=p= as in _pat_ _apple_ _tap_
=m= as in _man_ _hammer_ _lamb_
=d= as in _dab_ _bidden_ _bad_
=t= as in _tap_ _bitten_ _pat_
=n= as in _nut_ _winner_ _tun_
=g= as in _gut_ _waggle_ _tug_
=k= as in _cat_ _tackle_ _tack_
=ŋ= as in _singer_ _sing_
=w= as in _wit_
[10]=ʍ= as in _when_
=v= as in _van_ _never_ _leave_
=f= as in _fan_ _stiffer_ _leaf_
=ð= as in _this_ _leather_ _clothe_
=θ= as in _thistle_ _Ethel_ _cloth_
=z= as in _zeal_ _easel_ _lose_
=s= as in _seal_ _lesson_ _lease_
=ʒ= as in _leisure_ _rouge_
=ʃ= as in _shed_ _ashes_ _dash_
=j= as in _yes_
=r= as in _red_ _very_
=l= as in _lip_ _pallor_ _pill_
=h= as in _hot_
=Vowels.=
_Attention should be paid to the signs for these, as many are
unfamiliar. The examples given will convey only a general idea of the
sounds, which are discussed in detail in § 36 and foll. The sign ː
indicates length, and ˑ half length_.
=iː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bead_.
=ɪ= is the vowel sound in _bit_.
=eː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _braid_.
=e= is the vowel sound in _bet_.
=ɛː= is the first vowel sound in _fairy_.
=æ= is the vowel sound in _bat_.
=a= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bout_, _bite_.
=ɑː= is the first vowel sound in _father_.
=ɔː= is the first vowel sound in _glory_.
=ɔ= is the vowel sound in _pot_.
=o= is the first vowel sound[11] in _boat_.
=uː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _rude_.
=ᴜ= is the vowel sound in _put_.
=əː= is the vowel sound in _burn_.
=ə= is the second vowel sound in _better_.
=ʌ= is the vowel sound in _but_.
The following sentences written in the conventional and the phonetic
spelling will give some idea of the use of this alphabet for
representing connected speech as spoken (_a_) very carefully, (_b_)
quite colloquially.
For purposes of convenience the ɪ and ᴜ are not used in
ordinary transcript, as there is no danger of confusion.
(_a_) The seriou student of phonetics soon grows
ðə siᵊrjəs stjuwdənt[12] əv fo´netiks[13] suwn grouz
interested in the subject, and every fresh speaker
intərestid in ðə sʌbdʒikt, ænd evri freʃ spijkə[12]
presents new materials for study.
pri´zents njuw mə´tiːᵊriəlz fə stʌdi.
(_b_) Did you hear what he told me last night?
dʒu hiə wɔt i toul mi lɑːs nait?
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Another defective method of breathing consists in raising the
shoulders for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the lungs. The
shoulders should, however, not be moved at all in breathing.
[3] The custom of insisting on tightly-folded arms is not to be
encouraged.
[4] The exercises suggested by Mr Burrell in _Clear Speaking and Good
Reading_ (p. 16 and foll.) are also recommended.
[5] Also called tone.
[6] Or, toned.
[7] Or, untoned, breathed.
[8] This definition has its drawbacks, as will be seen later.
[9] Consider what happens in the case of such words as _vintner_,
_lampman_.
[10] It is doubtful whether this can be called a sound of standard
English; see § 31.
[11] It is most important that you should not confuse _sound_ with
_letter_. Thus in bead we have the letters _e_ and _a_, which represent
vowels in _bed_ and _bad_; but the _e_ in _bead_ has quite a different
value from the _e_ in _bed_. The two letters _ea_ in _bead_ together
represent two sounds which are described in § 42.
[12] In the _Specimens of English_ the diphthongs here represented by
[uw] and [ij] are simply printed [uː] and [iː].
[13] Observe that the accent [´] _precedes_ the stressed syllable.
In the _Specimens of English_ the vowel of the stressed syllable is
printed in =this type=.
THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY
=Consonants--stops.=
=21.= The sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the
stops, in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked. We
have already seen in § 11 that every stop, strictly speaking, consists
of three parts, the closing and the opening of the passage and the
pause between, and that only the closing or only the opening need be
heard for the ear to distinguish the sound. The interval between the
closure and the opening may be noticeable, in which case we call the
consonant double.
Stops may be voiced or voiceless, that is, they may be produced with or
without vibration of the vocal chords (see § 7).
Stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth
and then letting it burst through the obstacle; these are =oral= stops.
The breath, stopped at some point in the mouth, may be allowed to pass
out through the nose; the sounds thus produced are called =nasal=.[14]
Utter the following sounds, and determine whether they are voiced or
voiceless, oral or nasal:
[p, g, n, t, b, k, m, d, ŋ.][15]
According to the place of articulation we distinguish lip[16] stops,
point[17] stops, front (palate)[18] stops and back (palate)[19] stops.
=22. Lip stops.=--When the breath is stopped at the lips, three
different sounds may be produced.
1. [p], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h][20]; thus _Pay,
pay!_[21] [pͪei, pͪei]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and
sometimes finally[22]: _I hope_ [ai houpͪ].[23]
[p] is written _p_ or _pp_; rarely _ph_ (as in a common pronunciation
of _diphtheria_ [dipθiːᵊriə], for which see § 27).
Notice the spelling of _hiccough_ [hikʌp].
2. [b], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
[b] is written _b_ or _bb_.
3. [m], when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out
through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when
it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be partly
voiced, then voiceless (phonetic sign: mˑ). Then _lamp_ is strictly
[læmmˑp]. We may say: [m] is =unvoiced= or =devocalized= before a
voiceless stop.) Notice the difference in length of [m] in _lamb,
hammer, glum, moon_; in which of these words is it short?
In _comfort, triumph_ the [m] is often labiodental: the breath is
stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip, not by both lips.
In _prism, schism_ the _m_ may have =syllabic= value; it then does the
work usually performed by a vowel. We say [prizəm] or [prizm̩], where
[m̩] is the sign for syllabic _m_.
[m] is written _m_ or _mm_.
=23.= In the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part,
except by leaving a free passage; but it is active in the production
of the stops we next have to consider. This is therefore the right
place to give the names by which we designate the various =parts of the
tongue=. We distinguish
the _point_,
the _blade_ (above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat),
the _front_ (yet further behind), and
the _back_; also
the _ridge_ or _dorsum_ (an imaginary line drawn along the middle of
the top of the tongue from end to end), and
the _rim_ (running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat).
When the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim
of the tongue, we say it is of _apical_ formation; when it is made
by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim, we say it is of
_dorsal_ formation.
24. =Point stops=.[24]--The breath is stopped by the action of the
point of the tongue touching the teeth (in which case we have true
dentals) or the upper gums (this is known as _alveolar_ articulation,
"alveoli" being the learned word for the gums). In English the point of
the tongue rarely touches the teeth; usually it touches the upper gums,
sometimes the hard palate (this should be avoided), in which case it
approaches [k]. See the diagram on p. 126.
Hence in careless speech _at last_ sometimes becomes [ə´klɑːst].[25]
Little children are heard to say [ikl] for _little_; compare also the
change from Latin _tremere_ to French _craindre_.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage:
1. [t], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _take it!_
[tʰeik it]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes
finally; _he sent me such a charming note_ [hi sent mi sʌtʃ ə tʃɑːmiŋ
noutʰ].[26]
In certain kinds of uneducated southern English speech [t] is
occasionally dropped between vowels, in such words as _water_, _butter_.
[t] is written _t_ or _tt_; _d_ in the _ed_ of verbs after voiceless
sounds, as in _stopped_ [stɔpt]; rarely _th_, in words of foreign
origin.
2. [d], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
[d] is written _d_ or _dd_.
3. [n], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound, it may become
voiceless (n̥) in part. Then _sneer_ is strictly [sn̥niə], _hint_
[hinn̥t].) Notice the difference in length of [n] in _mine_, _own_,
_manner_, _an_, _name_; in which of these words is it long?
In _month_, _anthem_ the [n] is a true dental: the tongue touches the
teeth.
In _listen_, _open_ we may have syllabic _n_ [n̩]. Compare what was
said about syllabic _m_ in § 22.
[n] is written _n_ or _nn_.
=25. Front and back stops.=--The breath is stopped by some part of the
ridge of the tongue meeting
the front or hard palate, giving _front stops_; or
the back or soft palate, giving _back stops_.
Say [ku] and then [ki]; now whisper them. In which case is the closure
more forward in the mouth? Compare with these the place of closure when
you say [kɑ].
From these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very
much the same, and we shall here make use of the same signs for front
and back stops.
In cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure
so far forward that the [k, g] are perceptibly modified. (This
pronunciation is suggested by the spelling _gyarden_, _kyind_, employed
by those who try to represent cockney speech.) The "palatalizing"
tendency is not to be encouraged; a more effective [k] is produced by
distinctly backward articulation. Slight variations in the place of
closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a
word are inevitable.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage.
1. [k], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _come, come!_
[kʰʌm, kʰʌm]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, sometimes
finally, _give him a good shake!_ [giv im ə gud ʃeikʰ].[27]
[k] is written _c_, _k_, _ck_, _cc_ (as in _accuse_ [ə´kjuwz]), _ch_
(as in _chord_ [kɔːd]), _q_ (as in _queen_ [kwijn]); [ks] as _ks_,
_cc_, _x_, _xc_.
2. [g], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
Sometimes [g] is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it
sounds like [d]; thus _glory_ becomes _dlory_ [dlɔːri]. The way in
which [l] is produced (see § 33) explains this.
[g] is written _g_ and _gg_; rarely _gh_ (as in _ghost_ [goust]). For
[ks] and [gz] written x see § 30.
3. [ŋ], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be at first voiced,
then voiceless [̇ŋ̇]; the [ŋ] may be unvoiced (see § 23, 3) before
a voiceless stop. Then _length_ is strictly [leŋŋ̇θ] or [leŋŋ̇kθ].)
Notice the difference in length of [ŋ] in _sing, singer, drink, bang_;
in which of these words is it short?
[ŋ] is written _ng_, as in _long_ [lɔŋ], and _n_ before _g_, _k_, or
_x_, as in _longer_ [lɔŋgə], _lank_ [læŋk], _lynx_ [liŋks]. What does
ng represent in _singer_? in _finger_? in _English_?
The "dropping of g" is really an incorrect term. There is no [g] in
the ending-_ing_ [iŋ];[28] what does take place is the substitution of
[n] for [ŋ]. This occurs in baby speech, in vulgar speech, and in the
speech of some sections of society. It is on no account to be tolerated.
The opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated, who pronounce
_kitchen_ as [kitʃiŋ], _chicken_ as [tʃikiŋ], and _sudden_ as [sʌdiŋ].
Notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the
unfamiliar palatal nasal [ɲ] in _Boulogne_ [bulɔɲ], the uneducated
[bulɔŋ],[29] and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel [ɑ̃] in the
French word _continent_ [kɔ̃tinɑ̃], the uneducated [kɔntinɔŋ].
For [n] becoming [m] or [ŋ] by assimilation, see § 49.
=26. Consonants--continuants.=
It will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more
difficult to analyse than those of the stops. There is, roughly
speaking, only one way of closing a passage entirely; but there are
various ways of closing it partially.
The continuants usually go in pairs, one being voiceless, the other
voiced.
* * * * *
=Lip continuants.=--The breath passes between the two lips (hence the
term _bilabials_); the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than
the [u] position, _i.e._ bunched up at the back (see § 43), and we may
therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants.
The voiced sound [w] is that commonly used in standard English, whether
the spelling be _w_ or _wh_. In northern English and in Scotch the
voiceless [ʍ] is used where the ordinary spelling has _wh_.
It is very doubtful whether [ʍ] has a right to be regarded as a normal
sound in standard English. It is taught by professors of elocution,
and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur
theatricals. On the regular stage it is by no means the rule, and
in the pulpit it is probably the exception. If it comes naturally
to pupils, who bring it with them from the North, they need not be
interfered with; there is certainly no good reason why it should be
forced on speakers of southern English, who generally produce a grossly
exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound. Which
do you use yourself? If [ʍ], is it natural to you, or acquired? Do the
rest of your family use it? Any of your friends? What proportion of
children in your class?
It may be noted that after voiceless sounds [ʍ] sometimes takes the
place of [w], even in standard English; _twenty_ is pronounced [twenti]
or [tʍenti] and _swim_ [swim] or [sʍim]. Sometimes also the sound [ʍ]
is heard in _where_ pronounced with great emphasis, in the case of
speakers who do not ordinarily use it.
It should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the
strict sense of the term, for the lips are gradually brought nearer
and gradually drawn apart. The sounds do not _continue_ in the same
position at all; hence they have been described as "gliding," not
"held."
The word _conquer_ is sometimes pedantically pronounced [kɔŋkwə]
instead of [kɔŋkə]; but it is the rule to sound the [w] in _conquest_.
Compare _liquor_ [likə], _exchequer_ [eks´tʃekə].
A _w_ has often influenced a following _a_. Consider the following
cases:
_was_, _warm_, _squabble_, _quality_, _quack_, _quarrel_, _quaff_,
_wasp_, _water_, _waft_, _walk_, _swallow_.
=27. Lip teeth continuants.=--The breath passes between the lower lip
and the upper teeth (also between the interstices of the upper teeth);
the sounds produced in this way are also called _labiodentals_.
* * * * *
The voiceless sound [f] is usually written _f_ or _ff_, also _ph_ (in
words taken from Greek); note also the _gh_ in _laugh_, etc.
Notice our reluctance to pronounce _phth_ [fθ], as shown in the
dropping of _ph_ in _phthisis_, and the frequent substitution of _p_
for _ph_ in _diphtheria_, _diphthong_, _naphtha_, _ophthalmia_, which
is, however, avoided by careful speakers.
* * * * *
The voiced sound [v] is usually written _v_.
Sounds very like [f, v] can be produced with both lips. Though they do
not ordinarily occur in English, it will be good practice for you to
produce them.
When [v] is final, it is not voiced to the end, but passes into
whispered [v] (symbol v̥), which sounds very much like voiceless [f];
in other words, the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath
ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth. We may say:
final [v] is devocalised.
Observe _thief_, but _thieves_ and _to thieve_; _loaf_, but _loaves_;
_shelf_, but _shelves_ and _to shelve_.
The _ph_ in _nephew_ is pronounced [v], but [f] is heard in dialects.
=28. Point continuants.=--We have seen above (§ 24) that in English
the tongue, as a matter of fact, rarely touches the teeth in the case
of point stops. Similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to
the production of point continuants (except [θ,ð]) is not necessarily
between the tongue and the teeth; in some cases it is indeed a good
deal farther back.
The point continuants include:
1. The hushing, hissing,[30] and lisping sounds, and the _r_ sounds, in
which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth
(_medial_ formation); and
2. The _l_ sounds, the narrowing for which is between the side rim or
rims of the tongue and the side teeth (_lateral_ formation).
The _r_ sounds and the _l_ sounds are sometimes called =liquids=.
=29. The hushing sounds.=--For the production of the _sh_ sounds the
passage is narrowed between the blade (see § 23) of the tongue and the
hard palate. A broad current of air is broken against the edge of the
teeth. There is some friction between the tongue and the gums, but that
against the front teeth is more noticeable.
Watch a Frenchman uttering these sounds, and see what he does with his
lips. Do you use your lips in the same way?
* * * * *
The voiceless [ʃ] is usually written _sh_; also _s_ after consonants
(as in _tension_ [tenʃən], _censure_ [senʃə]). It is written _ss_, _c_
or _t_ before a front vowel (_e_ or _i_), (as in _passion_ [pæʃən],
_capricious_ [kə´priʃəs], _station_ [steiʃən]). In all these cases [ʃ]
arose from [sj].
Observe the colloquial pronunciation of _this year_ as [ðiʃ jəː]; _six
years_ [sikʃ jəːz].
The combination [tʃ] is very common, and is usually written _ch_ or
_tch_. In some cases it arises from [tj], when _t_ follows the chief
accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel (_e_ or _i_)
or _u_[31] which goes back to [juː] (as in _righteous_ [raitʃəs],
_nature_ [neitʃə]). The combination [kʃ] similarly goes back to [ksj]
in _anxious_ [æŋkʃəs] (notice _anxiety_ [æŋ(g)´zaiəti]). _Luxury_
is [lʌkʃəri], but _luxurious_ is [ləg´zuːriəs] or [ləg´zjuːriəs],
sometimes [ləg´ʒuːriəs].
The pronunciation of _associate_ as [ə´sousieit],[32] _officiate_
as [o´fisieit], instead of [ə´souʃieit, o´fiʃieit], is pedantic;
[pro´pisieit] is also faulty for [pro´piʃieit].
* * * * *
The voiced [ʒ] standing alone between vowels is not common in English,
being found only where _s_ is followed by a front vowel, or by _u_
which goes back to [juː]. Here the development is from [sj] to [zj]
and then to [ʒ]. Examples are _vision_ [viʒən], _measure_ [meʒə]. The
spelling _z_ is found only in _azure_ [æʒə] or [eiʒjə], sometimes
[æʒjuə].
Observe the careless pronunciation of _as usual_ as [æʒ juwʒuəl],
_praise ye the Lord_ as [preiʒ jij ðə lɔːd]. _India rubber_ is
generally pronounced [indʒə rʌbə].
On the other hand, the combination [dʒ] is quite common. This is
written _j_ (as in _jet_ [dʒet]), _g_ before _e_ or _i_. (as in _gem_
[dʒem], _gin_ [dʒin], _age_ [eidʒ]; observe also _gaol_ [dʒeil]), and
sometimes _dg_ (as in _edge_ [edʒ]). It is spelled _ch_ in _ostrich_,
_sandwich_, _Greenwich_, _Harwich_, _Woolwich_, and in _spinach_.
What is the value of _ng_ in the following words:--_hang_, _longing_,
_lounging_, _language_, _engage_, _hunger_, _hinge_, _ungraceful_?
=30. The hissing sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [s] as
in _seal_ and the voiced [z] as in _zeal_. Compare the manner of
production of the hissing and the hushing sounds: utter [ʃ] and [s].
(Why will these show the distinction more clearly than [ʒ] and [z]?)
You will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter
[ʃ]; in producing [s] your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath
is thus directed against a point. See the diagram on p. 126.
The usual spelling of both voiceless [s] and voiced [z] is _s_. Notice
that
1. The _s_ of inflections is [z] after a voiced sound: compare
_fills_ [filz], _glances_ [glɑːnsiz], _dogs_ [dɔgz], _faces_
[feisiz], but _hits_ [hits], _cats_ [kæts].
2. The final _s_ of some words of one syllable is [z]: _as_,
_has_, _is_, _his_, _was_; but _this_, _us_.
3. Sometimes the verb has [z], the substantive or adjective [s]:
_use_ [juwz] _use_ [juws]
_diffuse_ [di´fjuwz] _diffuse_ [di´fjuws]
_close_ [klouz] _close_ [klous]
_lose_ [luwz] _loose_ [luws]
(Notice the difference in the length of the vowel.)
4. Notice also that we have
[z] [s]
in _reserve_ in _research_
_disease_ _disobey_
_dissolve_ _dissolvent_, _dissolute_
_presumption_ _presuppose_
Find other examples (there are many). How do you pronounce
_disarm_?
5. _x_ represents [ks] in _exercise_, _excellent_, and in
_extra_, _exceed_, _express_, _extol_, but [gz] in _exert_,
_examine_, _anxiety_, _exult_, _exonerate_, _exorbitant_,
_exotic_.
Do you agree with this statement?
Try to find a rule for the pronunciation of _x_.
In _exile_ both pronunciations of _x_ may be heard, [ks] being
perhaps the more common.
For the dropping of _h_ in compounds with _ex-_ see § 47.
The voiceless [s] is usually written _s_, but also _ss_, and _c_ or
_sc_ before _e_ and _i_ (as in _city_, _scene_, but not in _sceptic_
[skeptik]).
Say which of the sounds [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, s, z] occur in the following
words:
_church_, _machine_, _ledger_, _leisure_, _seizure_, _cease_, _ease_,
_scissors_, _chisel_, _lesion_, _legion_, _singe_, _excessive_,
_example_.
Notice that final [z] is unvoiced towards the end; thus _is_ is
strictly [izz̥]; compare what was said about final [v] in § 27.
* * * * *
The term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the _s_
sounds. It may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the
teeth, palate, or tongue,[33] or it may be simply a bad habit. A
slight habitual lisp is often heard, and parents and friends have been
known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is
"pretty"; it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head.
The treatment of lispers is varied; generally they can produce the
right sound after some experimenting. When the right sound has been
found and distinguished by the child, the rest is entirely a matter of
perseverance. There must be frequent repetition in many combinations.
The exercises should be practised sparingly at first, and gradually
increased, otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the
child's regular work.
=31. The lisping sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [θ] as
in _thistle_, and the voiced [ð] as in _this_. Compare the manner of
production of the lisping and the hissing sounds: utter [θ] and [s].
You will find that in the case of [θ] the breath is not passing through
a narrow channel, and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and
of the tongue. The tongue may be between the teeth, and the sounds
are accordingly sometimes called interdental; but this is by no means
essential. Our English lisping sounds are usually formed between the
point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth; part of the
tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth, without advancing
beyond their back surface.
Which of the following words have [θ] and which have [ð]?
_thorn_, _thou_, _bath_*, _baths_*, _bathe_*, _then_, _think_,
_clothe_*, _cloth_*, _with_, _father_, _thump_, _lethal_, _leather_,
_lath_, _lathe_, _lithe_, _loath_*, _loathe_*, _breath_*, _breathe_*,
_heathen_, _heath_, _heaths_, _wreathe_*, _wreath_*, _wreaths_*,
_seethe_, _truth_*, _truths_*.
What do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk? Of
what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds?
Notice that final [ð] is unvoiced or whispered towards the end; compare
what has been said about final [v] and final [z].
* * * * *