a little higher than for [ɛ], are "middle" [_e_] and "close" [e].
The vowel in _pen_, _get_, _fell_ is usually the middle [_e_]; some
speakers (perhaps mostly ladies) use the close [e] here, but the very
close [e], heard in French _été_, is not found in standard English.
For ordinary purposes the sign [e] may serve to designate both [e] and
[_e_], as they are so closely connected. When unstressed, the [e] gives
place to [ə]; thus unstressed _them_ is [ðəm]. Notice that _'em_ really
goes back to the old form _hem_.
For [e] see the diagram on p. 122.
Observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce _get_ as [git].
* * * * *
A fairly close [e] is in standard English the first element of the
diphthong in _laid_, _tame_, _late_, etc. There is not one uniform
vowel sound in these words; pronounce _aid_ quite slowly, and you
will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached.
The diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it, short before a
voiceless sound. Thus _laid_ [leid] is longer than _late_ [leit]. Test
this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong, and
pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them. What
is the quantity of the [ei] when the diphthong is final?
* * * * *
In vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to [ɑ],
sometimes almost to [ɔ].
Listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of English words containing this
diphthong; what do you notice?
The vowel in _says_ and _said_ is short [sez, sed], as also in _ate_
[et]. The pronunciation of _-ain_ as [ein] in such words as _fountain_,
_captain_, _bargain_, is a pedantic affectation.
How do you pronounce _villain_, _curtain_?
=42.= Two front vowels remain to be considered, the _i_ sounds. Say
_bid_ and _bead_. You recognise that one is longer than the other; are
they otherwise the same? Say _bid_ and repeat it with the same vowel
drawn out; then say _bead_, and repeat it with the vowel shortened. If
you are careful in each case to change only the length, and not the
quality of the vowel, you will perceive that the vowels in _bid_ and in
_bead_ are different.
* * * * *
The vowel in _bid_ is laxly articulated and is known as the open [ɪ].
In unstressed syllables (see § 38) it is often very open indeed, and
when it is final, as in _very_, the tongue is raised very little
higher than for close or even middle _e_. The sign for this sound is
[e˔] or [ɪ˕]. (Here ˔ means more close, ˕ more open.) Can you hear any
difference between the two vowels of _lily_?
The great phonetician Ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the _i_
in _six_ is the touchstone of foreigners, especially of those belonging
to the Romance nations; they usually articulate it too tensely. Ask a
Frenchman to say _fini_, and compare his sounds with those in _finny_.
Notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of _-y_ as [_e_i], _e.g._, in
windy [wind_e_i].
Often [ə] is substituted for this sound, as in _unity_, _ability_,
pronounced [juwnəti, ə´biləti], also in _April_, _visible_; but this is
avoided by some speakers.
The [i] in the diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi], as in _buy_, _boy_, is very
low.
* * * * *
In _bead_ we have not a single vowel, but a kind of diphthong. If
you utter it slowly, you will find that the tongue does not remain
in a uniform position, but rises a little towards the end, the sound
becoming closer. It may begin close, in which case the further rising
reduces the passage so much that we have [j]; _bead_ in this case
is [bijd]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close
position; then _bead_ is [bɪid].[48] When the diphthong is followed by
a voiceless sound, it is shortened; _beat_ [bijt] [bɪit] is shorter
than _bead_. Compare also _seed_, _seat_, _sit_; _feed_, _feet_, _fit_.
Careful speakers pronounce _been_ like _bean_, not like _bin_; most
speakers, however, use the shortened form in ordinary speech.
For [i] see the diagram on p. 122.
In _dear_, _fear_, etc., we have a rather open vowel, of varying
length, followed by [ɔ]; we may write [diə], but strictly it is [dɪə,
dIˑə] and sometimes [dIːə]. Before [r], as in _dearest_, the [ə]
becomes faint or disappears. Standard English contains no [i] as close
as the French [i] and the German [iː]. Convince yourself of this by
asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds, in their
own language or in English.
Notice the frequent pronunciation of _ear_, _year_, as [jəː], and that
of _dear_ as [djəː].
* * * * *
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [i] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English.
close i (diagram, p. 122)
\
open ɪ
\
close e (diagram, p. 122)
\
middle _e_
\
open ɛ (diagram, p. 123)
\
more open æ
\
clear a (diagram, p. 123)
\
ɑ (diagram, p. 125)
It will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds, from
[ɑ] to [i] and _vice versa_, and long as well as short.
The raising of the tongue for the [i] sounds is best seen if the upper
and lower teeth are kept well apart.
=43. The back vowels.=--When the front vowels have been carefully
differentiated, the back vowels will be found to present little
difficulty. Owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not
admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue, the
number of sounds in the series [ɑ] to [u] is smaller than in the series
[ɑ] to [i].
You will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the
two series. Thus we had a lax [æ] and a tense [ɛː] in the front vowels;
and there are corresponding open _o_ sounds when the tongue is raised a
little at the back.
The articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the
lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently, the teeth being hardly
separated. The back vowels gain in quality (cp. § 36) if they are
produced with lip rounding. The opening is large in the case of the
sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised; as it rises higher,
the opening of the lips grows smaller, until for [u] it is only the
size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil. This lip rounding is rare
with southern English speakers who have not had special voice training;
they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding.
* * * * *
The short vowel sound in _not_, _what_, etc., is a laxly articulated,
open [ɔ], much more open than any _o_ in French or German, with the
front of the tongue even lower than for [ɑ]. It is lengthened a little
before a voiced final consonant, as in _dog_ [dɔg]; but it should never
be made quite long. The pronunciation [gɔːd] for _God_ is detestable.
Before _ss_ [s], _st_ [st], _sp_ [sp], _th_ [θ], and _f_, _ff_, or
_ph_ [f], the long sound is occasionally heard. Determine whether in
the following words you use the long or the short sound: _loss, ost_,
_froth_, _cross_, _cough_, _soft_, _coffee_, _off_, _officer_, _cloth_,
_moss_, _gospel_. Extend the inquiry to your friends.
When the short [ɔ] is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears
entirely (as in _lesson_, where the [n] is syllabic, see § 24), or
it may become [ə], as in _minor_ [mainə], or it may become the sound
[ö], which will be explained in § 44. Thus _October_ is [ɔk´toubə] or
[ök´toubə]; _connect_ is [kɔ´nekt] only in precise speech, but usually
[kö´nekt] or [kə´nekt].
* * * * *
The long [ɔ] in _law_, _laud_, _lord_ is rather tensely articulated,
certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds
the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in _short_ (compare _shawl_ and
_shot_). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed _or_ (or
_oar_) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between
_laud_ and _lord_, _fought_ and _fort_, _stalk_ and _stork_, _cawed_
and _cord_. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction.
The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of
which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written
_r_, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus
they will say [lɔːᵊd] for _laud_, and [lɔːəd] for _lord_. It may be
added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken
about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence;
then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the
student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to
write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning _fought_,
most people will write down _fort_, because the sound gives them
no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first.
Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning _laud_, they will write down
_lord_.[52]
The word _lore_, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often
pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from _law_, the [ə] sound
being much more distinct than in _law_, _more_, _bore_, etc. Consider
the value of _-ore-_ in _more water_, and in _more ink_.
* * * * *
There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words _daunt_,
_flaunt_, _gaunt_, _gauntlet_, _haunch_, _haunt_, _jaundice_, _jaunt_,
_launch_, _laundry_, _paunch_, _saunter_, _staunch_, _taunt_, _vaunt_.
The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].
* * * * *
When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus
_autumnal_ becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; _or_ when stressed is
[ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].
* * * * *
A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard
English, is the first element in the diphthong found in _boy_ [bɔi].
The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.
In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus _boil_ is
pronounced [bɑil]. Only in _choir_ (also written _quire_) is this
pronunciation current in good speech.
=44.= Utter the sound usually called "long _o_" and found in _bode_,
_boat_, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the
tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the
action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of
[ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is
less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long _o_" is
so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for _oh no!_ we
at once recognise that he is not English.
The first element of this diphthong is a middle [_o_], sometimes a
fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in
French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter
these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more
they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element
is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.--The second is
a _u_ sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and
lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards
the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The
diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants;
verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, _bode_ and
_boat_, _goad_ and _goat_, _robe_ and _rope_, _brogue_ and _broke_.
In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong
becomes [_o_], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing
altogether. Thus _fellow_ is in precise speech [feloːu], but in
ordinary speech [fel_o_, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily
vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in
stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of
affectation.
The prefix _pro-_, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In
_process_ and _progress_ [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives
_project_ and _produce_ it is the rule.
=45.= The _u_ sounds are clearly parallel to the _i_ sounds. In both
cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which
the tongue rises towards the end.
* * * * *
The short sound in _would_, _book_, etc., is open, and the sign for it
is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound
in the words _should_ and _put_, _pull_ and _cook_? Observe others, if
you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to
determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word,
when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)
When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped
altogether. Thus _helpful_ becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and _should_
becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].
* * * * *
The vowel sound in _who_ is not uniform. (See what was said about the
corresponding _i_ sound in § 42). It may begin as close [u][59], in
which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so
much that we have [w]; _who_ in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may
begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _who_ is [hUːu].
When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat
shortened; _hoot_ is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare _root_ with _rude_. A
half-long vowel is now generally heard in _room_; some speakers make it
quite short.
In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often
becomes [ü]; thus _July_ is [dʒüw´lai].
Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; _cruel_ is [kruəl].
When the [ə] represents a written _r_, the first element often changes
to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus _poor_ is pronounced
[pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say
[pɔː], riming with _door_, _floor_; but this can hardly be considered
standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of _your_,
_sure_. Before spoken [r], as in _poorest_, _enduring_, the [ə] becomes
very faint or disappears.
* * * * *
The so-called "long u" in such words as _due_, _dew_, _dude_ consists
of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in _do_,
which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless
sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned
in § 34. Thus _tune_ is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn];
in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].
The _-ture_ in _nature_, _creature_, _forfeiture_, etc., is generally
pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected
in ordinary speech. _Venture_ is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə],
[ventjə], or [ventjü]. _Censure_ is always [senʃə].
In _allude_, *_allusion_, _lute_, _lucent_, _luminous_, *_flute_,
_salute_,*_absolute_, *_absolution_, _dissolute_, *_dissolution_,
*_superstition_, *_Susan_ both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is
probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise
speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In _assume_, _presume_
[juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ],
[ʒ], or consonant plus [l].
Notice the pronunciation of _casual_ [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], _sensual_
[senʃuəl], _usual_ [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], _visual_ [vizjuəl]. _Educate_
is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.
As the "long _u_" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say
_a uniform_, _a university_, _a union_, _a European_, _a eulogy_. To
write _an_ before such words is a gross mistake.
We find the [u] element changed in unstressed syllables; thus _value_
becomes [væljü], _regular_ becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very
colloquially, [reglə].
* * * * *
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [u] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English:
ü close u (diagram, p. 124)
/
open ᴜ
/
close o (diagram, p. 124)
/
ö middle _o_
/
open ɔ (diagram, p. 125)
/
dark ɑ
Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the
[i] to [ɑ] series.
FOOTNOTES:
[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which
the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, _i.e._ which are
not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."
[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.
[16] Also called labial.
[17] Also called dental.
[18] Also called palatal.
[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more
usually, but less accurately, guttural.
[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are
common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.
[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in _italics_.
[22] _i.e._ at the end of a word, before a pause.
[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic
of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home
counties.
[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.
[25] On the other hand, in Somerset _clean, clod_ are sometimes
pronounced with [tl-].
[26] See footnote 8 on page 29.
[27] See footnote 8 on page 29.
[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-_ing_ is
always pronounced [iŋg].
[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.
[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.
[31] See also § 45.
[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit]
but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].
[33] In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or
the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.
[34] The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does
this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?
[35] The rule may also be stated thus: _r_ is only heard when a vowel
follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to
include [j].
[36] The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with
little friction.
[37] Contrast the [l] of _will_ and _willing_ (where its position
between front vowels leads to forward formation).
[38] Some pronounce this word [sælv].
[39] Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].
[40] These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.
[41] [h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with
voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a
cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the
latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try
to utter this sound.
[42] The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.
[43] Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in
uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.
[44] However, there is a pronunciation of _are_, intermediate between
the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as
short [ɑ]. The _a_ in the unstressed prefix _trans-_, and the second
_a_ of _advantageous_ also have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.
[45] Especially when it is final.
[46] Many cultivated people pronounce _girl_ as [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is
to be preferred. _Clerk_, _sergeant_ have [ɑː], not [əː]; also _Derby_,
_Berkshire_, _Hertfordshire_.
[47] It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in
ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially
if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.
[48] The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation
of _tea_, _please_.
[49] For [ɔː] see the diagram on p. 125.
[50] Exceptions are _borrow_, etc., _work_, _attorney_, etc.
[51] To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words as _law_, _saw_ is
a mistake.
[52] It is absurd to speak of _fort_ and _caught_, _morn_ and _dawn_ as
"cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and
a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad.
Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal,
the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.
[53] For [ö] see the note on p. 68.
[54] In the case of this diphthong as well as in that in _name_,
_pail_, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by
passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.
[55] For [o] see the diagram on p. 124.
[56] [ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_eu_ or German _ö_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[57] The pronunciations [wində, pilə] for _window_, _pillow_ are,
however, avoided by educated speakers.
[58] [ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_u_ or German _ü_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[59] For [u] see the diagram on p. 124.
[60] See also § 29.
THE SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
=46.= Let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple
conversational English; it will serve to give us some idea of the
problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of
connected speech. This is the rime:
siŋ ə sɔŋ əv sikspəns | ə pɔkit ful əv rai | fɔːr ən tʍ_e_nti
blækbəːdzz̥ | beikt in ə pai | w_e_n ðə pai wəz oŭpnd | ðə bəːdzz̥
bi´gæn tə siŋ | wɔzn̩(t) ðæt ə deinti diʃ | tə s_e_t bi´fɔː ðə kiŋ.
=47.= Pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the
nursery as vulgar speech; therefore we do not say, siŋ eĭ sɔŋ ɔv
siksp_e_ns.
Notice that the following words have =strong and weak forms=, a weak
form being regularly used when they are not stressed:--
_weak_ _strong_
a, an ə, ən ei, æn
the ðə (before consonants) ðij
ði (before vowels)
has həz,[61] əz, z hæz
have həv,[61] əv, v hæv
had həd,[61] əd, d hæd
is iz, z, s iˑz
are ɑ(r), ə(r) ɑːə, ɑːr
was wəz wɔz
were wə(r) wəː(r), wɛːə(r)
can kən, kn̩ kæn
shall ʃəl, əl, l ʃæl
will əl, l wil
could kəd kud
should ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt, d ʃud
would wəd, əd, d wud
he hi,[62] i hij
she ʃi ʃij
her hə(r),[62] ə(r) həː(r)
him ɪm him
his ɪz hiz
we wi wij
us əs ʌs
you ju, jə juw
them ðəm, (əm) ðem
your jü(r), jɔ(r), jə(r) juːə(r)
of əv ɔv
from frəm, frm̩ frɔm
to tə (before consonants) tu
and ənd, n̩d, ɔn, n̩ ænd
or ɔ(r), ə(r) ɔː(r)
The use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is
undoubtedly a fault, and should be avoided; much of the unnatural
reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause. Foreigners who
have lived long in England often fail in this respect when they have
overcome almost all other difficulties. It is also not uncommon in the
speech of colonials.
* * * * *
Notice [p_e_ns], but [sikspəns].
A word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in
pronunciation, a weaker form being substituted. Compare _penny_ and
_halfpenny_, _board_ and _cupboard_, _come_ and _welcome_, _day_ and
_yesterday_, _ways_ and _always_, _fast_ and _breakfast_, _mouth_ and
_Portsmouth_, _land_ and _England_, _ford_ and _Oxford_.
The first letter of the second part is sometimes dropped; thus the
_w_ in _housewife_ (case for needles, etc.) [hʌzif], _Greenwich_,
_Harwich_, _Woolwich_, _Norwich_, _Keswick_, _Warwick_ is no longer
pronounced, nor the _h_ in _shepherd_, _forehead_, _Clapham_,
_Sydenham_, and in many words beginning with _ex-_, e.g., _exhale_,[63]
_exhaust_, _exhibit_, _exhilarate_, _exhort_. The dropping of _h_ in
_neighbourhood_ is vulgar.
Sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word.
Compare _half_ and _halfpenny_, _three_ and _threepence_, _fore_ and
_forehead_, _break_ and _breakfast_.
The stress of compounds like _sixpence_ is discussed below
("blackbirds").
=48.= In _pocket_ the second vowel is not middle [_e_], but a very
laxly articulated variety of [ɪ], with the tongue only a little higher
than for close [e]; see § 38. In the speech of elocutionists the middle
[_e_] often appears here. They tell of the [gaːəd_e_n ɔv ijd_e_n],
just as they succeed in pronouncing [d_e_vɪl] instead of [d_e_vəl],
thus avoiding all offence; for [d_e_vəl] is said by common people, but
[d_e_vɪl] only by the polite.
* * * * *
Notice that in _four-and-twenty_ the _r_ is pronounced, as it comes
between vowels; but it is mute in _before the King_, where it comes
before a consonant, as in the word _forth_. See § 32.
=49.= In _and_ the _d_ is dropped. Here it might be a case of
assimilation; that is to say the _t_ which immediately follows, and
which is closely akin to it, might have changed it to [t], and the two
would have fallen together.
In _sit down_, do you utter both [t] and [d]? If you speak naturally,
you probably say [sidaun] or [sitaun]. What is your pronunciation of
_hold tight_, _less zeal_?
In _cupboard_ none but the absurdly precise pronounce the [p].
* * * * *
Assimilation of consonants is common in English, and the more
colloquial the speech is, the more assimilation you are likely to find.
Assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made,
and thus represents a saving of trouble; and in colloquial speech we
incline to take as little trouble as possible.