invariably in baby speech, is the substitution of [v, f] for [ð, θ].
The baby says [fʌm] for [θʌm], the cockney [nafiŋk] for [nʌθiŋ], [fevə]
for [feðə]. This fault should on no account be tolerated; the child (we
are of course not referring to the baby) can produce the lisping sounds
without difficulty. It need only be told to place the tongue between
the teeth. When once the difference in the manner of production of [f]
and [θ] is known, the child can also _hear_ the difference; all that is
now required is perseverance.
In careless speech [h] is sometimes substituted for [θ], thus _I think
so_ becomes [ai hiŋk sou]. This also has its parallel in baby speech,
e.g. [hugə] for _sugar_.
=32. The liquids.=--This designation comprises the _r_ sounds and the
_l_ sounds.
The sounds written _r_ are extremely varied, and are likely to give
some trouble to the student. He should in the first place ascertain
from his friends (we are assuming that these speak standard English)
whether they notice anything peculiar about his _r_. If they do not, it
is probable that he uses the untrilled _r_. (The phonetic sign for this
is [ɹ], but it is customary to use [r], unless exceptional accuracy be
desired.)
This sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the
raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums.[34] When
the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate, we have the trilled or
rolled [r]. Can you roll your _r_? Does anyone you know habitually do
so? Have you noticed whether Frenchmen or Germans ever do it?
Another kind of _r_ is that produced at the back of the mouth, by the
help of the uvula (see § 8), and called the throat _r_ or uvular _r_
(phonetic sign: [R]), as distinguished from the tongue or teeth _r_
(lingual or dental _r_). It is not a normal sound in standard English,
but is occasionally found. It used to be frequent in Durham and
Northumberland (the "Northumbrian burr"), but is dying out there now.
Notice that after [t] and [d] the narrowing for [r] is particularly
small, and therefore the friction of the breath particularly
noticeable. Say such words as _dry_, _drink_, _droll_, _try_, _trill_,
_trap_, and carefully observe the nature of the [r]. Notice also that
after voiceless sounds the [r] often becomes voiceless [r̥], as in
_praise_, _try_, _increase_. Sometimes _tried_ almost sounds like
_chide_, because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal
chords have not begun to vibrate. Try to utter a voiceless [r̥] by
itself; practise the series [r r̥ r r̥ r].
There is also a peculiar variety of _r_ found after _g_, as in _great_,
_green_, _grass_. This _r_ is a kind of palatal blade continuant, and
its use should be avoided, as it is generally held to be affected.
* * * * *
In standard English the written _r_ is only pronounced initially (as in
_red_), between a consonant and a vowel (as in _bread_, _angry_), and
between vowels, the second of which is not only written, but actually
pronounced (as in _very_).[35]
It is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant (as in _arm_,
_lord_), nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel
which is only written and not actually pronounced (as in _bar_,
_bare_). Its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel [ə] (see
§ 38).
Observe that a final _r_ is pronounced when the next word begins with
a vowel. (Is there anything like this in French?) Thus we say _better_
[betə], but [betər ən betə]; _ever_ [evə], but [fər evər ənd evə];
_here_ [hiə], but [hiᵊr ən ðɛːə]; _stir up_ [stəːr ʌp], but [stəː ðə
faiə]. There is, however, nowadays a tendency to leave even this _r_
unpronounced.
The fact that such words as _better_ have two forms, with and without
[r], has led to the addition of [r] when there is no justification for
it. Even educated people are often heard to pronounce _the idea of it_
as [ði aidiər əv it]; _The India Office_ sometimes becomes [ði indjər
ɔfis]; _china ornaments_ becomes [tʃainər ɔːnəmənts]; and clergymen
have been known to say [vik´tɔːjər auə kwijn]. Similarly, in vulgar
speech [ðə windər iz oupən], [pə´pɑːr əz gɔn aut], etc., are quite
common.
There is an affected pronunciation of this [ə] which makes it
approximate to a deep [ɑ]; the comic papers represent _my dear fellow_
as "my deah fellah" to indicate the speech of a swell.
The substitution of [w] for [r] is a mannerism which should not be
tolerated; it is the result of a bad habit, not of any defect of the
organs of speech.
When a word contains the letter _r_ twice, careless speakers incline
to drop one of them; _February_ becomes [febjuəri], _temporarily_
[tempərili], _library_ [laibri], _literary_ [litəri], _supernumerary_
[sjuwpənjuwməri], _contemporary_ [kəntempəri]. _Veterinary_ usually
becomes [vetənri] or [vetnəri].
=33.= In order to produce the sound of [l], we let the breath pass out
between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth; the
point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the
middle line.
Utter [l] with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible;
then utter [l] several times, gradually bringing the point of the
tongue forward, until it eventually touches the teeth. You will notice
a difference in the quality of the sound: the sound is "dark"[36] when
the tongue is farther back, "clear" when it is forward in the mouth.
Notice that when the tongue is drawn back, it is bunched up behind.
In standard English the [l] is frequently pronounced with the tongue
fairly back in the mouth; the "darkness" of the [l] is particularly
noticeable when it comes at the end of a word.[37]
Excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in
children; they should rather practise the "clear" [l], though they need
not go so far as actually to "let the tongue touch the teeth." This
is, however, a good rule, and if instilled in the children will do
something to counteract any tendency to "darkness" of the [l]. It is
not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the
teeth when they say [l]; but a sufficiently "clear" [l] can be obtained
if the point of contact is at the upper gums, and even a little farther
back than that. It should be noted that the [l] may be "dark," even
when the point of the tongue touches the teeth, if the back of the
tongue is raised.
In cockney speech the [l] is sometimes lost, through no contact taking
place; _tail_ is pronounced [tæjɔ] or something similar, with a very
open [ɔ] (see § 43) in place of [l], and after consonants also the final
_l_, as in _giggle_, is very liable to disappear. This recalls the
treatment of final _r_ in standard English. In careless speech the [l]
also disappears in _only_ and in _all right_.
_Colonel_ is pronounced [kəːnəl]; the older spelling _coronel_
explains this.
Notice that when [l] comes next to a voiceless sound, it may become
partly or wholly voiceless [l̥]. Thus _clear_ becomes [kl̥iːə], _halt_
[hɔl̥t]. The friction becomes noticeable then; try to utter [l̥] and
observe this. The voiceless sound is the familiar Welsh _ll_.
In _bubble_, _riddle_, etc., we may have syllabic _l_ [l̩]. Compare
what was said about syllabic _m_ in § 22, and about syllabic _n_ in § 24.
The _l_ is not pronounced in _calf_, _half_, _salve_,[38] _balk_,
_caulk_, _chalk_, _falcon_,[39] _folk_, _stalk_, _talk_, _walk_,
_yolk_, _almond_, _alms_, _balm_, _calm_, _palm_, _psalm_, _qualm_,
_salmon_, _solder_, _should_, _would_, _could_ (where it is not
etymologically justified); _golf_ is usually [gɔlf], but also [gɔf][3],
and rarely [gɔːf].[40]
It was said above that for [l] we let the breath pass out at both sides
of the mouth; but, as a matter of fact, most people let it out only on
one side. On which side does it pass out in your own case? Is the same
true of your whole family? Ascertain which is the usual side in the
case of friends.
=34. Front continuants.=--Watch with your mirror what the tongue does
when you utter the word _he_. You see that it rises in front. Raise it
a little more, until the passage becomes quite narrow; the vowel will
pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of _yes_ [jes], and
which we also have in _sue_ [sjuːw], for which see § 45. As a rule the
friction is very slight, and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear;
but in the slowly uttered, deliberate _yes_ the friction can often be
heard very distinctly. The sound is also noteworthy as being, like [w]
and [ɹ], "gliding," not "held" (see §§ 26, 32). In careless speech it
sometimes passes into [ʒ] after [d]; _during_ is pronounced [dʒuwriŋ]
instead of [djuwriŋ], the _dew_ becomes [dʒuw], _it made you start_
[it mei dʒu stɑːt]. _Soldier_ is regularly pronounced [souldʒə], not
[souldjə]; and _verdure_, _grandeur_, have both pronunciations, [djə]
being preferred by careful speakers.
After voiceless sounds, as in _Tuesday_, _tube_, [j] occasionally
passes into the corresponding voiceless [ç], which is the consonant
sound in the German _ich_; and sometimes it even becomes [ʃ], compare
the careless pronunciation of _don't you know_ [dountʃənou], _last
year_ [lɑːs tʃiə], _he'll meet you_ [hijl mijtʃu]; _I shall hit you_
is in vulgar speech [ɑi ʃəl itʃə]. For this development in unstressed
syllables, see § 45.
* * * * *
=Back continuants.=--When we utter the vowel sound of _who_ the back
of the tongue is raised; if we raise it a little higher, there is
friction, and we obtain the back continuants. These do not normally
belong to standard English. The voiceless [x] is, however, not uncommon
in the pronunciation of words taken from Scotch, Welsh, or German;
even in such words [k] is generally substituted. The Scotch _loch_ is
pronounced [lɔx] or [lɔk]; the German _Hoch(heimer)_ is always spelt
and pronounced _hock_ [hɔk]. In Scotch [x] occurs normally.
* * * * *
=Throat r= (_uvular_ =r=).--This sound, which does not normally belong
to standard English, has been referred to in § 32.
=35. The h sounds.=--We considered the glottis (the interval between
the vocal chords) in § 6. We saw that when it is quite open, the breath
passes through without producing any audible sound. When, however,
the glottis is somewhat narrowed, the breath brushes past the vocal
chords, and an _h_ is produced; this we may call a voiceless glottal
continuant.[41]
Now there may be various kinds of glottal [h]. The passage between the
vocal chords may be more or less narrow, and it may remain uniform or
gradually grow narrower or wider. The current of breath may be strong
or weak; it may be of uniform force, or gradually grow stronger or
weaker. When there is a strong current of breath, and the opening is
very narrow, we call it "wheezing."
In standard English the _h_ is a glottal continuant only when there is
precise and emphatic utterance. Ordinarily it is produced in the mouth
passage. When we say _ha_, the vocal chords are not drawn together
until the vowel is sounded; the mouth, however, gets into position
for uttering the vowel a little before the time, and the breath as it
passes through produces an _h_ sound. In [hɑ] then, we practically
have a voiceless [ɑ] followed by the ordinary voiced [ɑ]; in _he_, a
voiceless [i] followed by the ordinary [i] vowel; in _who_, a voiceless
[u] followed by the ordinary [u]. Whisper these words, and also _hay_
and _hoe_; and after each, whisper the [h] only. Notice that the ear
detects an actual difference in these _h_ sounds.
* * * * *
A good deal depends on the current of breath with which the [h] is
uttered. In standard English the current does not keep on growing in
volume until the vowel is sounded; it distinctly diminishes before the
vowel appears. This may be graphically represented by the signs [<h>].
* * * * *
If the current of breath does not diminish in this way, but starts
weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached,
the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct [h]. This sound
may be written [h<] or simply [<]. This (the "soft breath") precedes
initial vowels in standard English; it is the sound which in cockney
speech commonly represents the more distinct [<h>]; those who use it
are said to "drop their h's." Conscious of the defect, they often
prefix a full, even an exaggerated [h] to words which have no _h_. It
need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of _h_ is not to be
tolerated. It is interesting to note that no _h_ is ever dropped in the
speech of Americans, except in the weak forms of _he_, _him_, _her_.
[h] occurs in standard English only before stressed vowels. Initial _h_
before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause.
Notice that:
1. Written _h_ is not pronounced in _heir_, _honest_, _honour_, _hour_,
and words derived from these.
It is now pronounced in standard English in _herb_, _hospital_,
_humble_, _humour_ (a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce
this word without [h]).
2. It is regarded as correct to say _a history_, but _an historical
novel_; _a habit_, but _an habitual action_; many, however, pronounce
the _h_ in both cases.
3. Certain words drop the _h_ when they occur in an unstressed position
in the sentence; this is a regular feature of standard colloquial
speech, and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity. It
must be recognised that such words have two forms, weak and strong,
according as they are used without or with emphasis. Compare the
following sentences:
Tom has been there. Has he though?
tɔm əz bijn (bin) ðeːə. hæz i ðou?
I gave her a book. What, to her?
ai geiv ər ə buk. wɔt, tu həː?
Find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing
the ordinary speech of those around you. Then compare the list given in
§ 47.
For the dropping of _h_ in the second part of compound words, see § 47.
=36.=
VOWELS
We have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which
the breath passes is closed (stops) or narrowed (continuants); we now
have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough
for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the
sides. These sounds are the vowels.
"Voice," produced by the vibration of the vocal chords, may be said
to give body to the vowel; the shape of the passage through which the
breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from
another, _i.e._ its quality. The shape of this passage is capable of
almost infinite variation, which leads to a corresponding variety of
resonances, and these determine the quality of the vowels.
Picture to yourself the inside of the mouth, and consider how the
cavity may become larger or smaller, according as you separate or draw
together the jaws; see what a difference it makes if you raise the
tongue at the back, or in the middle, or in the front; bear in mind
that the position of the lips may also modify the sound, as you will
notice if, for instance, you utter [u] as in _who_, first with the lips
forming a long narrow slit, and again with the lips forming a very
small circle (of the same size as the end of a lead pencil).
=37.= Of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least
effort is [ɑ].[42] It is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the
baby, before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue.
It is also common as an interjection. Utter it, and watch the tongue
with your mirror; you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is
slightly raised. The opening of the mouth is generally larger than in
the case of the other vowels. See the diagram on p. 125.
Utter the standard English sound of _a_ in _hat_, for which the sign
is [æ]. Say several times [ɑ æ] and watch the tongue as you do so; you
will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and
lower at back for [æ]. The opening of the mouth is often quite as large
for [æ] as for [ɑ].
Now try to produce the sound which lies between the two, with the
tongue occupying an intermediate position; you will obtain the sound
[a], which is the northern English vowel in _hat_, and the vowel in the
French word _chat_; in standard English it occurs only as the first
part of the diphthongs in _bite_ [bait] and _bout_ [baut].[43] This [a]
is sometimes called the "clear" _a_ sound. See the diagram on p. 123.
Next, draw the tongue a little back, and you will obtain a variety of
[ɑ] which is "dark" and has a suggestion of the vowel in _all_ [ɔːl].
This sound is commonly substituted for the "pure" or "neutral" [ɑ] in
cockney speech, so that _fast_ is made to sound like [fɔːst], _park_
like [pɔːk].
This "darkening" of the _a_ sound should not be permitted; in order to
counteract it, it may be advisable to make the class utter [ɑ] singly
and in chorus, until they are quite clear as to the nature of the
required sound.
It is sometimes found that precise speakers, through an excessive
desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech,
substitute [a] for [ɑ], saying, for instance, [faːðə] in place of
[fɑːðə]; it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who
commit this mistake. A mistake it is, like every other deviation from
what is generally recognised by the educated.
In other cases the "clear" pronunciation of _a_ is often heard, _e.g._,
in _glass_, _bath_, _past_, _answer_, _demand_, _grant_, _everlasting_.
Both [a] and [æ] occur, particularly in the speech of ladies. What is
the American pronunciation of _half_?
In standard English there is practically no short [ɑ],[44] but only the
long [ɑː], which should be neither "dark" nor "clear." If we analyse it
carefully, we often find[45] that it is not a single vowel of uniform
value, only the first part being "pure" [ɑ], the rest being a faint
variant; but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in
quality, as in good speech it is a pure long vowel.
=38.= There is a short sound closely akin to it (in position, but not
in sound), which we have in _but_, _much_, etc., and for which the sign
is [ʌ]. The back of the tongue is raised a little in the production
of this sound, and sometimes the front also; and in consequence there
are several varieties of it. It occurs only in syllables having
some stress; we have [ʌ] in _teacup_, _unfit_, _until_; but not in
_welcome_, which is not felt to be a compound. When it is unstressed,
it becomes the dull vowel [ə]; unstressed _but_ is [bət]. Observe the
vulgar pronunciation of _just_ as [dʒest].
* * * * *
The dull vowel [ə] occurs very commonly in ordinary speech; most
unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of [i] mentioned
below. It is found, for instance, in the italicised syllables of
vow_e_l, vari_e_ty, carp_e_nt_e_r, ordin_a_ry. The long [əː] is
variously written; we have it in _fern_, _fir_,[46] _fur_, _word_.
(In northern English there is some variety in the [ə], according to
the written vowel which it represents.) Notice the precise and the
ordinary pronunciation of such words as _paternal_, _polite_, _potato_.
The uneducated often insert [ə] in such words as _Henry_ [henəri],
_umbrella_ [ʌmbərelə]; and sometimes they substitute [i] for [ə], as
in _miracle_, wrongly pronounced [mirikl̩], _philosopher_, wrongly
pronounced [fi´lɔsifə], and in _oracle_, _pigeon_.
The letters _e_, _i_, and _y_ in unstressed syllables represent a very
laxly articulated sound, for which the sign [i] is used in this book.
It varies somewhat in different speakers; several sounds intermediate
between the open [ɪ] and the middle [_e_] may be heard. This serves
to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as _ensure_ and
_insure_, _enquire_ and _inquire_.
Sometimes the vowel disappears altogether, as in _business_,
_medicine_, _venison_.
The letter _o_ in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is
usually [ə], but in precise speech an _o_-sound is heard in such words
as _conceive_, _official_, _possess_. After the chief stress [ɔ] is
rarely heard; but _epoch_ [ijpɔk] and other uncommon words keep the [ɔ].
=39. The front vowels.=--Utter the word _he_ and notice what the tongue
does. You can do so by looking into your mirror, or by putting a finger
just inside your front upper teeth, or by whispering the sound, and
feeling what happens.
_You will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you
whisper them, because the "voice" does not interfere with your
appreciation of the mouth resonances. By this time your muscular
consciousness_ (see § 9) _should be considerably developed, and you
should be conscious of what your tongue, lips, etc., are doing, without
having recourse to a mirror_.
You will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front:
[ɑ] and [i] are extremes; in the one case the front of the tongue is
practically as low as it can be, in the other it is raised as high as
possible. You might raise the tongue farther, but the resulting sound
would not be a vowel. The passage would be too narrow, there would be
friction, and a continuant would be the result (see § 34).
Utter a pure [ɑ] and gradually raise the front of the tongue until
you reach [i]. You may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the
time, or you may whisper the sounds; but see that the tongue moves
slowly and steadily. You will realise that very many sounds lie between
[ɑ] and [i]; as they are all produced with the raising of the front of
the tongue, they are called front vowels.
We have already noticed clear [a], and have met with [æ], which is the
vowel sound in _hat_ [hæt]. When unstressed the [æ] gives place to [ə];
_that_ [ðæt] becomes [ðət].
* * * * *
The uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound (the middle _e_) for
[æ]; they say [k_e_b] for _cab_, [k_e_tʃ] for _catch_, [θ_e_ŋks] for
_thanks_, [b_e_ŋk] for _bank_. The same mistake may also be heard in
the pronunciation of _carriage_, _radish_, _January_. In _any_, _many_
the first vowel is always [_e_]. What is it in _manifold_?
The sound [æ] is only found short. There is a kindred long sound [ɛː],
as in _fair_, for which the tongue is rather higher. It is often called
the open [ɛ], [æ] being a still more open sound.
* * * * *
A difference in the formation of [æ] and [ɛː] must be noticed; it is
not confined to this pair of vowels. In uttering a vowel sound we may
adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is
clear and decided; this may be called _tense_ articulation, producing
tense vowels. If we do not trouble to adjust the articulations
carefully, if we have lax articulation, we obtain _lax_ vowels. In
standard English we do not articulate tensely, except in precise
and emphatic speech. (Notice how tensely the French and the Germans
articulate their accented long vowels.) In teaching children the terms
_tight_ and _loose_ may be used.
The articulation of [ɛː] is relatively tense, that of [æ] is lax. For
[ɛ] see the diagram on p. 123.
Notice that [ɛː] is always followed by a more or less distinct [ə];
_there_ is [ðɛːə], _Mary_ is [mɛː(ə)ri]. Consider the value of _-ear-_
in _bear_ and _bearing_.
There is a vulgar pronunciation of _I dare say_ as [ai desei], instead
of [ai dɛːə sei].
=40.= The diphthongs in _bite_ and _bout_ are pronounced by the
uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard English. The first
element should be "clear" [a]. A "pure" [ɑ] would not be offensive
here, though it is much less common;[47] but any pushing forward of the
tongue beyond the [a] limit, any substitution of [æ] for [a], is not to
be tolerated. The nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant
effect. Probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is
to insist on [ɑi] and [ɑu]; if the pure [ɑ] has been practised, as was
suggested above, it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of
good diphthongs.
Notice how a German pronounces these diphthongs; you will find that he
dwells much longer on the first element than we do, and that it is more
open.
The ending _-ile_ in _agile_, _docile_, _fertile_, _futile_, _hostile_,
_puerile_ is pronounced [ail], and not [il] as used to be the case.