of Arts has 10,000

vols. Western Australia has a public library at Perth, which was

established in 1887, and the small town institutes are assisted as in

the other colonies.

Tasmania has several good libraries in the larger towns, but none of

them had in 1910 taken advantage of the act passed in 1867 which gives

municipalities practically unlimited powers and means as far as the

establishment and maintenance of public libraries are concerned. At

Hobart the Tasmanian Public Library (1849) is one of the most important,

with 25,000 vols.

New Zealand is well equipped with public libraries established under

acts dating from 1869 to 1877, as well as subscription, college and

government libraries. At Auckland the Free Public Library (1880) has

50,000 vols., including Sir George Grey's Australasian collection; the

Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch (1874), has 40,000 vols.; the

University of Otago Library, Dunedin (1872), 10,000 vols.; and the

public library at Wellington (1893) contains 20,000 vols.

_India and the East._

Apart from government and royal libraries, there are many college,

society, subscription and others, both English and oriental. It is

impossible to do more than name a few of the most notable. Lists of many

of the libraries in private hands including descriptions of their MS.

contents have been issued by the Indian government. At Calcutta the

Sanskrit college has 1652 printed Sanskrit volumes and 2769 Sanskrit

MSS., some as old as the 14th century; there is also a large collection

of Jain MSS. The Arabic library attached to the Arabic department of the

Madrasa was founded about 1781, and now includes 731 printed volumes,

143 original MSS. and 151 copies; the English library of the

Anglo-Persian department dates from 1854, and extends to 3254 vols. The

library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784, and now

contains 15,000 printed vols., chiefly on eastern and philological

subjects, with a valuable collection of 9500 Arabic and Persian MSS.

At Bombay the library of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,

established in 1804 as the Literary Society of Bengal, is now an

excellent general and oriental collection of 75,000 printed vols. and

MSS., described in printed catalogues. The Moolla Feroze Library was

bequeathed for public use by Moolla Feroze, head priest of the Parsis of

the Kudmi sect in 1831, and consisted chiefly of MSS., in Arabic and

Persian on history, philosophy and astronomy; some additions of English

and Gujarati works have been made, as well as of European books on

Zoroastrianism. The Native General Library (1845) has 11,000 vols., and

there are libraries attached to Elphinstone College and the university

of Bombay.

The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2000 MSS., fell into the

hands of the British, and a descriptive catalogue of them by Charles

Stewart was published at Cambridge in 1809, 4to. A few were presented to

public libraries in England, but the majority were placed in the college

of Fort William, then recently established. The first volume, containing

Persian and Hindustani poetry, of the _Catalogue of the Libraries of the

King of Oudh_, by A. Sprenger, was published at Calcutta in 1854. The

compiler shortly afterwards left the Indian service, and no measures

were taken to complete the work. On the annexation of the kingdom in

1856 the ex-king is believed to have taken some of the most valuable

MSS. to Calcutta, but the largest portion was left behind at Lucknow.

During the siege the books were used to block up windows, &c., and those

which were not destroyed were abandoned and plundered by the soldiers.

Many were burnt for fuel; a few, however, were rescued and sold by

auction, and of these some were purchased for the Asiatic Society of

Bengal.

Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja of

Tanjore, which dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th

century, when Tanjore was under the rule of the Telugu Naiks, who

collected Sanskrit MSS. written in the Telugu character. In the 18th

century the Mahrattas conquered the country, and since that date the

library increased but slowly. By far the greater portion of the store

was acquired by Sharabhoji Raja during a visit to Benares in 1820-1830;

his successor Sivaji added a few, but of inferior value. There are now

about 18,000 MSS. written in Devanagari, Nandinagari, Telugu, Kannada,

Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi or Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8000 are on

palm leaves. Dr Burnell's printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles.

The Royal Asiatic Society has branches with libraries attached in many

of the large cities of India, the Straits Settlements, Ceylon, China,

Japan, &c. At Rangoon in Burma there are several good libraries. The

Raffles Library at Singapore was established as a proprietary

institution in 1844, taken over by the government in 1874, and given

legal status by an ordinance passed in 1878. It now contains about

35,000 vols. in general literature, but books relating to the Malayan

peninsula and archipelago have been made a special feature, and since

the acquisition of the collection of J. R. Logan in 1879 the library has

become remarkably rich in this department. In Ceylon there is the Museum

Library at Colombo (1877), which is maintained by the government, and

there are many subscription and a few oriental libraries.

_Canada._

The public libraries of the various provinces of Canada have grown

rapidly in importance and activity, and, assisted as they are by

government and municipal grants, they promise to rival those of the

United States in generous equipment. Most of the library work in Canada

is on the same lines as that of the United States, and there are no

special points of difference worth mention. The library laws of the

Dominion are embodied in a series of acts dating from 1854, by which

much the same powers are conferred on local authorities as by the

legislation of Britain and the United States. An important feature of

the Canadian library law is the close association maintained between

schools and libraries, and in some provinces the school libraries are

established by the school and not the library laws. There is also an

important extension of libraries to the rural districts, so that in

every direction full provision is being made for the after-school

education and recreation of the people.

The province of Ontario has a very large and widespread library system

of which full particulars are given in the annual reports of the

minister of education. The library portion has been printed

separately, and with its illustrations and special articles forms

quite a handbook of Canadian library practice. There are now 413

public libraries described as free and not free, and of these 131 free

and 234 not free reported in 1909. The free libraries possessed

775,976 vols. and issued 2,421,049 vols. The not free libraries, most

of which receive legislative or municipal grants, possessed 502,879

vols. and issued 650,826 vols. This makes a grand total of 1,278,855

vols. in municipal and assisted subscription libraries without

counting the university and other libraries in the province. The most

important other libraries in Ontario are--Queen's University, Kingston

(1841), 40,000 vols.; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 250,000

vols.; university of Ottawa, 35,000 vols.; Legislative Library of

Ontario, Toronto, about 100,000 vols.; university of Toronto (1856),

50,000 vols. The Public (municipal) Library of Toronto has now over

152,000 vols.

In the province of Quebec, in addition to the state-aided libraries

there are several large and important libraries, among which may be

mentioned the Fraser Institute, Montreal, 40,000 vols.; McGill

University, Montreal (1855), 125,000 vols., comprising many important

collections; the Seminary of St Sulpice, Montreal, about 80,000 vols.;

Laval University, Quebec, 125,000 vols.; and the library of the

Legislature (1792), about 100,000 vols. In the western provinces

several large public, government and college libraries have been

formed, but none of them are as old and important as those in the

eastern provinces.

In Nova Scotia there are now 279 cases of books circulating among the

school libraries, containing about 40,000 vols., and in addition 2800

vols. were stocked for the use of rural school libraries. The rural

school libraries of Nova Scotia are regulated by a special law, and a

little handbook has been printed, somewhat similar to that published

by the French educational authorities for the communale libraries. The

Legislative Library at Halifax contains nearly 35,000 vols., and the

Dalhousie University (1868), in the same town, contains about 20,000

vols. The Legislative Library of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown,

containing the Dodd Library, issues books for home use. The school law

of New Brunswick provides for grants being made in aid of school

libraries by the Board of Education equal to one half the amount

raised by a district, and a series of rules has been published. The

only other British libraries in America of much consequence are those

in the West Indian Islands. The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (1879)

has about 15,000 vols.; the Trinidad Public Library (1841), recently

revised and catalogued, 23,000 vols.; and there are a few small

legislative and college libraries in addition.

AUTHORITIES.--For the history of British libraries see H. B. Adams,

_Public Libraries and Popular Education_ (Albany, N.Y., 1900); J. D.

Brown, _Guide to Librarianship_ (1909); G. F. Chambers and H. W.

Fovargue, _The Law relating to Public Libraries_ (4th ed., 1899); J.

W. Clark, _The Care of Books_ (1909); E. Edwards, _Memoirs of

Libraries_ (1859); T. Greenwood, _Edward Edwards_ (1901) and _Public

Libraries_ (4th ed., revised, 1891); J. J. Ogle, _The Free Library_

(1897); Maurice Pellisson, _Les Bibliothèques populaires à l'etranger

et en France_ (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, _The Libraries of London_

(1910); E. A. Savage, _The Story of Libraries and Book-Collectors_

(1909).

For library economy consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Economy_

(1907); F. J. Burgoyne, _Library Construction, &c._ (1897); A. L.

Champneys, _Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design_ (1907); J.

C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel, _Handbuch

der Bibliothekslehre_ (Leipzig, 1902); Albert Maire, _Manuel pratique

du bibliothécaire_ (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification

consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Classification_ (1898) and

_Subject Classification_ (1906); C. A. Cutter, _Expansive

Classification_ (1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, _Decimal

Classification_ (6th ed., 1899), and _Institut International de

Bibliographie: Classification bibliographique décimale_ (Brussels,

1905); E. C. Richardson, _Classification: Theoretical and Practical_

(1901).

Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in _Cataloguing

Rules, author and title entries, compiled by the Committees of the

American Library Association and the Library Association_ (1908); C.

A. Cutter, _Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue_ (Washington,

1904); M. Dewey, _Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues_ (1892); T.

Hitchler, _Cataloguing for Small Libraries_ (Boston, 1905); K. A.

Linderfelt, _Eclectic Card Catalog Rules_ (Boston, 1890); J. H. Quinn,

_Manual of Library Cataloguing_ (1899); E. A. Savage, _Manual of

Descriptive Annotation_ (1906); J. D. Stewart, _The Sheaf Catalogue_

(1909); H. B. Wheatley, _How to Catalogue a Library_ (1889).

_United States of America._

The libraries of the United States are remarkable for their number,

size, variety, liberal endowment and good administration. The total

number of libraries with over 1000 vols. was 5383 in 1900, including

those attached to schools and institutions, and in 1910 there were

probably at least 10,000 libraries having 1000 vols. and over. It is

impossible to do more than glance at the principal libraries and

activities, where the field is so immense, and a brief sketch of some

of the chief federal, state, university, endowed and municipal libraries

will therefore be presented.

Federal libraries.

The Library of Congress was first established in 1800 at Washington, and

was burned together with the Capitol by the British army in 1814.

President Jefferson's books were purchased to form the foundation of a

new library, which continued to increase slowly until 1851, when all but

20,000 vols. were destroyed by fire. From this time the collection has

grown rapidly, and now consists of about 1,800,000 vols. In 1866 the

library of the Smithsonian Institution, consisting of 40,000 vols.,

chiefly in natural science, was transferred to the Library of Congress.

The library is specially well provided in history, jurisprudence, the

political sciences and Americana. Since 1832 the law collections have

been constituted into a special department. This is the national

library. In 1870 the registry of copyrights was transferred to it under

the charge of the librarian of Congress, and two copies of every

publication which claims copyright are required to be deposited. Cards

for these are now printed and copies are sold to other libraries for an

annual subscription fixed according to the number taken. The building in

which the library is now housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3½ acres

of ground, contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible

accommodation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or

including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate and most

costly building in the world yet erected for library purposes. Within

recent years the appropriation has been largely increased, and the

bibliographical department has been able to publish many valuable books

on special subjects. The _A.L.A. Catalog_ (1904) and _A.L.A. Portrait

Index_ (1906), may be mentioned as of especial value. The classification

of the library is being gradually completed, and in every respect this

is the most active government library in existence.

Other important federal libraries are those attached to the following

departments at Washington: Bureau of Education (1868); Geological Survey

(1882); House of Representatives; Patent Office (1836); Senate (1868);

Surgeon General's Office (1870), with an elaborate analytical printed

catalogue of world-wide fame.

State libraries.

Although the state libraries of Pennsylvania and New Hampshire are known

to have been established as early as 1777, it was not until some time

after the revolution that any general tendency was shown to form

official libraries in connexion with the state system. It is especially

within the last thirty years that the number of these libraries has so

increased that now every state and territory possesses a collection of

books and documents for official and public purposes. These collections

depend for their increase upon annual appropriations by the several

states, and upon a systematic exchange of the official publications of

the general government and of the several states and territories. The

largest is that of the state of New York at Albany, which contains

nearly 500,000 vols., and is composed of a general and a law library.

Printed and MS. card catalogues have been issued. The state libraries

are libraries of reference, and only members of the official classes are

allowed to borrow books, although any well-behaved person is admitted to

read in the libraries.

University libraries.

The earliest libraries formed were in connexion with educational

institutions, and the oldest is that of Harvard (1638). It was destroyed

by fire in 1764, but active steps were at once taken for its

restoration. From that time to the present, private donations have been

the great resource of the library. In 1840 the collection was removed to

Gore Hall, erected for the purpose with a noble bequest from Christopher

Gore (1758-1829), formerly governor of Massachusetts. There are also ten

special libraries connected with the different departments of the

university. The total numbers of vols. in all these collections is over

800,000. There is a MS. card-catalogue in two parts, by authors and

subjects, which is accessible to the readers. The only condition of

admission to use the books in Gore Hall is respectability; but only

members of the university and privileged persons may borrow books. The

library of Yale College, New Haven, was founded in 1701, but grew so

slowly that, even with the 1000 vols. received from Bishop Berkeley in

1733, it had only increased to 4000 vols. in 1766, and some of these

were lost in the revolutionary war. During the 19th century the

collection grew more speedily, and now the library numbers over 550,000

vols.

Other important university and college libraries are Amherst College,

Mass. (1821), 93,000 vols.; Brown University, R.I. (1767), 156,000

vols.; Columbia University, N.Y. (1763), 430,000 vols.; Cornell

University, N.Y. (1868), 355,000 vols.; Dartmouth College, N.H.

(1769), 106,000 vols.; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (1876),

220,000 vols.; Lehigh University, Pa. (1877), 150,000 vols.; Leland

Stanford University, Cal. (1891), 113,000 vols.; Princeton University,

N.J. (1746), 260,000 vols.; University of California (1868), 240,000

vols.; University of Chicago, Ill. (1892), 480,000 vols.; University

of Michigan (1837), 252,000 vols.; University of Pennsylvania (1749),

285,000 vols. There are numerous other college libraries, several of

them even larger than some of those named above.

Subscription and Endowed Libraries.

The establishment of proprietary or subscription libraries runs back

into the first half of the 18th century, and is connected with the name

of Benjamin Franklin. It was at Philadelphia, in the year 1731, that he

set on foot what he called "his first project of a public nature, that

for a subscription library.... The institution soon manifested its

ability, was imitated by other towns and in other provinces." The

Library Company of Philadelphia was soon regularly incorporated, and

gradually drew to itself other collections of books, including the

Loganian Library, which was vested in the company by the state

legislature in 1792 in trust for public use. Hence the collection

combines the character of a public and of a proprietary library, being

freely open for reference purposes, while the books circulate only among

the subscribing members. It numbers at present 226,000 vols., of which

11,000 belong to the Loganian Library, and may be freely lent. In 1869

Dr James Rush left a bequest of over one million dollars for the purpose

of erecting a building to be called the Ridgeway branch of the library.

The building is very handsome, and has been very highly spoken of as a

library structure. Philadelphia has another large proprietary

library--that of the Mercantile Library Company, which was established

in 1821. It possesses 200,000 vols., and its members have always enjoyed

direct access to the shelves. The library of the Boston Athenaeum was

established in 1807, and numbers 235,000 vols. It has published an

admirable dictionary-catalogue. The collection is especially rich in art

and in history, and possesses a part of the library of George

Washington. The Mercantile Library Association of New York, which was

founded in 1820, has over 240,000 vols. New York possesses two other

large proprietary libraries, one of which claims to have been formed as

early as 1700 as the "public" library of New York. It was organized as

the New York Society Library in 1754, and has been especially the

library of the old Knickerbocker families and their descendants, its

contents bearing witness to its history. It contains about 100,000 vols.

The Apprentices' Library (1820) has about 100,000 vols., and makes a

special feature of works on trades and useful arts.

The Astor Library in New York was founded by a bequest of John Jacob

Astor, whose example was followed successively by his son and grandson.

The library was opened to the public in 1854, and consists of a careful

selection of the most valuable books upon all subjects. It is a library

of reference, for which purpose it is freely open, and books are not

lent out. It is "a working library for studious persons." The Lenox

Library was established by James Lenox in 1870, when a body of trustees

was incorporated by an act of the legislature. In addition to the funds

intended for the library building and endowment, amounting to

$1,247,000, the private collection of books which Mr Lenox had long been

accumulating is extremely valuable. Though it does not rank high in

point of mere numbers, it is exceedingly rich in early books on America,

in Bibles, in Shakesperiana and in Elizabethan poetry. Both those

libraries are now merged in the New York Public Library. The Peabody

Institute at Baltimore was established by George Peabody in 1857, and

contains a reference library open to all comers. The institute has an

endowment of $1,000,000, which, however, has to support, besides the

library, a conservatoire of music, an art gallery, and courses of

popular lectures. It has a very fine printed dictionary catalogue and

now contains nearly 200,000 vols. In the same city is the Enoch Pratt

Free Library (1882) with 257,000 vols. In the city of Chicago are two

very important endowed libraries, the Newberry Library (1887) with over

200,000 vols., and the John Crerar Library (1894), with 235,000 vols.

Both of these are reference libraries of great value, and the John

Crerar Library specializes in science, for which purpose its founder

left $3,000,000.

It will be sufficient to name a few of the other endowed libraries to

give an idea of the large number of donors who have given money to

libraries. Silas Bronson (Waterbury), Annie T. Howard (New Orleans),

Joshua Bates (Boston), Charles E. Forbes (Northampton, Mass.),

Mortimer F. Reynolds (Rochester, N.Y.), Leonard Case (Cleveland), I.

Osterhout (Wilkes-Barré, Pa.), and above all Andrew Carnegie, whose

library benefactions exceed $53,000,000.

It remains to mention another group of proprietary and society

libraries.

Since the organization of the government in 1789, no less than one

hundred and sixty historical societies have been formed in the United

States, most of which still continue to exist. Many of them have

formed considerable libraries, and possess extensive and valuable

manuscript collections. The oldest of them is the Massachusetts

Historical Society, which dates from 1791.

The earliest of the scientific societies, the American Philosophical

Society (1743), has 73,000 vols. The most extensive collection is that

of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which consists of

80,000 vols. and pamphlets. For information as to the numerous

professional libraries of the United States--theological, legal and

medical--the reader may be referred to the authorities quoted below.

Municipal Libraries.

In no country has the movement for the development of municipal

libraries made such progress as in the United States; these institutions

called free or public as the case may be are distinguished for their

work, enterprise and the liberality with which they are supported. They

are established under laws passed by the different states, the first to

pass such an enactment being Massachusetts, which in 1848 empowered the

city of Boston to establish a free public library. This was subsequently

extended to the whole state in 1851. Other states followed, all with

more or less variation in the provisions, till practically every state

in the Union now has a body of library laws. In general the American

library law is much on the same lines as the English. In most states the

acts are permissive. In New Hampshire aid is granted by the state to any

library for which a township contracts to make a definite annual

appropriation. A limit is imposed in most states on the library tax

which may be levied, although there are some, like Massachusetts and New

Hampshire, which fix no limit. In every American town the amount derived

from the library tax usually exceeds by double or more the same rate

raised in Britain in towns of similar size. For example, East Orange,

N.J., with a population of 35,000, expends £2400, while Dumfries in

Scotland, with 23,000 pop. expends £500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop.,

expenditure £26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure

£8200, is another example. In the smaller towns the difference is not so

marked, but generally the average American municipal library income is

considerably in excess of the British one. Many American municipal

libraries have also endowments which add to their incomes.

American Library Administration.

In one respect the American libraries differ from those of the United

Kingdom. They are usually managed by a small committee or body of

trustees, about five or more in number, who administer the library

independent of the city council. This is akin to the practice in

Scotland, although there, the committees are larger. In addition to the

legislation authorizing town libraries to be established, thirty-two

states have formed state library commissions. These are small bodies of

three or five trained persons appointed by the different states which,

acting on behalf of the state, encourage the formation of local

libraries, particularly in towns and villages, and in many cases have

authority to aid their establishment by the grant out of the state

funds of a certain sum (usually $100) towards the purchase of books,

upon the appropriation of a similar sum by the local authorities. These

commissions are prepared to aid further with select lists of desirable

books, and with suggestions or advice in the problems of construction

and maintenance. Such commissions are in existence in Alabama,

California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois,

Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,

North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee,

Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin.

The reports and other documents issued by some of these commissioners

are very interesting and valuable, especially as regards the light they

throw on the working of the travelling libraries in country districts.

These to some extent are a revival of the "itinerating" library idea of

Samuel Brown of Haddington in Scotland, who from 1817 to 1836 carried on

a system of travelling subscription libraries in that country. At the

time of his death there were 3850 vols. in 47 libraries. The American

travelling libraries, often under state supervision, are well organized

and numerous, and the books are circulated free. New York was the

pioneer in this movement which now extends to most of the states which

have established library commissions. There are also town travelling

libraries and deposit stations in addition to branches, so that every

effort is made to bring people in outlying districts into touch with

books.

The municipal libraries of the United States work in conjunction with

the schools, and it is generally considered that they are part of the

educational machinery of the country. In the case of New York the state

libraries have been put under the control of the university of the state

of New York, which also inaugurated the travelling libraries. Work with

the schools and children generally is more cultivated in the libraries

of the United States than elsewhere. In some cases the libraries send

collections of books to the schools; in others provision is made for

children's reading-rooms and lending departments at the library

buildings. At Cleveland (Ohio), Pittsburg (Pa.), New York and many other

places, elaborate arrangements are in force for the convenience and

amusement of children. There is a special school, the Carnegie Library

training school for children's librarians, at Pittsburg, and within

recent years the instruction has included the art of telling stories to

children at the libraries. This "story-hour" idea has been the cause of

considerable discussion in the United States, librarians and teachers

being divided in opinion as to the value of the service. The chief

factors in children's work in American libraries, often overlooked by

critics, are the number of non-English reading adults and the large

number of children of foreign origin. The adults do not use the

libraries to any large extent, but the children, who learn English at

the schools, are brought into close touch with the juvenile departments

of the libraries. In this way many libraries are obliged to undertake

special work for children, and as a rule it is performed in a sane,

practical and economical manner. The preponderance of women librarians

and their natural sentimental regard for children has tended to make

this work loom rather largely in some quarters, but with these

exceptions the activity on behalf of children is justified on many

grounds. But above all, it is manifest that a rapidly growing nation,

finding homes for thousands of foreigners and their children annually,

must use every means of rapidly educating their new citizens, and the

public library is one of the most efficient and ready ways of

accomplishing this great national object.

With regard to methods, the American libraries are working on much the

same plan as those of the United Kingdom. They allow access to the

shelves more universally, and there is much more standardization in

classification and other internal matters. The provision of books is

more profuse, although there is, on the whole, more reading done in the

United Kingdom. The largest municipal library system in America, and

also in the world, is that of New York City, which, after struggling

with a series of Free Circulating Libraries, blossomed out in 1895 into

the series of combinations which resulted in the present great

establishment. In that year, the Astor and Lenox libraries (see above)

were taken over by the city, and in addition, $2,000,000 was given by

one of the heirs of Mr S. J. Tilden, who had bequeathed about $4,000,000

for library purposes in New York but whose will had been upset in the

law courts. In 1901 Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about £1,500,000 for the

purpose of providing 65 branches, and these are now nearly all erected.

A very fine central library building has been erected, and when the

organization is completed there will be no system of municipal libraries

to equal that of New York. It possesses about 1,400,000 vols. in the

consolidated libraries. Brooklyn, although forming part of Greater New

York, has an independent library system, and possesses about 560,000,

vols. distributed among 26 branches and including the old Brooklyn

Library which has been absorbed in the municipal library system. At

Boston (Mass.) is one of the most renowned public libraries in the

United States, and also the oldest established by act of legislature. It

was first opened to the public in 1854, and is now housed in a very

magnificently decorated building which was completed in 1895. The

central library contains many fine special collections, and there are 28

branch and numerous school libraries in connexion. It possesses about

1,000,000 vols. altogether, its annual circulation is about 1,500,000

vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly £70,000.

Other notable municipal libraries are those of Philadelphia (1891),

Chicago (1872), Los Angeles (Cal.), 1872, Indianapolis (1868), Detroit

(1865), Minneapolis (1885), St Louis (1865), Newark, N.J. (1889),

Cincinnati (1856), Cleveland (1869), Allegheny (1890), Pittsburg

(1895), Providence, R.I. (1878), Milwaukee (1875), Washington, D.C.

(1898), Worcester, Mass. (1859), Buffalo (1837).

AUTHORITIES.--_The Annual Library Index_ (New York, 1908)--contains a

select list of libraries in the United States; Arthur E. Bostwick,

_The American Public Library_, illust. (New York, 1910)--the most

comprehensive general book; Bureau of Education, _Statistics of Public

Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (1893)--this has been

succeeded by a list of "Public, Society and School Libraries,"

reprinted at irregular intervals from the Report of the Commissioner

of Education and giving a list of libraries containing over 5000 vols.

with various other particulars; Clegg, _International Directory of

Booksellers_ (1910) and earlier issues--contains a list of American

libraries with brief particulars; John C. Dana, _A Library Primer_

(Chicago, 1910)--the standard manual of American library practice;

_Directory of Libraries in the United States and Canada_ (6th ed.;

Minneapolis, 1908)--a brief list of 4500 libraries, with indication of

the annual income of each; Wm. I. Fletcher, _Public Libraries in

America_ (2nd ed., Boston, 1899), illust.; T. W. Koch, _Portfolio of

Carnegie Libraries_ (1908); Cornelia Marvin, _Small Library Buildings_

(Boston, 1908); A. R. Spofford, _A Book for all Readers ... the

Formation of Public and Private Libraries_ (1905).

_France._

French libraries (other than those in private hands) belong either to

the state, to the departments, to the communes, or to learned societies,

educational establishments and other public institutions; the libraries

of judicial or administrative bodies are not considered to be owned by

them, but to be state property. Besides the unrivalled library

accommodation of the capital, France possesses a remarkable assemblage

of provincial libraries. The communal and school libraries also form

striking features of the French free library system. Taking as a basis

for comparison the _Tableau statistique des bibliothèques publiques_

(1857), there were at that date 340 departmental libraries with a total

of 3,734,260 vols., and 44,436 MSS. In 1908 the number of volumes in all

the public libraries; communal, university, learned societies,

educational and departmental, was more than 20,060,148 vols., 93,986

MSS. and 15,530 incunabula. Paris alone now possesses over 10,570,000

printed vols., 147,543 MSS., 5000 incunabula, 609,439 maps and plans,

2,000,000 prints (designs and reproductions).

Paris.

The Bibliothèque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries in the

world) has had an advantage over others in the length of time during

which its contents have been accumulating, and in the great zeal shown

for it by several kings and other eminent men. Enthusiastic writers find

the original of this library in the MS. collections of Charlemagne and

Charles the Bald, but these were dispersed in course of time, and the

few precious relics of them which the national library now possesses

have been acquired at a much later date. Of the library which St Louis

formed in the 13th century (in imitation of what he had seen in the

East) nothing has fallen into the possession of the Bibliothèque

Nationale, but much has remained of the royal collections made by kings

of the later dynasties. The real foundation of the institution (formerly

known as the Bibliothèque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of

King John, the Black Prince's captive, who had a considerable taste for

books, and bequeathed his "royal library" of MSS. to his successor

Charles V. Charles V. organized his library in a very effective manner,

removing it from the Palais de la Cité to the Louvre, where it was

arranged on desks in a large hall of three storeys, and placed under the

management of the first librarian and cataloguer, Claude Mallet, the

king's valet-de-chambre. His catalogue was a mere shelf-list, entitled

_Inventaire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au chastel du

Louvre_; it is still extant, as well as the further inventories made by

Jean Blanchet in 1380, and by Jean le Bègue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V.

was very liberal in his patronage of literature, and many of the early

monuments of the French language are due to his having employed Nicholas

Oresme, Ràoul de Presle and other scholars to make translations from

ancient texts. Charles VI. added some hundreds of MSS. to the royal

library, which, however, was sold to the regent, duke of Bedford, after

a valuation had been established by the inventory of 1424. The regent

transferred it to England, and it was finally dispersed at his death in

1435. Charles VII. and Louis XI. did little to repair the loss of the

precious Louvre library, but the news of the invention of printing

served as a stimulus to the creation of another one, of which the first

librarian was Laurent Paulmier. The famous miniaturist, Jean Foucquet of

Tours, was named the king's _enlumineur_, and although Louis XI.

neglected to avail himself of many precious opportunities that occurred

in his reign, still the new library developed gradually with the help of

confiscation. Charles VIII. enriched it with many fine MSS. executed by

his order, and also with most of the books that had formed the library

of the kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII., on coming

to the throne, incorporated the Bibliothèque du Roi with the fine

Orleans library at Blois, which he had inherited. The Blois library,

thus augmented, and further enriched by plunder from the palaces of

Pavia, and by the purchase of the famous Gruthuyse collection, was

described at the time as one of the four marvels of France. Francis I.

removed it to Fontainebleau in 1534, enlarged by the addition of his

private library. He was the first to set the fashion of fine artistic

bindings, which was still more cultivated by Henry II., and which has

never died out in France. During the librarianship of Amyot (the

translator of Plutarch) the library was transferred from Fontainebleau

to Paris, not without the loss of several books coveted by powerful

thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the Collége de Clermont, but in 1604

another change was made, and in 1622 it was installed in the Rue de la

Harpe. Under the librarianship of J. A. de Thou it acquired the library

of Catherine de' Medici, and the glorious Bible of Charles the Bald. In

1617 a decree was passed that two copies of every new publication should

be deposited in the library, but this was not rigidly enforced till

Louis XIV.'s time. The first catalogue worthy of the name was finished

in 1622, and contains a description of some 6000 vols., chiefly MSS.

Many additions were made during Louis XIII.'s reign, notably that of the

Dupuy collection, but a new era dawned for the Bibliothèque du Roi under

the patronage of Louis XIV. The enlightened activity of Colbert, one of

the greatest of collectors, so enriched the library that it became

necessary for want of space to make another removal. It was therefore in

1666 installed in the Rue Vivien (now Vivienne) not far from its present

habitat. The departments of engravings and medals were now created, and

before long rose to nearly equal importance with that of books.

Marolles's prints, Foucquet's books, and many from the Mazarin library

were added to the collection, and, in short, the Bibliothèque du Roi

had its future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clément made a

catalogue in 1684 according to an arrangement which has been followed

ever since (that is, in twenty-three classes, each one designated by a

letter of the alphabet), with an alphabetical index to it. After

Colbert's death Louvois emulated his predecessor's labours, and employed

Mabillon, Thevenot and others to procure fresh accessions from all parts

of the world. A new catalogue was compiled in 1688 in 8 vols, by several

distinguished scholars. The Abbé Louvois, the minister's son, became

head of the library in 1691, and opened it to all students--a privilege

which although soon withdrawn was afterwards restored. Towards the end

of Louis XIV.'s reign it contained over 70,000 vols. Under the

management of the Abbé Bignon numerous additions were made in all

departments, and the library was removed to its present home in the Rue

Richelieu. Among the more important acquisitions were 6000 MSS. from the

private library of the Colbert family, Bishop Huet's forfeited

collection, and a large number of Oriental books imported by

missionaries from the farther East, and by special agents from the

Levant. Between 1739 and 1753 a catalogue in 11 vols, was printed, which

enabled the administration to discover and to sell its duplicates. In

Louis XVI.'s reign the sale of the La Vallière library furnished a

valuable increase both in MSS. and printed books. A few years before the

Revolution broke out the latter department contained over 300,000 vols,

and opuscules. The Revolution was serviceable to the library, now called

the Bibliothèque Nationale, by increasing it with the forfeited

collections of the _émigrés_, as well as of the suppressed religious

communities. In the midst of the difficulties of placing and cataloguing

these numerous acquisitions, the name of Van Praet appears as an

administrator of the first order. Napoleon increased the amount of the

government grant; and by the strict enforcement of the law concerning

new publications, as well as by the acquisition of several special

collections, the Bibliothèque made considerable progress during his

reign towards realizing his idea that it should be universal in

character. At the beginning of last century the recorded numbers were

250,000 printed vols., 83,000 MSS., and 1,500,000 engravings. After

Napoleon's downfall the MSS. which he had transferred from Berlin,

Hanover, Florence, Venice, Rome, the Hague and other places had to be

returned to their proper owners. The MacCarthy sale in 1817 brought a

rich store of MSS. and incunabula. From that time onwards to the

present, under the enlightened administration of MM. Taschereau and

Delisle and Marcel, the accessions have been very extensive.

According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Bibliothèque

Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (1) Département des Imprimés:

more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000 in 28,000 vols. (2)

Département des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS. thus divided: Greek 4960,

Latin 21,544, French 44,913, Oriental and miscellaneous 38,583. (3)

Département des Estampes: 1,000,000 pieces. (4) Département des

Médailles: 207,096 pieces.

Admittance to the "salle de travail" is obtained through a card

procured from the secretarial office; the "salle publique" contains

344 places for readers, who are able to consult more than 50,000 vols.

of books of reference. Great improvements have lately been introduced

into the service. A "salle de lecture publique" is free to all readers

and is much used. New buildings are in process of construction. The

slip catalogue bound in volumes dates from 1882 and gives a list of

all accessions since that date; it is divided into two parts, one for

the names of authors and the other for subjects. There is not yet, as

at the British Museum, an alphabetical catalogue of all the printed

works and kept up by periodical supplements, but since 1897 a

_Catalogue général des livres imprimés_ has been begun. In 1909 the

38th vol. containing letters A to Delp had appeared. Some volumes are

published each year, but the earlier volumes only contain a selection

of the books; this inconvenience has now been remedied. Among the

other catalogues published by the Printed Book Department, the

following may be mentioned: _Répertoire alphabétique des livres mis à

la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de travail_ (1896, 8vo),

_Liste des périodiques français et étrangers mis à la disposition des

lecteurs_ (1907, 4to, autogr.), _Liste des périodiques étrangers_ (new

ed., 1896, 8vo) and _Supplement_ (1902, 8vo), _Bulletin des récentes

publications françaises_ (from 1882, 8vo), _Catalogue des

dissertations et écrits académiques provenant des échanges avec les

universités étrangères_ (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive

catalogues apart from those of the 18th century are: _Catalogue de

l'histoire de France_ (1885-1889, 4to, 11 vols.); _Table des auteurs,_

par P. Marchal (1895, 4to), with the following autographed

supplements: _Histoire locale_ (1880); _Histoire généalogique et

biographies_ (1884); _Moeurs et coutumes, archéologie_ (1885);

_Histoire maritime et militaire_ (1894); _Histoire constitutionnelle_

(1895); _Sciences médicales_ (1857-1889, 3 vols., 4to); _Histoire de

la Grande-Bretagne_ (1875-1878, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Espagne et du

Portugal_ (1883, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Asie_ (1894); _Histoire de

l'Afrique_ (1895, autogr.); _Histoire de l'Amérique_, par G. Barringer

(1903-1908, autogr.); _Factums et autres documents judiciaires

antérieurs à 1790_, par Corda et A. Trudon des Ormes (1890-1907, 8

vols., 8vo); _Catalogue général des incunables des bibliothèques

publiques de France_, par M. Pellechet et L. Polain, t. i.-iii.

(1897-1909, 8vo); _Livres d'heures imprimés au XV^e siècle conservés

dans les bibliothèques publiques de Paris_, par P. Lacombe (1907,

8vo), &c. In the Geographical section there is L. Vallée's _Catalogue

des cartes et plans relatifs à Paris et aux environs de Paris_ (1908,

8vo). The following should be mentioned: _Bibliographie générale des

travaux historiques et archéologiques publiés par les sociétés

savantes de la France_, par R. de Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d'E.

Lefèvre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot, A. Vidier, t. i.-vi. (1885-1908, 4to).

The scientific division of this work (in two parts) is by Deniker. The

printed catalogues and the autographed and manuscript lists of the

Département des Manuscrits are very numerous and greatly facilitate

research. For the French there are: H. Omont, _Catalogue général des

manuscrits français_ (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo); H. Omont, _Nouvelles

acquisitions_ (continuation of the same catalogue, 1899-1900, 3 vols.

8vo); H. Omont, _Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliothèque Nationale_

(1908-1909, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Coyecque, _Inventaire de la Collection

Anisson sur l'histoire de l'imprimerie et de la librairie_ (1900, 2

vols. 8vo). Without repeating the catalogues mentioned in the tenth

edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, it is yet necessary to

mention the following: _Catalogue de la collection Baluze_;

_Inventaire des sceaux de la collection Clairambault_; _Catalogue de

la collection des cinq-cents et des mélanges Colbert_; _Catalogue des

collections Duchesne et de Bréquigny_; those of the Dupuy, Joly de

Fleury, and Moreau collections, and that of provincial history, &c.

For the Greek collection the most important catalogues have been made

by H. Omont, the present Keeper of the Manuscripts, and these are:

_Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs_ (1886-1898, 4 vols. 8vo);

_Catalogus codicum hagiographicorum graecorum_ (1896, 8vo);

_Facsimilés des plus anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du

IX^e au XIV^e siècle_ (1891, fol.); as well as _Description des

peintures et autres ornements contenus dans les MSS. latins_, par H.

Bordier (1883, 4to). The lists of the Latin MSS. are: _Inventaire des

manuscrits latins et nouvelles acquisitions jusqu'en 1874_ (1863-1874,

7 pts. 8vo) and _Manuscrits latins et français ajoutés aux fonds des

nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881_ (1891, 2 vols. 8vo), by M. Delisle;

M. Omont published _Nouvelles Acquisitions du département des

manuscrits_ (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo), and B. Haureau, _Notices et

extraits de quelques manuscrits latins_ (1890-1893, 6 vols. 8vo). The

principal modern catalogues of the oriental collection are: B. de

Slane, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, avec supplément_ (1883-1895, 4to);

E. Blochet, _Catalogue des MSS. arabes, persans, et turcs de la

collection Schefer_ (1900); E. Blochet, _Inventaire des MSS. arabes de

la collection Decourtemanche_ (1906); F. Macler, _Catalogue des MSS.

arméniens et géorgiens_ (1908). For other oriental languages the

following catalogues have been compiled: _MSS. birmans et cambodgiens_

(1879); _MSS. chinois, coréens et japonais_ (1900-1907); _MSS. coptes_

(1906); _MSS. éthiopiens_ (1859-1877); _MSS. hébreux et samaritains_

(1867-1903); MSS. _indo-chinois_ (in the press); _MSS.

malayo-polynésiens_ (in the press); _MSS. mazdéens_ (1900); _MSS.

mexicains_ (1899); _MSS. persans_, t. i. (1905); _MSS. sanscrits et

pâlis_ (1899, 1907-1908); _MSS. siamois_ (1887); _MSS. syriaques et

sabéens_ (1874-1896); _MSS. thibétains_ (in the press), &c. The

catalogues of manuscripts in modern languages are nearly all

completed. The Départements des Médailles et des Estampes possess

excellent catalogues, and the following should be mentioned: E.

Babelon, _Catalogue des monnaies grecques_ (1890-1893); E. Babelon,

_Inventaire sommaire de la collection Waddington_ (1898); _Médailles

fausses recueillies_, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et Chabouillet,

_Catalogue des monnaies gauloises_ (1889-1892); Prou, _Catalogue des

monnaies françaises_ (1892-1896); H. de la Tour, _Catalogue de la

collection Rouyer, 1^(re) partie_ (1899); _Catalogues des monnaies et

médailles d'Alsace_ (1902); _Cat. des monnaies de l'Amérique du Nord_

(1861); _Cat. des monnaies musulmanes_ (1887-1891); _Cat. des plombs_

(1900); _Cat. des bronzes antiques_ (1889); _Cat. des camées antiques

et modernes_ (1897-1899); _Cat. des vases peints_ (1902-1904, 2

vols.). In the Département des Estampes the following should be

mentioned: F. Courboin, _Catalogue sommaire des gravures et

lithographies de la Réserve_ (1900-1901); Duplessis, _Cat. des

portraits français et étrangers_ (1896-1907, 6 vols.); H. Bouchot,

_Les Portraits au crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siècles_ (1884); _Cat.

des dessins relatifs à l'histoire du théâtre_ (1896); F. Courboin,

_Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives à

l'histoire générale de l'art_ (1895, 2 vols.), &c.

The Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal was founded by the marquis de Paulmy

(Antoine-René d'Argenson) in the 18th century; it received in 1786

80,000 vols. from the duc de La Vallière. Before its confiscation as

national property it had belonged to the comte d'Artois, who had bought

it from the marquis de Paulmy in his lifetime. It contains at the

present time about 600,000 vols., 10,000 manuscripts, 120,000 prints and

the Bastille collection (2500 portfolios) of which the inventory is

complete; it is the richest library for the literary history of France

and has more than 30,000 theatrical pieces.

_L'Inventaire des manuscrits_ was made by H. Martin (1885-1899, t.

i.-viii.); the other catalogues and lists are: _Extrait du catalogue

des journaux conservés à la Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal_ ("Bulletin des

biblioth. et des archives" t. i.); _Archives de la Bastille_, par F.

Funck-Brentano (1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); _Notice sur les dépôts

littéraires_ par J. B. Labiche (1880, 8vo); _Catalogue des estampes,

dessins et cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliothèque

de l'Arsenal_, par G. Schefer (1894-1905, 8 pts. 8vo).

The Bibliothèque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal, who

confided the direction to Gabriel Naudé; it was open to the public in

1642, and was transferred to Rue de Richelieu in 1648. Dispersed during

the Fronde in the lifetime of Mazarin, it was reconstituted after the

death of the cardinal in 1661, when it contained 40,000 vols. which were

left to the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which in 1691 made it again

public. It now has 250,000 vols.; with excellent manuscript catalogues.

The catalogues of incunabula and manuscripts are printed: P. Marais et

A. Dufresne de Saint-Léon, _Catalogue des incunables de la

bibliothèque Mazarine_ (1893, 8vo); _Supplément, additions et

corrections_ (1898, 4 vols. 8vo); _Catalogue des MSS._, par A.

Molinier (1885-1892, 4 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS.

grecs_, par H. Omont.

The first library of the Genovéfains had nearly disappeared owing to bad

administration when Cardinal François de la Rochefoucauld, who had

charge of the reformation of that religious order, constituted in 1642 a

new library with his own books. The Bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève in 1716

possessed 45,000 vols.; important gifts were made by Letellier in 1791,

and the duc d'Orléans increased it still more. It became national

property in 1791, and was called the Bibliothèque du Panthéon and added

to the Lycée Henri IV. under the empire. In 1908 the library contained

350,000 printed vols., 1225 incunabula, 3510 manuscripts, 10,000 prints

(including 7357 portraits and 3000 maps and plans).

The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poirée et Lamoureux,

_Catalogue abrégé de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève_ (1891, 8vo); 3

supplements (1890-1896, 1897-1899, 1900-1902); _Catalogue des

incunables de la bibliothèque Ste-Geneviève, rédigé par Daunou_,

publié par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo); _Catalogue général des MSS._, par

Ch. Kohler (1894-1896, 2 vols. 8vo); _Inventaire sommaire des MSS.

grecs_, par H. Omont; _Notices sur quelques MSS. normands_, par E.

Deville (1904-1906, 10 pts. 8vo), &c.

The Bibliothèque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808 by Daunou,

contains 30,000 vols. on sciences auxiliary to history. It is only

accessible to the officials.

It would be impossible to describe all the official, municipal and

academic libraries of Paris more or less open to the public, which are

about 200 in number, and in the following survey we deal only with

those having 10,000 vols. and over.

The Bibliothèque du Ministère des affaires étrangères was founded by

the marquis de Torcy, minister for foreign affairs under Louis XIV.;

it contains 80,000 vols. and is for official use only. The

Bibliothèque du Ministère de l'Agriculture dates from 1882 and has

only 4000 vols. At the Ministry for the Colonies the library (of

10,000 vols.) dates from 1897; the catalogue was published in 1905;

the library of the Colonial office is attached to this ministry;

suppressed in 1896, it was re-established in 1899, and now contains

6000 vols., 7400 periodicals and 5000 photographs; it is open to the

public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliothèque du Ministère du

commerce et de l'industrie; the Bibliothèque du Ministère des finances

was burnt at the Commune, but has been reconstituted and now contains

35,000 vols.; connected with it are the libraries of the following

offices: Contributions directes, Contributions indirectes,

Enregistrement et inspection des finances; the contents of these four

libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliothèque du Ministère

de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000 vols. and 800

MSS. and an income of 20,000 francs; the catalogues are _Bibliothèque

du dépôt de la guerre: Catalogue_ (1883-1890); _Suppléments_

(1893-1896); _Catalogue des MSS._, par J. Lemoine (1910). The

following libraries are connected with this department: Comité de

santé (10,000 vols.), École supérieure de guerre (70,000 vols.),

Comité technique de l'artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du

Ministère de l'Intérieur was founded in 1793 and has 80,000 vols. The

Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Justice possesses 10,000 vols., and

L'Imprimerie Nationale which is connected with it has a further 19,000

vols. There are also the following law libraries: Cour d'appel

(12,000 vols.); Ordre des avocats, dating from 1871 (56,000 vols.,

with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Bibliothèque des avocats

de la cour de Cassation (20,000 vols.); that of the Cour de Cassation

(40,000 vols.). The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Marine is of old

formation (catalogue 1838-1843); it contains 100,000 vols, and 356

MSS.; the catalogue of manuscripts was compiled in 1907. The

Bibliothèque du service hydrographique de la Marine has 65,000 vols,

and 250 MSS. The Ministère des Travaux publics possesses 12,000 vols.,

and the Sous-Secrétariat des postes et télégraphes a further 30,000

vols. The Bibliothèque de la Chambre des députés (1796) possesses

250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS. (_Catalogue des manuscrits_, by E.

Coyecque et H. Debray, 1907; _Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence,

d'économie politique, de finances, et d'administration_, 1883). The

Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818) contains 150,000 vols, and 1343 MSS. The

Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État has 30,000 vols. All these libraries

are only accessible to officials except by special permission.

The Bibliothèque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in

1871, but Jules Cousin reconstituted it in 1872; it possesses 400,000

vols., 3500 MSS. and 14,000 prints; the principal printed catalogues

are _Catalogue des imprimés de la Réserve_ by M. Poète (1910),

_Catalogue des manuscrits_, by F. Bournon (1893); a _Bulletin_ has

been issued periodically since 1906. The Bibliothèque administrative

de la préfecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French

(40,000 vols.) and foreign (22,000 vols.); it is only accessible to

officials and to persons having a card of introduction; the catalogues

are printed.

The other libraries connected with the city of Paris are that of the

Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Bibliothèques Municipales

Populaires, 82 in number with a total of 590,000 books; those of the

22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Préfecture de police (10,000 vols.),

the Bibliothèque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five

Écoles municipales supérieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional

schools (14,200 vols.).

The libraries of the university and the institutions dealing with

higher education in Paris are well organized and their catalogues

generally printed.

The Bibliothèque de l'Université, although at present grouped as a

system in four sections in different places, historically considered

is the library of the Sorbonne. This was founded in 1762 by Montempuis

and only included the faculties of Arts and Theology. It changed its

name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliothèque du Prytanée, in

1808 Bibliothèque des Quatre Lycées and in 1812 Bibliothèque de

l'Université de France. The sections into which the Bibliothèque de

l'Université is now divided are: (1) Facultés de Sciences et des

Lettres à la Sorbonne, (2) Faculté de Médecine, (3) Faculté de droit,

(4) École supérieure de pharmacie. Before the separation of Church and

State there was a fifth section, that of Protestant theology. After

the Bibliothèque nationale it is the richest in special collections,

and above all as regards classical philology, archaeology, French and

foreign literature and literary criticism, just as the library of the

Faculté des Sciences et des Lettres is notable for philosophy,

mathematics and chemico-physical sciences. The great development which

has taken place during the last thirty years, especially under the

administration of M. J. de Chantepie du Dézert, its installation since

1897 in the buildings of the New Sorbonne, have made it a library of

the very first rank. The reading-room only seats about 300 persons.

The average attendance per day is 1200, the number of books consulted

varies from 1500 to 3000 vols. a day, and the loans amount to 14,000

vols. per year. The store-rooms, although they contain more than 1200

mètres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are

insufficient for the annual accessions, which reach nearly 10,000

vols. by purchase and presentation. Amongst the latter the most

important are the bequests of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, Derenbourg and

Beljame; the last-named bequeathed more than 3000 vols., including an

important Shakespearean library. The first section contains more than

550,000 vols., 2800 periodicals which include over 70,000 vols., 320

incunabula, 2106 MSS., more than 2000 maps and plans and some prints.

The alphabetical catalogues are kept up day by day on slips. The

classified catalogues were in 1910 almost ready for printing, and some

had already been published: Périodiques (1905); Cartulaires (1907);

_Mélanges jubilaires et publications commémoratives_ (1908);

_Inventaires des MSS._, by E. Chatelain (1892); _Incunables_, by E.

Chatelain (1902); and _Supplément, Réserve de la bibliothèque_

1401-1540, by Ch. Beaulieux (1909); _Nouvelles acquisitions_

(1905-1908); _Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnés à

l'Université de Paris_ (1907), _Catalogue collectif des bibliothèques

universitaires_ by Fécamp (1898-1901). For French thèses, of which the

library possesses a rich collection, the catalogues are as follows:

Mourier et Deltour, _Catalogue des thèses de lettres_ (1809, &c.); A.

Maire, _Répertoire des thèses de lettres_ (1809-1900); A. Maire,

_Catalogue des thèses de sciences_ (1809-1890) with _Supplément_ to

1900 by Estanave; _Catalogue des thèses publié par le Ministère de

l'Instruction publique_ (1882, &c.).

At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of A. Dumont and V.

Cousin (15,000 vols.), and those of the laboratories, of which the

richest is the geological (30,000 specimens and books). The section

relating to medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the

Faculté de Médecine, includes 180,000 vols, and 88 MSS. (catalogue

1910). The Bibliothèque de la faculté de droit dates from 1772 and

contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, l'École supérieure

de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains 50,000 vols.

The other libraries connected with higher education include that of

the École des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, 14,000

drawings). The library of the École normale supérieure (1794),

established in the Rue d'Ulm in 1846, has received legacies from

Verdet (1867), Caboche (1887), Lerambert-Whitcomb (1890), and a

portion of Cuvier's library; the system of classification in use is

practically the same as that of the Sorbonne, being devised by

Philippe Lebas (librarian of the Sorbonne) about 1845; there are

200,000 vols. The library of the Muséum d'histoire naturelle dates

from the 18th century, and contains 220,000 vols., 2000 MSS., 8000

original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliothèque de

l'Office et Musée de l'Instruction publique (formerly Musée

pédagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was

founded the Bibliothèque de l'Institut de France, which is very rich;

its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (400,000

vols., numerous and scarce; valuable MSS., especially modern ones).

The following may be briefly mentioned: Conservatoire national de

musique (1775), which receives everything published in France relating

to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliothèque du théâtre de l'Opéra

(25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic library of

12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints); the Théâtre français (40,000 vols.);

the Académie de médecine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols. of periodicals,

5000 portraits), l'Observatoire (18,400 vols.); the Bureau des

Longitudes (15,000 vols. and 850 MSS.). The scholastic libraries are:

L'École centrale des arts et manufactures (16,000 vols.); l'École

coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1,'Êcole d'application du service de santé

militaire (23,000 vols.); l'École d'application du génie maritime

(14,000 vols.); l'École libre des sciences politiques (25,000 vols.,

250 periodicals); l'École normale d'instituteurs de la Seine (10,000

vols.); l'École normale israélite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.); l'École

nationale des ponts-et-chausées (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000

photographs); Bibliothèque de l'Institut catholique (160,000 vols.);

l'Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Faculté libre de

théologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et

métiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliothèque polonaise,

administered by the Académie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols.,

30,000 prints); Séminaire des Missions étrangères (25,000 vols.);

l'Association Valentin Haüy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in

relief) which lends out 40,000 books per annum; l'Association générale

des Étudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows reference on the

premises to books by students; Bibliothèque de la Chambre de Commerce

(40,000 vols.), the catalogues of which were printed in 1879, 1889 and

1902; the Société nationale d'agriculture (20,000 vols.); the Société

d'anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the Société asiatique (12,000 vols.,

200 MSS.); the Société chimique de France (10,000 vols.), the

catalogue of which was published in 1907; the Société de chirurgie,

dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.); the Société entomologique (30,000

vols.); the Société de géographie founded 1821 (60,000 vols., 6000

maps, 22,000 photographs, 2200 portraits, 80 MSS. of which the

catalogue was printed in 1901); the Société géologique de France

(15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals); the Société de

l'histoire du protestantisme français, founded in 1852 (50,000 vols.,

1000 MSS.; income 25,000 frs.); the Société d'encouragement pour

l'industrie nationale (50,000 vols., income 8000 frs.); the Société

des Ingénieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894); the

Société de legislation comparée (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets); and

lastly the Bibliothèque de la Société de Statistique de Paris, founded

in 1860 (60,000 vols., with a printed catalogue).

Before the Revolution there were in Paris alone 1100 libraries

containing altogether 2,000,000 vols. After the suppression of the

religious orders the libraries were confiscated, and in 1791 more than

800,000 vols, were seized in 162 religious houses and transferred to

eight literary foundations in accordance with a decree of November 14,

1789. In the provinces 6,000,000 vols. were seized and transferred to

local depositories. The organization of the central libraries under the

decree of 3 Brumaire An IV. (October 25, 1795) came to nothing, but the

consular edict of January 28, 1803 gave definitive organization to the

books in the local depositories. From that time the library system was

reconstituted, alike in Paris and the provinces. Unfortunately many

precious books and MSS. were burnt, since by the decree of 4 Brumaire An

II. (October 25, 1793) the Committee of Instruction ordered, on the

proposition of its president the deputy Romme, the destruction or

modification of books and objects of art, under the pretext that they

recalled the outward signs of feudalism.

Libraries of the Departments.

The books in the provincial libraries, not including those in private

hands or belonging to societies, number over 9,200,000 vols., 15,540

incunabula and 93,986 MSS. The number in the colonies and protected

states outside France is uncertain, but it extends to more than 200,000

vols.; to this number must be added the 2,428,954 vols. contained in

the university libraries. There are over 300 departmental libraries, and

as many belong to learned societies. The increase in the provincial

libraries is slower than that of the Parisian collections. With the

exception of 26 libraries connected specially with the state, the others

are municipal and are administered under state control by municipal

librarians. The original foundation of most of the libraries dates but a

short time before the Revolution, but there are a few exceptions. Thus

the Bibliothèque d'Angers owes its first collection to Alain de la Rue

about 1376; it now contains 72,485 vols., 134 incunabula and 2039 MSS.

That of Bourges dates from 1466 (36,856 vols., 325 incunabula, 741

MSS.). The library of Carpentras was established by Michel Anglici

between 1452 and 1474 (50,000 vols., 2154 MSS.). Mathieu de la Porte is

said to be the founder of the library at Clermont-Ferrand at the end of

the 15th century; it contained rather more than 49,000 vols. at the time

of its union with the Bibliothèque Universitaire.

Amongst the libraries which date from the 16th century must be

mentioned that at Lyons founded by François I. in 1527; it possesses

113,168 vols., 870 incunabula and 5243 MSS. That of the Palais des

Arts has 82,079 vols., 64 incunabula and 311 MSS.

In the 17th century were established the following libraries:

Abbeville, by Charles Sanson in 1685 (46,929 vols., 42 incunabula, 342

MSS.); Besançon by Abbé Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000 incunabula,

2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire réformé de la Rochelle established

a library which possesses to-day 58,900 vols., 14 incunabula, 1715

MSS. St Étienne, founded by Cardinal de Villeroi, has 50,000 vols., 8

incunabula, 343 MSS.

The principal libraries founded during the 18th century are the

following: Aix-en-Provence, established by Tournon and Méjane in 1705

(160,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 1351 MSS.); Bordeaux, 1738 (200,000

vols., 3491 MSS.); Chambéry, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 incunabula, 155

MSS.); Dijon, 1701, founded by P. Fevret (125,000 vols., 211

incunabula, 1669 MSS.); Grenoble, 1772 (260,772 vols., 635 incunabula,

2485 MSS.); Marseilles, 1799 (111,672 vols., 143 incunabula, 1691

MSS.); Nancy, founded in 1750 by Stanislas (126,149 vols., 205

incunabula, 1695 MSS.); Nantes, 1753 (103,328 vols., 140 incunabula,

2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abbé Massa (55,000 vols., 300

incunabula, 150 MSS.); Nîmes, founded by J. T. de Séguier in 1778

(80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.); Niort, by Jean de Dieu and R.

Bion in 1771 (49,413 vols., 67 incunabula, 189 MSS.); Perpignan, by

Maréchal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200 vols., 80 incunabula, 127 MSS.);

Rennes, 1733 (110,000 vols., 116 incunabula, 602 MSS., income 8950

frs.); Toulouse, by archbishop of Brienne in 1782 (213,000 vols., 859

incunabula, 1020 MSS.).

Nearly all the other municipal libraries date from the Revolution, or

rather from the period of the redistribution of the books in 1803. The

following municipal libraries possess more than 100,000 vols.: Avignon

(135,000 vols., 698 incunabula, 4152 MSS.), of which the first

collection was the legacy of Calvet in 1810; Caen (122,000 vols., 109

incunabula, 665 MSS.); Montpellier (130,300 vols., 40 incunabula, 251

MSS.); Rouen (140,000 vols., 400 incunabula, 4000 MSS.); Tours

(123,000 vols., 451 incunabula, 1999 MSS.); Versailles (161,000 vols.,

436 incunabula, 1213 MSS.).

The following towns have libraries with more than 50,000 volumes:

Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Hâvre, Lille, le Mans,

Orléans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun.

The catalogues of the greater part of the municipal libraries are

printed. Especially valuable is the _Catalogues des MSS. des

bibliothèques de Paris et des Départements_, which began to appear in

1885; the MSS. of Paris fill 18 octavo volumes, and those of the

provinces 50.

The libraries of the provincial universities, thanks to their

reorganization in 1882 and to the care exhibited by the general

inspectors, are greatly augmented. Aix has 74,658 vols.; Alger

160,489; Besançon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont

173,000; Dijon 117,524; Grenoble 127,400; Lille 215,427; Lyons

425,624; Marseilles 53,763; Montpellier 210,938; Nancy 139,036;

Poitiers 180,000; Rennes 166,427; Toulouse 232,000.

Since 1882 the educational libraries have largely developed; in 1877

they were 17,764 in number; in 1907 they were 44,021, containing

7,757,917 vols. The purely scholastic libraries have decreased; in

1902 there were 2674 libraries with 1,034,132 vols., whilst after the

reorganization (Circulaire of March 14, 1904) there were only 1131

with 573,279 vols. The Société Franklin pour la propagation des

bibliothèques populaires et militaires distributed among the libraries

which it controls 55,185 vols., between the years 1900 and 1909.

AUTHORITIES.--Information has been given for this account by M. Albert

Maire, librarian at the Sorbonne. See also the following

works:--_Bibliothèque Nationale:_ I. _Bâtiments, collections,

organisation, département des estampes, département des médailles et

antiques_, par Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. _Le

Département des imprimés et la section de géographie. Le Département

des manuscrits_, par Paul Marchal et Camille Couderc (Paris, 1907, 2

vols); Félix Chambon, _Notes sur la bibliothèque de l'Université de

Paris de 1763 à 1905_ (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, _La Bibliothèque des

hôpitaux de Paris_ (Revue des bibliothèques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred

Franklin, _Guide des savants, des littérateurs et des artistes dans

les bibliothèques de Paris_ (Paris, 1908); _Instruction du 7 Mars 1899

sur l'organisation des bibliothèques militaires_ (Paris, 1899); Henri

Jadart, _Les Anciennes bibliothèques de Reims, leur sort en 1790-1791

et la formation de la bibliothèque publique_ (Reims, 1891); Henry

Marcel, _Rapport adressé au Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, sur

l'ensemble des services de la bibliothèque nationale en 1905_ (Journal

Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, _Histoire de la bibliothèque de

l'Arsenal_ (Paris, 1899); E. Morel, _Le Développement des

bibliothèques publiques_ (Paris, 1909); Théod. Mortreuil, _La

Bibliothèque nationale, son origine et ses accroissements; notice

historique_ (Paris, 1878); Abbé L. V. Pécheur, _Histoire des

bibliothèques publiques du département de l'Aisne existant à Soissons,

Laon et Saint-Quentin_ (Soissons, 1884); M. Poète, E. Beaurepaire and

E. Clouzot, _Une visite à la bibliothèque de la ville de Paris_

(Paris, 1907); E. de Saint-Albin, _Les Bibliothèques municipales de la

ville de Paris_ (Paris, 1896); B. Subercaze, _Les Bibliothèques

populaires, scolaires et pédagogiques_ (Paris, 1892).

_Germany_ (_with Austria-Hungary and Switzerland_).

Germany.

Germany is emphatically the home of large libraries; her former want of

political unity and consequent multiplicity of capitals have had the

effect of giving her many large state libraries, and the number of her

universities has tended to multiply considerable collections; 1617

libraries were registered by P. Schwenke in 1891. As to the conditions,

hours of opening, &c., of 200 of the most important of them, there is a

yearly statement in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken_, published

by the Verein deutscher Bibliothekare.

The public libraries of the German empire are of four distinct types:

state libraries, university libraries, town libraries and popular

libraries. The administration and financial affairs of the state and

university libraries are under state control. The earlier distinction

between these two classes has become less and less marked. Thus the

university libraries are no longer restricted to professors and

students, but they are widely used by scientific workers, and books are

borrowed extensively, especially in Prussia. In Prussia, as a link

between the state and the libraries, there has been since 1907 a special

office which deals with library matters at the Ministry of Public

Instruction. Generally the state does not concern itself with the town

libraries and the popular libraries, but there is much in common between

these two classes. Sometimes popular libraries are under the supervision

of a scientifically administered town library as in Berlin, Dantzig,

&c.; elsewhere, as at Magdeburg, we see an ancient foundation take up

the obligations of a public library. Only in Prussia and Bavaria are

regulations in force as to the professional education of librarians.

Since 1904 the librarians of the Prussian state libraries have been

obliged to complete their university courses and take up their

doctorate, after which they have to work two years in a library as

volunteers and then undergo a technical examination. The secretarial

officials since 1909 have to reach a certain educational standard and

must pass an examination. This regulation has been in force as regards

librarians in Bavaria from 1905.

Berlin.