movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once
only. Thus in _don't_,[64] the stopping of the passage for [n] also
does duty for [t]; it is the opening of the passage which constitutes
the [t]. In _stamp_ the closure for [m] also does duty for [p]. In
_witness_ the closure for [t] remains for [n], which merely requires
the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords.
Utter the word _clean_, and observe whether you produce the [k] in
the same way as in _keen_; probably you will find that for the [k] of
_clean_ you open the closure only at the sides, leaving the centre of
the tongue in contact, ready for the production of [l]. See whether
anything similar happens when you say the word _atlas_.
Sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced, or a
voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless. Examples in
the nursery rime are [bəːdzz̥] and [beikt]; find similar examples of
the _s_ of the plural[65] and the _ed_ of the past participle, and
determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless.
Try to find pairs like _lagged_ and _lacked_, _bids_ and _bits_.
Utter the words _apt_, _act_, and notice carefully when you make the
closure for [t]; probably it is earlier than you would have thought. Do
you make the [n] closure in _open_ before or after the [p] opening?
In compound words, and in neighbouring words which belong closely
together, assimilation is common. When one word ends in a voiceless
sound and the other begins with a voiced sound, or _vice versa_, it
is usually the second which prevails. Observe _cupboard_ [kʌbəd],
_raspberry_ [rɑːzbəri], _blackguard_ [blægɑːd], _bedtime_ [betaim],
_hold tight_ [houltait].
Consider the pronunciation of _observe_, _obstacle_, _gooseberry_,
_absolve_, _absolute_.
In careless speech [hɔːʃu] is heard for [hɔːsʃu], [lædbru grouv] does
duty for _Ladbroke Grove_, and [həsijn] for _has seen_. _Is she_ is
regularly pronounced [iʒ ʃi], or [iʃi] in quick conversation.
The nasals frequently change to suit the place of articulation of
the _following_ sound, as in _congress_ [kɔŋres], _congregation_
[kɔŋri´geiʃən], _anchor_, _concave_, _conclusion_, _concourse_,
_concrete_, _syncope_, _tranquil_, _unctuous_, _pincushion_ [piŋkuʃən],
_infamous_ [imfəməs], _Holland Park_ [hɔləmpɑːk]; or of the _preceding_
sound, as in _second single_ [sekŋsiŋgəl], _captain_ [kæpm̩], _open the
door_ [oupm̩ ðə dɔː], _cup and saucer_ [kʌpm̩sɔːsə]. The examples from
_pincushion_ onwards occur only in distinctly careless speech.
The change of [s] to [z] in _house_, _houses_ [haus, hauziz], shows a
different kind of assimilation.
=50.= The dropping of _d_ in _four-and-twenty_ might also be due to
the desire to =simplify a group of consonants=; and this will seem the
more likely explanation if we notice that the _d_ of _and_ is generally
dropped before a consonant, but kept before a vowel. Compare _you and
Ida_, _bread and butter_; if you drop the _d_ in the first instance,
or utter it in the second, you are equally wrong. Such simplifying is
fairly common in educated speech; most people drop the _t_ in _often_,
and the _p_ in _empty_ (where it has no etymological justification),
and _jumped_; in colloquial speech _don't know_ is [dʌnou]. In quite
careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words as
_acts_, _insects_, but this is clearly a licence which cannot be
permitted in the class-room. Indeed these groups of consonants should
be articulated with great care. Nothing so quickly gives an effect
of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants, where it is not
generally adopted.
* * * * *
In ordinary speech numerous instances occur of this tendency to
simplify groups of consonants, _d_ and _t_ being the sounds most
frequently dropped.
_d_ is not pronounced in _handkerchief_ [hæŋkətʃif], _handsome_
[hænsəm], _Windsor_ [winzə], _Guildford_ [gilfəˑd], _Ingoldsby_
[iŋgəlzbi], _Wednesday_ [wenzdi].[66]
The _d_ in _friends_, _grandfather_ is also often dropped;
and, in very careless speech, the _d_ of such words as _old_,
_cold_, _child_, _thousand_, _kindness_, _landlord_.
_t_ is not pronounced in _christen_ [krisən], _glisten_
[glisən], _hasten_ [heisən], _listen_ [lisən], _moisten_
[mɔisən], _apostle_ [ə´pɔsəl], _bustle_ [bʌsəl], _castle_
[kɑːsəl], _epistle_ [i´pisəl], _gristle_ [grisəl], _hustle_
[hʌsəl], _ostler_ [ɔslə], _pestle_ [pesəl], _rustle_ [rʌsəl],
_thistle_ [θisəl], _trestle_ [tresəl], _whistle_ [wisəl],
_wrestle_ [resəl], *_Westbourne_ [wesbən], *_Westminster_
[wesminstə], _Christmas_ [krisməs], _chestnut_ [tʃesnət],
_coastguard_ [kousgɑːd], _often_ [ɔːfən], _soften_ [sɔːfən],
_mortgage_ [mɔːgidʒ], *_directly_ [di´rekli], *_exactly_
[i´gzækli], _postpone_ [pous´poun], _waistcoat_ [weiskət,
weskət], _bankruptcy_ [bæŋkrəpsi].
In very careless speech the _t_ of such words as _slept_,
_swept_, _wept_ is dropped; also in _acts_, _facts_, _insects_,
_sects_.
Notice the French _rosbif_, _bifteck_.
_th_ is not pronounced in _asthma_ [æsmə], _isthmus_ [isməs]
and (carelessly) in _depths_.
_p_ is not pronounced in _empty_ [emti], _jumped_ [dʒʌmt],
_tempt_ [temt], _attempt_ [ə´temt], _contempt_ [kən´temt],
_peremptory_ [pər´emtəri], _symptom_ [simtəm],[67] _sapphire_
[sæfaiə], _Sappho_ [sæfou].
_c_ is not pronounced in _corpuscle_ [kɔː´pʌsəl], _muscle_
[mʌsəl], _victuals_ [vitl̩z], _indict_ [in´dait].[68]
So many educated speakers say [ɑːst] for _asked_, that this
pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect.
What is the usual pronunciation of _next station_?
In careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are
avoided, as also such pronunciations as [ail dʒʌssij] for _I'll just
see_, [difikl̩ kwestʃn̩z] for _difficult questions_. The omission of
[k] in the pronunciation of _arctic_ and _antarctic_ and of [g] in
_recognise_ is generally regarded as faulty.
* * * * *
Unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are
simplified by dropping the first sound; notice the simplification of
_bd_ in _bdellium_;
_chth_ in _chthonian_;
_gn_ in _gnaw_, _gneiss_, _gnome_, _gnostic_;
_gz (x)_ in _Xerxes_ [zəːksijz], _Xenophon_;
_kn_ in _knee_, _knit_, _know_, etc.;
_mn_ in _mnemonic_;
_phth_ in _phthisis_ [θaisis], also [taisis];
_pn_ in _pneumatic_, _pneumonia_;
_ps_ in _psalm_, _pseudo-_, _Psyche_, _psychic_ [saikik],
_psychology_, etc.;
_pt_ in _ptarmigan_, _Ptolemy_;
_sw_ becomes _s_ in _sword_ (observe also _answer_);
_wr_ in _wreck_, _write_, etc.
Similarly, an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified,
usually by dropping the last sound; notice--
_ln_ in _kiln_ (some do not drop this _n_);
_mb_ in _bomb_, _catacomb_, _climb_, _comb_, _dumb_, _hecatomb_,
_lamb_, _limb_, _plumber_, _succumb_, _tomb_;
_mn_ in _autumn_, _column_, _condemn_, _contemn_, _hymn_,
_limn_, _solemn_.
(The opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech, where [vɑːmint] is
said for _vermin_, [draund] for _drown_.)
* * * * *
Observe _drachm_ [dræm], _yacht_ [jɔt], _impugn_ [im´pjuwn],
_physiognomy_ [fizi´ɔnəmi], _diaphragm_ [daiəfræm], _paradigm_
[pærədaim], _phlegm_ [flem], _sign_ [sain], _feign_, _reign_,
_foreign_, _benign_.
=51.= In [rai] we have a diphthong. It is worth noting that the English
diphthongs [ai, au, ɔi, ei, ou], etc., all have the =stress= on the
former element.
* * * * *
_Blackbirds_ and _black birds_: in the spelling we distinguish these
by writing the first as one word, the second as two. What difference
is there in the sounds? If you listen carefully, you will find that
the second vowel in the compound word is just a little shorter than
in _birds_ standing alone, and that in _blackbirds_ the opening of the
closure for [k] is not heard, while in _black birds_ it may be audible.
The chief difference, however, lies in the =stress of the compound
word=. _Blackbirds_ is an example of descending stress [>], _black
birds_ is pronounced with level stress [=], perhaps with ascending
stress [<].
Take the following compound words or groups, and classify them
according to their stress:--
_Sixpence_, _rainbow_, _good morning_, _looking glass_, _moonshine_,
_bravo!_, _twenty-four_, _twenty-four men_, _High Street_, _London
Road_, _waterspout_, _right of way_, _undo_, _Mr Jones_, _Park Lane_,
_season ticket_, _sunflower_, _Hongkong_, _steel pen_, _Chinese_,
_hallo!_ _bill of fare_, _earthquake_, _sea wall_, _Bond Street_,
_Grosvenor Square_, _fourteen_, _Hyde Park_.
Try to deduce some rules from these examples. It has been said that
level stress contrasts, and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by
the compound words; do you agree with this?
Notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the German; he will
utter _steel pen_, _Hyde Park_, etc., with descending stress. Do so
yourself, and observe how strange it sounds.
Notice the difference in stress of
Substantive or Adjective Verb
_absent_ _to absent_
_accent_ _to accent_
_consort_ _to consort_
_converse_ _to converse_
_desert_ _to desert_
_prefix_ _to prefix_
_present_ _to present_
Substantive Verb
_proceeds_ _to proceed_
_produce_ _to produce_
_project_ _to project_
_protest_ _to protest_
_rebel_ _to rebel_
_record_ _to record_
_refuse_ _to refuse_
Substantive Adjective
_compact_ _compact_
_instinct_ _instinct_
_minute_ _minute_
Some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second
syllable according to their place in the sentence. Consider the accent
of the italicised words in the following sentences: They sat _outside_.
An _outside_ passenger. Among the _Chinese_. A _Chinese_ lantern.
His age is _fifteen_. I have _fifteen_ shillings. Some fell by the
_wayside_. A _wayside_ inn. Try to find a rule governing these cases.
The stresses in a sentence are considered in § 54.
* * * * *
_When_ would be pronounced as voiceless [ʍ] by some, hardly by a
southern English nurse saying the rime (§ 46). Notice how the tongue
moves forward as the [n] passes over into the [ð] in _when the_.
_Was_ is in the weak form because it is quite unstressed; but notice:
[wɛːə ju riːəli ðɛːə? j_e_s, ai wɔz].
=52.= In _opened_, observe carefully how the consonants are
articulated, and put their action down in writing.
How many syllables are there in _opened_, _bubbles_, _chasms_,
_mittens_?
Probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this
question, but if asked to describe =a syllable= you might hesitate, for
it is not easy.
Utter [ɑ] and then [t]; which carries farther, which has greater
fulness of sound or sonority? If you wished to attract the attention
of some one, and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds,
you would prefer [ɑ] without hesitation. Why is [ɑ] more sonorous than
[t]? Because, whereas [t] is only a brief noise, in [ɑ] the current
of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords,
and has a free passage through the wide open mouth. Indeed [ɑ] is the
most sonorous of all sounds. It is clear that voiced sounds are more
sonorous than voiceless, vowels than consonants, continuants than
stops. The liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in
point of sonority; they are voiced and with either a fair passage
through the mouth or a free passage through the nose. A good deal
naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds; a whispered
[ɑ] may not carry so far as a forcible [s].
Now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds
that do not carry far, it helps them to be heard; notice how such
weakly sonorous sounds as [t] or [p] occurring in the words of a song
are quite clearly heard at the other end of a large concert hall. They
are carried along by the full sounding vowels, as the greater volume of
air employed causes more pressure, and hence a more forcible and louder
release. It is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable,
which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone, or beside other
vowels of practically equal sonority. In English, the syllable is
generally carried by vowels; sometimes also by liquids and nasals,
which are then called =syllabic=.[69]
Rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars, and
are required for writing and printing; but they do not always represent
the actual state of things. When a consonant comes between two vowels,
it really belongs to both syllables. In _leaving_ we pronounce neither
_lea-ving_ nor _leav-ing_.
From the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of
words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority. We
may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines; if we connect their
top ends, we shall obtain a curve. Thus the word _sonority_ might be
represented as follows (no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy).
[Illustration:
^
|
^ | ^
/ | \/|\ /|\ ^
| | | | | | | |
s o n o r i t y]
The curves will represent a series of waves; and each of these waves is
a syllable.
* * * * *
_Began_: notice the quality of the vowel in the first, unstressed
syllable of this word. It is higher than any real _e_ sound, and
is very laxly articulated. It occurs also in _before_, _enough_,
_inquire_; find other words in which it occurs. Is it the same sound as
the second vowel in _lily_?
_To sing_: read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say
[tə] or [tu]; get friends to read it, and find out what they say.
_When you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular
sound, do not tell him what this sound is, or he may pronounce it not
naturally, but in what he believes, or has been told, is "the correct
pronunciation."_
Try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences: _What are you
going to do to-morrow morning?_ _I'm going to answer letters._
_Wasn't that_: _was_ is here in the strong form (§ 47); are weak forms
found at the beginning of a sentence? Notice the syllabic [n]; also the
simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of [t]. What
is the weak form of _that_? When is it used?
The remaining words present nothing of special interest.
=53.= We may now consider the =stress of the sentence=. For this
purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each
syllable, generally speaking a vowel. We may distinguish stress and
absence of stress, which we can designate by the signs / and ×; extra
strong stress will be //, and secondary stress \. The first line of
Sing a Song of Sixpence, will then run:--
// × / × // \
Here "sing" and "six" have the strongest stress; "song" has ordinary
stress.
Secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed,
but has not the chief stress; thus the stresses in _energetic_ may be
written \ × / ×.
The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:--
// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × \ × // \
// \ × //
// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × / × // × /
× // × / × //
Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for
yourself, without looking at the book.
_Accept no statements without verifying them._
=53A.= It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the
poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘,
taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short."
Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the
more accurate and the more convenient.
=53B.= It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make
a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all
in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly?
for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your
pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where
you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath
are called a _breath group_. After considering several passages from
this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some
extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your
friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.
=54.= We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably
followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds
[´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70] You use more force for the
stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more
breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you
say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath
as the stressed syllable is uttered.
We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking,
we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a
sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that
English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this
equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about the
stress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?
=55.= Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of
accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by
changing the _pitch_ of the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly
varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have
acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider
whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very
great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call
it a "sing-song."
In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes
considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a
skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly
stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.
Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is
the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower
the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words
as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a
question is being asked. Say: _You are going out_ and _You are going
out?_ Try to say _Are you going out?_ with the same falling pitch as
in _You are going out_, and observe the strange effect. Determine the
changes of pitch in such questions as: _Is your brother tall or short?_
_Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?_ Notice that joy
or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.
Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and
rise during the utterance of a single vowel. Say _No_ in a doubtful, a
questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch.
If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, /
for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.
=56.= We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as
it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the
ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the
conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils
actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they
produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in
the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with
any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty
tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained
in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number
without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect
every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be
recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.
No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with
which most individuals speak English under different circumstances.
In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are
often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care,
much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence
of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are
usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which
makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly
careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant,
carry far, and have good staying power.
=57.= A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it
depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of
the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as
excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution
often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any
criticisms which your friends make about your voice.
The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and
college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must
carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large
hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will
not produce their best effect. _The chief requirement is not loudness,
but distinctness._ He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary
conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be
less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed
vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous
sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords
vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce
them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most
clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more
tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech;
and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him
to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well
forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from
the teacher of elocution.
However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it
will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying
power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be
constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve
the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints
have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot
be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning
to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in
that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching,
and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also
been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to
interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep
the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue
position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the
mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be
regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."
It is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public
speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When
they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be
pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student
is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The
same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it
arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.
FOOTNOTES:
[61] These forms are found, for instance, at the beginning of
questions; thus _have you been there?_ is [həv ju bijn ðɛə]. They are
also found after vowels, e.g., _I had done so_, [ai həd dʌn sou].
[62] See the note on p. 72.
[63] When contrasted with _inhale_, this word is also pronounced
[eksheil].
[64] The change in the quality of the vowel is interesting; possibly
_don't_ preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in _do_.
[65] Strictly speaking the _s_ of the plural was always voiced in the
older language, and it is in _cats_, _tips_ that we have assimilation.
[66] The first _d_ is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word.
[67] It should, however, be noted that in passing from [m] to [t] there
is a transitional sound or "glide" which has the value of a faint [p].
[68] The _c_ in _victuals_ and _indict_ has no etymological
justification, as may be seen from the middle English spelling
(_vitaille_, _endite_).