IN FORMÂ PAUPERIS (Latin, "in the character of pauper"), the legal

phrase for a method of bringing or defending a case in court on the part

of persons without means. By an English statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c.

12), any poor person having cause of action was entitled to have a writ

according to the nature of the case, without paying the fees thereon.

The statute of 1495 was repealed by the Statute Law Revision and Civil

Procedure Act 1883, but its provisions, as well as the chancery

practice were incorporated into one code and embodied in the rules of

the Supreme Court (O. xvi. rr. 22-31). Now any person may be admitted to

sue as a pauper, on proof that he is not worth £25, his wearing apparel

and the subject matter of the cause or matter excepted. He must lay his

case before counsel for opinion, and counsel's opinion thereon, with an

affidavit of the party suing that the case contains a full and true

statement of all the material facts to the best of his knowledge and

belief, must be produced before the proper officers to whom the

application is made. A person who desires to defend as a pauper must

enter an appearance to a writ in the ordinary way and afterwards apply

for an order to defend as a pauper. Where a person is admitted to sue or

defend as a pauper, counsel and solicitor may be assigned to him, and

such counsel and solicitor are not at liberty to refuse assistance

unless there is some good reason for refusing. If any person admitted to

sue or defend as a pauper agrees to pay fees to any person for the

conduct of his business he will be dispaupered. Costs ordered to be paid

to a pauper are taxed as in other cases. Appeals to the House of Lords

_in formâ pauperis_ were regulated by the Appeal (Formâ Pauperis) Act

1893, which gave the House of Lords power to refuse a petition for leave

to sue.

INFORMATION (from Lat. _informare_, to give shape or form to, to

represent, describe), the communication of knowledge; in English law, a

proceeding on behalf of the crown against a subject otherwise than by

indictment. A criminal information is a proceeding in the King's bench

by the attorney-general without the intervention of a grand jury. The

attorney-general, or, in his absence, the solicitor-general, has a right

_ex officio_ to file a criminal information in respect of any

indictments, but not for treason, felonies or misprision of treason. It

is, however, seldom exercised, except in cases which might be described

as "enormous misdemeanours," such as those peculiarly tending to disturb

or endanger the king's government, e.g. seditions, obstructing the

king's officers in the execution of their duties, &c. In the form of the

proceedings the attorney-general is said to "come into the court of our

lord the king before the king himself at Westminster, and gives the

court there to understand and be informed that, &c." Then follows the

statement of the offence as in an indictment. The information is filed

in the crown office without the leave of the court. An information may

also be filed at the instance of a private prosecutor for misdemeanours

not affecting the government, but being peculiarly flagrant and

pernicious. Thus criminal informations have been granted for bribing or

attempting to bribe public functionaries, and for aggravated libels on

public or private persons. Leave to file an information is obtained

after an application to show cause, founded on a sworn statement of the

material facts of the case.

Certain suits might also be filed in Chancery by way of information in

the name of the attorney-general, but this species of information was

superseded by Order 1, rule 1 of the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883,

under which they are instituted in the ordinary way. Informations in the

Court of Exchequer in revenue cases, also filed by the attorney-general,

are still resorted to (see _A.-G._ v. _Williamson_, 1889, 60 L.T. 930).

INFORMER, in a general sense, one who communicates information. The term

is applied to a person who prosecutes in any of the courts of law those

who break any law or penal statute. Such a person is called a common

informer when he furnishes evidence on criminal trials or prosecutes for

breaches of penal laws solely for the purpose of obtaining the penalty

recovered, or a share of it. An action by a common informer is termed a

_popular_ or _qui tam_ action, because it is brought by a person _qui

tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso sequitur_. A suit by an informer

must be brought within a year of the offence, unless a specific time is

prescribed by the statute. The term informer is also used of an

accomplice in crime who turns what is called "king's evidence" (see

ACCOMPLICE). In Scotland, informer is the term applied to the party who,

in criminal proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion.

INFUSORIA, the name given by Bütschli (following O.F. Ledermüller, 1763)

to a group of Protozoa. The name arose from the procedure adopted by the

older microscopists to obtain animalcules. Infusions of most varied

organic substances were prepared (hay and pepper being perhaps the

favourite ones), the method of obtaining them including maceration and

decoction, as well as infusion in the strict sense; they were then

allowed to decompose in the air, so that various living beings developed

therein. As classified by C. G. Ehrenberg in his monumental

_Infusionstierchen als volkommene Organismen_, they included (1)

Desmids, Diatoms and Schizomycetes, now regarded as essentially Plant

Protista or Protophytes; (2) Sarcodina (excluding Foraminifera, as well

as Radiolaria, which were only as yet known by their skeletons, and

termed Polycystina), and (3) Rotifers, as well as (4) Flagellates and

Infusoria in our present sense. F. Dujardin in his _Histoire des

zoophytes_ (1841) gave nearly as liberal an interpretation to the name;

while C. T. Van Siebold (1845) narrowed it to its present limits save

for the admission of several Flagellate families. O. Bütschli limited

the group by removing the Flagellata, Dinoflagellata and Cystoflagellata

(q.v.) under the name of "Mastigophora" proposed earlier by R. M.

Diesing (1865). We now define it thus:--Protozoa bounded by a permanent

plasmic pellicle and consequently of definite form, never using

pseudopodia for locomotion or ingestion, provided (at least in the young

state) with numerous cilia or organs derived from cilia and equipped

with a double nuclear apparatus: the larger (mega-) nucleus usually

dividing by constriction, and disappearing during conjugation: the

smaller (micro-) nucleus (sometimes multiple) dividing by mitosis, and

entering into conjugation and giving rise to the cycle of nuclei both

large and small of the race succeeding conjugation.

[Illustration: FIG. i. Ciliata.

1. _Opalinopsis sepiolae_, Foett.: a parasitic Holotrichous mouthless

Ciliate from the liver of the Squid. a, branched meganucleus; b,

vacuoles (non-contractile).

2. A similar specimen treated with picrocarmine, showing a remarkably

branched and twisted meganucleus (a), in place of several nuclei.

3. _Anoplophrya naidos_, Duj.; a mouthless Holotrichous Ciliate

parasitic in the worm Nais. a, the large axial meganucleus; b,

contractile vacuoles.

4. _Anoplophrya prolifera_, C. and L.; from the intestine of

_Clitellio_. Remarkable for the adhesion of incomplete

fission-products in a metameric series. a, meganucleus.

5. _Amphileptus gigas_, C. and L. (Gymnostomaceae). b, contractile

vacuoles; c, trichocysts (see fig. 2); d, meganucleus; e. pharynx.

6, 7. _Prorodon niveus_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae). a, meganucleus; b,

contractile vacuole; c, pharynx with horny cuticular lining.

6. The fasciculate cuticle of the pharynx isolated.

8. _Trachelius ovum_, Ehr. (Gymnostomaceae); showing the reticulate

arrangement of the endosarc, b, contractile vacuoles; c, the

cuticle-lined pharynx.

9, 10, 11, 12. _Icthyophthirius multifilius_, Fouquet

(Gymnostomaceae). Free individual and successive stages of division to

form spores. a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuoles.

13. _Didinium nasutum_, Müll. (Gymnostomaceae). The pharynx is everted

and has seized a _Paramecium_ as food. a, meganucleus; b, contractile

vacuole; c, everted pharynx.

14. _Euplotes charon_, Müll. (Hypotrichaceae); lateral view of the

animal when using its great cirrhi, x, as ambulatory organs.

15. _Euplotes harpa_, Stein (Hypotrichaceae); h, mouth; x, cirrhi.

16. _Nyctotherus cordiformis_, Stein (a Heterotriceae), parasitic in

the intestine of the Frog; a, meganucleus; b, contractile vacuole; c,

food particle; d, anus; e, heterotrichous band of membranelles; f, g,

mouth; h, pharynx; i, small cilia.]

Thus defined, the Infusoria fall into two groups:--(1) _Ciliata_, with

cilia or organs derived from cilia throughout their lives, provided with

a single permanent mouth (absent in the parasitic _Opalinopsidae_) flush

with the body or at the base of an oral depression, and taking in food

by active swallowing or by ciliary action: (2) _Suctoria_, rarely

ciliated except in the young state, and taking in their food by suction

through protrusible hollow tentacles, usually numerous.

The pellicle of the Infusoria is stronger and more permanent than in

many Protozoa, and sometimes assumes the character of a mail of hard

plates, closely fitting; but even in this case it undergoes solution

soon after death. It is continuous with a firm ectosarc, highly

differentiated in the Ciliata, and in both groups free from coarse

movable granules. The endosarc is semifluid and rich in granules

mostly "reserve" in nature, often showing proteid or fat reactions.

One or more contractile vacuoles are present in some of the marine and

all the freshwater species, and open to the surface by pores of

permanent position: a system of canals in the deeper layers of the

ectoplasm is sometimes connected with the vacucle. The body is often

provided with not-living external formations "stalk" and "theca" (or

"lorica").

The character of the nuclear apparatus excludes two groups both

parasitic and mouthless: (1) the Trichonymphidae, with a single

nucleus of Leidy, parasitic in Insects, especially Termites; (2) the

Opalinidae, with several (often numerous) uniform nuclei, parasitic in

the gut of Batrachia, &c., and producing 1-nuclear zoospores which

conjugate. Both these families we unite into a group of Pseudociliata,

which may be referred to the _Flagellata_ (q.v.). Lankester in the

last edition of this Encyclopaedia called attention to the doubtful

position of _Opalina_, and Delage and Hérouard placed Trichonymphidae

among Flagellates.

The theca or shell is present in some pelagic species (fig. iii. 3, 5)

and in many of the attached species, notably among the Peritricha

(fig. iii. 21, 22, 25, 26) and Suctoria (fig. viii. 11); and is found

in some free-swimming forms (fig. iii. 3, 5): it is usually chitinous,

and forms a cup into which the animal, protruded when at its utmost

elongation, can retract itself. In _Metacineta mystacina_ it has

several distinct slits (pylomes) for the passage of tufts of

tentacles. In _Stentor_ it is gelatinous; and in the Dictyocystids it

is beautifully latticed.

The stalk is usually solid, and expanded at the base into a disk in

Suctoria. In Peritrichaceae (fig. iii. 8-22, 25, 26), the only ciliate

group with a stalk, it grows for some time after its formation, and on

fission two new stalks continue the old one, so as to form a branched

colony (fig. iii. 18). In _Vorticella_ (fig. iii. 11, 12, 14, &c.) the

stalk is hollow and elastic, and attached to it along a spiral is a

prolongation of the ectosarc containing a bundle of myonemes, so that

by the contractions of the bundle the stalk is pulled down into a

corkscrew spiral, and on the relaxation of the muscle the elasticity

of the hollow stalk straightens it out.

On fission the stalk may become branched, as the solid one of

_Epistylis_ and _Opercularia_ (fig. iii. 20); and the myoneme also in

the tubular stem of _Zoothaminum_; or the branch-myoneme for the one

offspring may be inserted laterally on that for the other in

_Carchesium_ (fig. iii. 18). In several tubicolous Peritrichaceae

there is some arrangement for closing their tubes. In _Thuricola_

(fig. iii. 25-26) there is a valve which opens by the pressure of the

animal on its protrusion, and closes automatically by elasticity on

retraction. In _Lagenophrys_ the animal adheres to the cup a little

below the opening, so that its withdrawal closes the cup: at the

adherent part the body mass is hardened, and so differentiated as to

suggest the frame of the mouth of a purse. In _Pyxicola_ (fig. iii.

21-22) the animal bears some way down the body a hardened shield

("operculum") which closes the mouth of the shell on retraction.

[Illustration: FIG. ii.

1, Surface view of _Paramecium_, showing the disposition of the

cilia in longitudinal rows.

2, a, mega-; b, micronucleus; c, junction of ecto- and endosarc; D,

pellicle; E, endosarc; f, cilia (much too numerous and crowded); g,

trichocysts; g', same with thread; h, discharged; i, pharynx, its

undulating membrane not shown; k, food granules collecting into a

bolus; l, m, n, o, food vacuoles, their contents being digested as

they pass in the endosarc along the path indicated by the arrows.

3, Outline showing contractile vacuoles in commencing diastole,

surrounded by five afferent canals.

4-7 Successive stages of diastole of contractile vacuole.]

The cytoplasm of the Infusoria is very susceptible to injuries; and

when cut or torn, unless the pellicle contracts rapidly to enclose the

wounded surface, the substance of the body swells up, becoming frothy,

with bubbles which rapidly enlarge and finally burst; the cell thus

disintegrates, leaving only a few granules to mark where it was. This

phenomenon, observed by Dujardin, is called "diffluence." The

contractile vacuole appears to be one of the means by which diffluence

is avoided in cells with no strong wall to resist the absorption of

water in excess; for after growing in size for some time, its walls

contract suddenly, and its contents are expelled to the outside by a

pore, which is, like the anus, usually invisible, but permanent in

position. The contractile vacuole may be single or multiple; it may

receive the contents of a canal, or of a system of canals, which only

become visible at the moment of the contraction of the vacuole (fig.

ii. 4-7), giving liquid time to accumulate in them, or when the

vacuole is acting sluggishly or imperfectly, as in the approach of

asphyxia (fig. ii. 3). Besides this function, since the system passes

a large quantity of water from without through the substance of the

cell, it must needs act as a means of respiration and excretion. In

all Peritrichaceae it opens to the vestibule, and in some of them it

discharges through an intervening reservoir, curiously recalling the

arrangements in the Flagellate Euglenaceae.

The nuclear apparatus consists of two parts, the meganucleus, and the

micronucleus or micronuclei (fig. iii. 17d, iv. 1). The meganucleus

alone regarded and described as "the nucleus" by older observers is

always single, subject to a few reservations. It is most frequently

oval, and then is indented by the micronucleus; but it may be lobed,

the lobes lying far apart and connected by a slender bridge or

moniliform, or horseshoe-shaped (Peritrichaceae). It often contains

darker inclusions, like nucleoles.

It has been shown, more especially by Gruber, that many Ciliata are

multinucleate, and do not possess merely a single meganucleus and a

micronucleus. In _Oxytricha_ the nuclei are large and numerous (about

forty), scattered through the protoplasm, whilst in other cases the

nucleus is so finely divided as to appear like a powder diffused

uniformly through the medullary protoplasm (_Trachelocerca_). Carmine

staining, after treatment with absolute alcohol, has led to this

remarkable discovery. The condition described by Foettinger in his

_Opalinopsis_ (fig. i. 1, 2) is an example of this pulverization of

the nucleus. The condition of pulverization had led in some cases to a

total failure to detect any nucleus in the living animal, and it was

only by the use of reagents that the actual state of the case was

revealed. Before fission, whatever be its habitual character, it

condenses, becomes oval, and divides by constriction; and though it

usually is then fibrillated, only in a few cases does it approach the

typical mitotic condition. The micronucleus described by older writers

as the "nucleolus" or "paranucleus" ("endoplastule" of Huxley), may be

single or multiple. When the meganucleus is bilobed there are always

two micronuclei, and at least one is found next to every enlargement

of the moniliform meganucleus. In the fission of the Infusoria, every

micronucleus divides by a true mitotic process, during which, however,

its wall remains intact. From their relative sizes the meganucleus

would appear to discharge during cell-life, exclusively, the functions

of the nucleus in ordinary cells. Since in conjugation, however, the

meganucleus degenerates and is in great part either digested or

excreted as waste matter, while the new nuclear apparatus in both

exconjugates arises, as we shall see, from a conjugation-nucleus of

exclusively micronuclear origin, we infer that the micronucleus has

for its function the carrying on of the nuclear functions of the race

from one fission cycle to the next from which the meganucleus is

excluded.

Fission is the ordinary mode of reproduction in the Infusoria, and is

usually transverse, but oblique in _Stentor_, &., as in Flagellata,

longitudinal in Peritrichaceae; in some cases it is always more or

less unequal owing to the differentiation of the body, and

consequently it must be followed by a regeneration of the missing

organs in either daughter-cell. In some cases it becomes very uneven,

affording every transition to budding, which process assumes especial

importance in the Suctoria. Multiple fission (brood-formation or

sporulation) is exceptional in Infusoria, and when it occurs the

broods rarely exceed four or eight--another difference from

Flagellata. The nuclear processes during conjugation suggest the

phylogenetic loss of a process of multiple fission into active

gametes. As noted, in fission the meganucleus divides by direct

constriction; each micronucleus by a mode of mitosis. The process of

fission is subject in its activity to the influences of nutrition and

temperature, slackening as the food supply becomes inadequate or as

the temperature recedes from the optimum for the process. Moreover, if

the descendants of a single animal be raised, it is found that the

rapidity of fission, other conditions being the same, varies

periodically, undergoing periods of depression, which may be followed

by either (1) spontaneous recovery, (2) recovery under stimulating

food, (3) recovery through conjugation, or (4) the death of the cycle,

which would have ensued if 2 or 3 had been omitted at an earlier

stage, but which ultimately seems inevitable, even the induction of

conjugation failing to restore it. These physiological conditions were

first studied by E. Maupas, librarian to the city of Algiers, in his

pioneering work in the later 'eighties, and have been confirmed and

extended by later observers, among whom we may especially cite G. N.

Calkins.

Syngamy, usually termed conjugation or "karyogamy," is of exceptional

character in the majority of this group--the Peritrichaceae alone

evincing an approximation to the usual typical process of the

permanent fusion of two cells (pairing-cells or gametes), cytoplasm to

cytoplasm, nucleus to nucleus, to form a new cell (coupled cell,

zygote).

This process was elucidated by E. Maupas in 1889, and his results,

eagerly questioned and repeatedly tested, have been confirmed in every

fact and in every generalization of importance.

Previously all that had been definitely made out was that under

certain undetermined conditions a fit of pairing two and two occurred

among the animals of the same species in a culture or in a locality in

the open; that after a union prolonged over hours, and sometimes even

days, the mates separated; that during the union the meganucleus

underwent changes of a degenerative character; and that the

micronucleus underwent repeated divisions, and that from the offspring

of the micronuclei the new nuclear apparatus was evolved for each

mate. Maupas discovered the biological conditions leading to

conjugation: (1) the presence of individuals belonging to distinct

stocks; (2) their belonging to a generation sufficiently removed from

previous conjugation, but not too far removed therefrom; (3) a

deficiency of food. He also showed that during conjugation a

"migratory" nucleus, the offspring of the divisions of the

micronucleus, passes from either mate to the other, while its sister

nucleus remains "stationary"; and that reciprocal fusion of the

migratory nucleus of the one mate with the stationary nucleus of the

other takes place to form a zygote nucleus in either mate; and that

from these zygote nuclei in each by division, at least two nuclei are

formed, the one of which enlarges to form a meganucleus, while the

other remains small as the first micronucleus of the new reorganized

animal, which now separates as an "exconjugate" (fig. iv). Moreover,

if pairing be prevented, or be not induced, the individuals produced

by successive fissions become gradually weaker, their nuclear

apparatus degenerates, and finally they cannot be induced under

suitable conditions to pair normally, so that the cycle becomes

extinct by senile decay. In Peritrichaceae the gametes are of unequal

sizes (fig. iii. 11, 12), the smaller being formed by brood fissions

(4 or 8); syngamy is here permanent, not temporary, the smaller (male)

being absorbed into the body of the larger (female); and there are

only two nuclei that pair. Thus we have a derived binary sexual

process, comparable to that of ordinary bisexual organisms.

[Illustration: FIG. iii.-- Ciliata: 1, 2, Heterotrichaceae; 3-7,

23-24, Oligotrichaceae; 8-22, 25, 26, Peritrichaceae.

1, _Spirostomum ambiguum_, Ehr.; on its left side oral groove and

wreath of membranellae; a, moniliform meganucleus; b, position of

contractile vacuole.

2, Group of _Stentor polymorphus_, O. F. Müller; the twisted end of

the peristome indicating the position of the mouth.

3, _Tintinnus lagenula_, Cl. and L., in free shell.

4, _Strombidium claparedii_, S. Kent.

5, Shell of _Codonella campanella_, Haeck.

6, 7, _Torquatella typica_, Lank. (= _Strombidium_ according to

Bütschli); p, oral tube seen through peristomial wreath of

apparently coalescent membranellae.

8. Basal, and 9, side (inverted) views of _Trichodina pediculus_,

Ehr.; a, meganucleus; c, basal collar and ring of hooks; d, mouth;

contractile vacuole and oral tube seen by transparency in 8.

10, _Spirochona gammipara_, Stein; a, meganucleus; g, bud.

11, 12, _Vorticella microstoma_, Ehr.; d, formation of a brood of 8

microgametes c by multiple fission; b, contr. vacuole.

13, Same sp. in binary fission; a, meganucleus.

14, _V. nebulifera_, Ehr.; bud swimming away by posterior wreath,

peristome contracted; e, peristomial disk; f, oral tube.

15, _V. microstoma_; b, contr. vacuole; c, d, two microgametes

seeking to conjugate.

16, _V. nebulifera_, contracted, with body encysted.

17, Same sp. enlarged; c, myonemes converging posteriorly to muscle

of stalk; d, micronucleus.

18, _Carchesium spectabile_, Ehr.; (×50).

19, Nematocysts of _Epistylis flavicans_. Ehr. (after Greeff).

20, _Opercularia stenostoma_, St.; (×200); a small colony showing

upstanding ("opercular") peristomial disk, protruded oral undulating

membranejand cilia in oral tube.

21, 22, _Pyxicola affinis_, S.K., with stalk and theca; x, chitinous

disk, or true "operculum" closing theca in retracted state.

23, 24, _Caenomorpha medusula_, Perty, (×250), with spiral

peristomial wreath.

25, 26, _Thuricola valvata_, Str. Wright, in sessile theca, with

internal valve (v) to close tube, as in gastropod _Clausilia_; owing

to recent fission two animals occupy one tube.]

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.

FIG. iv.--Diagrammatic Sketch of Changes during Conjugation in

Ciliata. (From Hickson after Delage and Maupas.)

1, Two individuals at commencement of conjugation showing

meganucleus (dotted) and micronucleus; successive stages of the

disintegration of the meganucleus shown in all figures up to 9.

2, 3, First mitotic division of micronuclei.

4, 5, Second ditto.

6, One of the four nuclei resulting from the second division again

dividing to form the pairing-nuclei in either mate, while the other

3 nuclei degenerate.

7, Migration of the migratory nuclei.

8, 9, Fusion of the incoming migratory with the stationary nucleus

in either mate.

10, Fission of Zygote nucleus into two, the new mega- and

micronucleus whose differentiation is shown in 11, 12. The vertical

dotted line indicates the separation of the mates.]

CILIATA.--The _Ciliate_ Infusoria represent the highest type of

Protozoa. They are distinctly animal in function, and the Gymnostomaceae

are active predaceous beings preying on other Infusoria or Flagellates.

Some possess shells (fig. iii. 3, 5, 21, 22, 25, 26), most have a

distinct swallowing apparatus, and in _Dysteria_ there is a complex

jaw--or tooth-apparatus, which needs new investigation. In the active

Ciliata we find locomotive organs of most varied kinds: tail-springs,

cirrhi for crawling and darting, cilia and membranellae for continuous

swimming in the open or gliding over surfaces or waltzing on the

substratum (_Trichodina_, fig. iii. 8) or for eddying in wild turns

through the water (_Strombidium_, _Tintinnus_, _Halteria_). Their forms

offer a most interesting variety, and the flexibility of many adds to

their easy grace of movement, especially where the front of the body is

produced and elongated like the neck of a swan (_Amphileptus_, fig. iii.

5; _Lacrymaria_).

The cytoplasm is very highly differentiated: especially the ectoplasm

or ectosarc. This has always a distinct elastic "pellicle" or limiting

layer, in a few cases hard, or even with local hardenings that affect

the disposition of a coat of mail (_Coleps_) or a pair of valves

(_Dysteria_); but is usually only marked into a rhomboidal network by

intersecting depressions, with the cilia occupying the centres of the

areas or meshes defined. The cytoplasm within is distinctly

alveolated, and frequently contains tubular alveoli running along the

length of the animal. Between these are dense fibrous thickenings,

which from their double refraction, from their arrangement, and from

their shortening in contracted animals are regarded as of muscular

function and termed "myonemes." Other threads running alongside of

these, and not shortening but becoming wavy in the general contraction

have been described in a few species as "neuronemes" and as possessing

a _nervous_, conducting character. On this level, too, lie the

dot-like granules at the bases of the cilia, which form definite

groups in the case of such organs as are composed of fused cilia; in

the deeper part of the ectoplasm the vacuoles or alveoli are more

numerous, and reserve granules are also found; here too exist the

canals, sometimes developed into a complex network, which open into

the contractile vacuole.

[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.

FIG. v.--Diagram 1 illustrating changes during conjugation of

_Colpidium colpoda_. (From Hickson, after Maupas.)

M, Old meganucleus undergoing disintegration.

m, Micronucleus.

N, migratory, and

S, Stationary pairing-nucleus.

M´, M´, the new meganuclei, and

m´, The new micronuclei in the products of the first fission of each

of the exconjugates; the continuous vertical line indicates period

of fusion, its cessation, separation; dotted lines indicate fission;

the spaces lettered 1-7 successive stages in the process; the clear

circles indicate functionless nuclei which degenerate.]

The cilia themselves have a stiffer basal part, probably strengthened

by an axial rod, and a distal flexible lash; when cilia are united by

the outer plasmatic layer, they form (1) "Cirrhi," stiff and either

hook-like and pointed at the end, or brush-like, with a frayed apex;

(2) membranelles, flattened organs composed of a number of cilia fused

side by side, sometimes on a single row, sometimes on two rows

approximated at either end so as to form a narrow oval, the

membranelle thus being hollow; (3) the oral "undulating membrane,"

merely a very elongated membranelle whose base may extend over a

length nearly equal to the length of the animal; such membranes are

present in the mouth oral depression and pharynx of all but

Gymnostomaceae, and aid in ingestion; a second or third may be

present, and behave like active lips; (4) in Peritrichaceae the cilia

of the peristomial wreath are united below into a continuous

undulating membrane, forming a spiral of more than one turn, and fray

out distally into a fringe; (5) the dorsal cilia of Hypotrichaceae are

slender and motionless, probably sensory.

Embedded in the ectosarc of many Ciliates are trichocysts, little

elongated sacs at right angles to the surface, with a fine hair-like

process projecting. On irritation these elongate into strong prominent

threads, often with a more or less barb-like head, and may be ejected

altogether from the body. Those over the surface of the body appear to

be protective; but in the Gymnostomaceae specially strong ones

surround the mouth. They can be injected into the prey pursued, and

appear to have a distinctly poisonous effect on it. They are combined

also into defensive batteries in the Gymnostome _Loxophyllum_. They

are absent from most Heterotrichaceae and Hypotrichaceae, and from

Peritrichaceae, except for a zone round the collar of the peristome.

The openings of the body are the _mouth_, absent in a few parasital

species (_Opalinopsis_, fig. i. 1, 2), the _anus_ and the _pore_ of

the contractile vacuole. The _mouth_ is easily recognizable; in the

most primitive forms of the Gymnostomaceae and some other groups, it

is terminal, but it passes further and further back in more modified

species, thereby defining a ventral, and correspondingly a dorsal

surface; it usually lies on the left side. The anus is usually only

visible during excretion, though its position is permanent; in a few

genera it is always visible (e.g. _Nyctotherus_, fig. i. 16). The pore

of the contractile vacuole might be described in the same terms.

The endoplasm has also an alveolar structure, and contains besides

large food-vacuoles or digestive vacuoles, and shows movements of

rotation within the ectoplasm, from which, however, it is not usually

distinctly bounded. In _Ophryoscolex_ and _Didinium_ (fig. i. 13) a

permanent cavity traverses it from mouth to anus.

[Illustration: From Calkins' _Protozoa_, by permission of the

Macmillan Company, N.Y.

FIG. vi.--Diagrammatic view of behaviour of the motile reaction of

Paramecium after meeting a mechanical obstruction at A. (From G. N.

Calkins after H. S. Jennings.) For clearness and simplicity the normal

motion is supposed to be straight instead of spiral.]

Ingestion of food is of the same character in all the Hymenostomata.

The ciliary current drives a powerful stream into the mouth, which

impinges against the endosarc, carrying with it the food particles;

these adhere and accumulate to form a pellet, which ultimately is

pushed by an apparently sudden action into the substance of the

endosarc which closes behind it (fig. ii. 2). In some of the

Aspirotrichaceae accessory undulating membranes play the part of lips,

and there is a closer approximation to true deglutition. The mouth is

rarely terminal, more frequently at the bottom of a depression, the

"vestibule," which may be prolonged into a slender canal, sometimes

called the "pharynx" or "oral tube," ciliated as well as provided with

a membrane, and extending deep down into the body in many

Peritrichaceae.

In Spirostomaceae the "adoral wreath" of membranelles encloses more or

less completely an anterior part of the body, the "peristome," within

which lies the vestibule. This area may be depressed, truncate, convex

or produced into a short obconical disk or into one or more lobes, or

finally form a funnel, or a twisted spiral like a paper cone. In most

Peritrichaceae a collar-like rim surrounds the peristome, and marks

out a gutter from which the vestibule opens; the peristome can be

retracted, and the collar close over it. This rim forms a deep

permanent spiral funnel in _Spirochona_ (fig. iii. 10).

_Movements of Ciliata._--H. S. Jennings has made a very detailed study

of these movements, which resemble those of most minute free-swimming

organisms. The following account applies practically to all active

"Infusoria" in the widest sense.

[Illustration: FIG. vii.--Diagram of a mode of progression of a

Ciliate like _Paramecium_; m, mouth and pharynx; the straight line A,

B, represents the axis of progression described by the posterior end,

and the spiral line the curve described by the anterior end; the clear

circles are the contractile vacuoles on the dorsal side.]

The position of the free-swimming Infusoria, like that of Rotifers and

other small swimming animals, is with the front end of the body

inclined outward to the axis of advance, constantly changing its

azimuth while preserving its angle constant or nearly so; if advance

were ignored the body would thus rotate so as to trace out a cone,

with the hinder end at the apex, and the front describing the base. On

any irritation, (1) the motion is arrested, (2) the animal reverses

its cilia and swims backwards, (3) it swerves outwards away from the

axis so as to make a larger angle with it, and (4) then swims forwards

along a new axis of progression, to which it is inclined at the same

angle as to the previous axis (figs. vi., vii.). In this way it alters

its axis of progression when it finds itself under conditions of

stimulation. Thus a _Paramecium_ coming into a region relatively too

cold, too hot, or too poor in CO2 or in nutriment, alters its

direction of swimming; in this way individuals come to assemble in

crowds where food is abundant, or even where there is a slight excess

of CO2. This reaction may lead to fatal results; if a solution of

corrosive sublimate (Mercuric chloride) diffuses towards the hinder

end of the animal faster than it progresses, the stimulus affecting

the hinder end first, the axis of progression is altered so as to

bring the animal after a few changes into a region where the solution

is strong enough to kill it. This "motile reaction," first noted by H.

S. Jennings, is the explanation of the general reactions of minute

swimming animals to most stimuli of whatever character, including

light; the practical working out is, as he terms it, a method of

"trial and error." The action, however, of a current of electricity is

distinctly and immediately directive; but such a stimulus is not to be

found in nature. The motile reaction in the Hypotrichaceae which crawl

or dart in a straight line is somewhat different, the swerve being a

simple turn to the right hand--i.e. away from the mouth.

Parasitism in the Infusoria is by no means so important as among

Flagellates. _Ichthyophthirius_ alone causes epidemics among Fishes,

and _Balantidium coli_ has been observed in intestinal disease in Man.

The Isotricheae, among Aspirotrichaceae and the Ophryoscolecidae among

Heterotrichaceae are found in abundance in the stomachs of Ruminants,

and are believed to play a part in the digestion of cellulose, and

thus to be rather commensals than parasites. A large number of

attached species are epizoic commensals, some very indifferent in

choice of their host, others particular not only in the species they

infest, but also in the special organs to which they adhere. This is

notably the case with the shelled Peritrichaceae. _Lichnophora_ and

_Trichodina_ (fig. iii. 8, 9) among Peritrichaceae are capable of

locomotion by their permanent posterior wreath or of attaching

themselves by the sucker which surrounds it; _Kerona polyporum_ glides

habitually over the body of Hydra, as does _Trichodina pediculus_.

Several Suctoria are endoparasitic in Ciliata, and their occurrence

led to the view that they represented stages in the life-history of

these. Again, we find in the endosarc of certain Ciliates green

nucleated cells, which have a cellulose envelope and multiply by

fission inside or outside the animal. They are symbiotic Algae, or

possibly the resting state of a Chlamydomonadine Flagellate

(_Carteria_?), and have received the name _Zoochlorella_. They are of

constant occurrence in _Paramecium bursaria_, frequent in _Stentor

polymorphus_ and _S. igneus_, and _Ophrydium versatile_, and a few

other species, which become infected by swallowing them.

_Classification._

Order I.--Section A.--Gymnostomaceae. Mouth habitually closed;

swallowing an active process; cilia (or membranelles) uniform, usually

distributed evenly over the body; form variable, sometimes of circular

transverse section.

Section B.--Trichostomata. Mouth permanently open against the

endosarc, provided with 1 or 2 undulating membranes often prolonged

into an inturned pharynx; ingestion by action of oral ciliary

apparatus.

Order 2.--Subsection (a).--Aspirotrichaceae. Cilia nearly uniform, not

associated with cirrhi or membranelles, nor forming a peristomial

wreath. Form usually flattened, mouth unilateral. (N.B.--Orders 1, 2

are sometimes united into the single order Holotrichaceae.)

Subsection (b).--Spirotricha. Wreath of distinct membranelles--or of

cilia fused at the base--enclosing a peristomial area and leading into

the mouth.

§§ i.--Wreath of separate membranelles.

Order 3.--Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform cilia,

usually circular in transverse section.

Order 4.--Oligotrichaceae; body covering partial or wholly absent;

transverse section usually circular.

Order 5.--Hypotrichaceae; body flattened; body cilia represented

chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motionless dorsal

sensory hairs.

Order 6.--§§ ii.--Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, spiral,

of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular of long

membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical, taper, or

bell-shaped.

_Illustrative Genera (selected)._

1. Gymnostomaceae. (a) Ciliation general or not confined to one

surface. _Coleps_ Ehr., with pellicle locally hardened into mailed

plates; _Trachelocerca_ Ehr.; _Prorodon_ Ehr. (fig. i. 6, 7);

_Trachelius_ Ehr., with branching endosarc (fig. i. 8); _Lacrymaria_

Ehr. (fig. i. 5), body produced into a long neck with terminal mouth

surrounded by offensive trichocysts; _Dileptus_ Duj., of similar form,

but anterior process, blind, preoral; _Ichthyophthirius_ Fouquet (fig.

i. 9-12), cilia represented by two girdles of membranellae; _Didinium_

St. (fig. i. 13), cilia in tufts, surface with numerous tentacles each

with a strong terminal trichocyst; _Actinobolus_ Stein, body with one

adoral tentacle; Ileonema Stokes. (b) Cilia confined to dorsal

surface. _Chilodon_ Ehr.; _Loxodes_ Ehr., body flattened, ciliated on

one side only, endosarc as in _Trachelius_; _Dysteria_ Huxley, with

the dorsal surface hardened and hinged along the median line into a

bivalve shell, ciliated only on ventral surface, with a protrusible

foot-like process, and a complex pharyngeal armature. (c) Cilia

restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably

membranelles); _Mesodinium_, mouth 4-lobed.

2. Aspirotrichaceae. _Paramecium_ Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); _Ophryoglena_

Ehr.; _Colpoda_ O. F. Müller; _Colpidium_ St.; _Lembus_ Cohn, with

posterior strong cilium for springing; _Leucophrys_ St.; _Urocentrum_

Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft of

long cilia; _Opalinopsis_ Foetlinger (fig. i. 1, 2); _Anoplophyra_

St. (fig. i. 3, 4). (The last two parasitic mouthless genera are

placed here doubtfully.)

3. Heterotrichaceae. (a) Wreath spiral; _Stentor_ Oken. (fig. iii. 2),

oval when free, trumpet-shaped when attached by pseudopods at apex,

and then often secreting a gelatinous tube; _Blepharisma_ Perty,

sometimes parasitic in Heliozoa; _Spirostomum_ Ehr., cylindrical, up

to 1´´ in length; (b) Wreath straight, often oblique; _Nyctotherus_

Leidy, parasitic anus always visible; _Balantidium_ Cl. and L.,

parasitic (_B. coli_ in man); _Bursaria_, O.F.M., hollowed into an

oval pouch, with the wreath inside.

4. Oligotrichaeceae. _Tintinnus_ Schranck (fig. iii. 3);

_Trichodinopsis_ Cl. and L.; _Codonella_ Haeck. (fig. iii. 5);

_Strombidium_ Cl. and L. (fig. iii. 4), including _Torquatella_ Lank.

(fig. iii. 6, 7), according to Bütschli; _Halteria_ Duj., with an

equatorial girdle of stiff bristle-like cilia; _Caenomorpha_ Perty

(fig. iii. 23, 24); _Ophryoscolex_ St., with straight digestive

cavity, and visible anus, parasitic in Ruminants.

5. Hypotrichaceae. _Stylonychia_ Ehr.; _Oxytricha_ Ehr.; _Euplotes_

Ehr. (fig. i. 14, 15); _Kerona_ Ehr. (epizoic on _Hydra_).

6. Peritrichaceae. 1. Peristomial wreath projecting when expanded

above a circular contractile collar-like rim.

(a) Fam. Urceolaridae: posterior wreath permanently present around

sucker-like base. _Trichodina_ Ehr. (fig. iii. 8, 9), epizoic on

Hydra; _Lichnophora_ Cl. and L.; _Cyclochaeta_ Hatchett Jackson;

_Gerda_ Cl. and L.; _Scyphidia_ Duj.

(b) Fam. Vorticellidae = Bell Animalcules: posterior wreath

temporarily present, shed after fixation.

Subfam. 1. Vorticellinae animals naked. (i.) Solitary; _Vorticella_

Linn. (fig. iii. 11-17), stalk hollow with spiral muscle; _Pyxidium_

S. Kent, stalk non-contractile. (ii.) Forming colonies by budding on a

branched stalk: _Carchesium_ Ehr., hollow branches and muscles

discontinuous; _Zoothamnium_. Ehr., branched hollow stem and muscle

continuous through colony; _Epistylis_ Ehr., stalk rigid--(the animal

body in these three genera has the same characters as

_Vorticella_)--_Campanella_ Goldf., stalked like _Epistylis_, wreath

of many turns (nematocysts sometimes present) (fig. iii. 19);

_Opercularia_, stalk of _Epistylis_, disk supporting wreath obconical,

collar very high (fig. iii. 20).

Subfam. 2. Vaginicolinae; body enclosed in a firm theca: _Vaginicola_

Lam., shell simple, sessile; _Thuricola_ St. Wright, shell sessile,

with a valve opening inwards (fig. iii. 25-26); _Cothurnia_ Ehr.,

shell stalked, simple; _Pyxicola_ S. Kent, shell stalked, closed by an

infraperistomial opercular thickening on the body (fig. iii. 21-22).

Subfam. 3. Shells gelatinous; those of the colony aggregated into a

floating spheroidal mass several inches in diameter _Ophrydium_ Bory,

_O. versatile_ contains _Zoochlorella_, which secretes oxygen, and the

gas-bubbles float the colonies like green lumps of jelly.

2. Peristomial wreath, not protrusible, surrounded by a very high

usually spiral collar.

Fam. Spirochonina. _Spirochona_ St. (fig. iii. 10); _Kentrochona_

Rompel; both genera epizoic on gills, &c., of small Crustacea.

SUCTORIA.--These are distinguished from Ciliata by their possession of

hollow tentacles (one only in _Rhyncheta_, fig. viii. 1, and _Urnula_)

through which they ingest food, and by not possessing cilia, except in

the young stage. Fission approximately equal is very rare. Usually it is

unequal, or if nearly equal one of the halves remains attached, and the

other, as an embryo or gemmule, develops cilia and swims off to attach

itself elsewhere; _Sphaerophrya_ (fig. viii. 2-6) alone, often occurring

as an endoparasite in Ciliata, may be free, tentaculate and unattached.

The ectosarc is usually provided with a firm pellicle which shows a

peculiar radiate "milling" in optical section, so fine that its true

nature is difficult to make out; it may be due to radial rods,

regularly imbedded, or may be the expression of radial vacuoles. The

tentacles vary in many respects, but are always retractile. They are

tubes covered by an extension of the pellicle; this is invaginated

into the body round the base of the tentacle as a sheath, and then

evaginated to form the outer layer of the tentacle itself, over which

it is frequently raised into a spiral ridge, which may be traced down

into the part sunk and ensheathed within the body: in _Choanophrya_,

where the tentacles are largest, the pellicle is further continued

into the interior of the tentacle. The tentacles are always pierced by

a central canal opening at the apex, which may be (1) enlarged into a

terminal capitate sucker, (2) slightly flared, (3) truncate and closed

in the resting state to become widely opened into a funnel, or (4)

pointed. The tentacles are always capable of being waved from side to

side, or turned in a definite direction for the reception or

prehension of food; in _Rhyncheta_, the movements of the long single

tentacle recall those of an elephant's trunk, only they are more

extensive and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists

of Ciliata; and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the

canal of the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general

surface. In _Choanophrya_ the food appears to consist of the débris of

the prey of the carnivorous host (_Cyclops_), which is sucked into the

wide funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles--by what mechanism is

unknown. The endosarc is full of food-granules and reserve-granules

(oil, colouring matter and proteid).

[Illustration: FIG. viii.--Suctoria (in all a, meganucleus; b,

contractile vacuole).

1, _Rhyncheta cyclopum_, Zenker; only a single tentacle and that

suctorial; epizoic on Cyclops.

2, _Sphaerophrya urostylae_, Maupas; normal adult; parasitic in

Ciliate _Urostyla_.

3, The same dividing by transverse fission, the anterior moiety with

temporarily developed cilia.

4, 5, 6, _Sphaerophrya stentorea_, Maupas. Parasitic in _Stentor_,

and at one time mistaken for its young.

7, _Trichophrya epistylidis_, Cl. and L.

8, _Hemiophrya gemmipara_, Hertwig. Example with six buds, into each

of which a branch of the meganucleus a is extended.

9, The same species, showing the two kinds of tentacles (the

suctorial and the pointed), and two contractile vacuoles b.

10, Ciliated embryo of _Podophrya steinii_, Cl. and L.

11, _Acineta grandis_, Saville Kent; showing pedunculated cup, and

animal with two bunches of entirely suctorial tentacles.

12, _Sphaerophrya magna_, Maupas. It has seized with its tentacles,

and is in the act of sucking out the juices of six examples of the

Ciliate _Colpoda parvifrons_.

13, _Podophrya elongata_, Cl. and L.

14, _Hemiophrya benedenii_, Fraip.; the suctorial tentacles

retracted.

15, _Dendrocometes paradoxus_, Stein. Parasitic on Gammarus pulex;

captured prey.

16, A single tentacle of _Podophrya_. R. Hertwig.

17-20, _Dendrosoma radians_, Ehr.:--17, free-swimming ciliated

embryo. 18, Earliest fixed condition of the embryo. 19, Later stage,

a single tentaculiferous process now developed. 20, Adult colony; c,

enclosed ciliated embryos; d, branching stolon; e, more minute

reproductive (?) bodies.

21, _Ophryodendron pedicellatum_, Hincks.]

The meganucleus and the micronucleus are both usually single, but in

_Dendrosoma_ (fig. viii. 20), of which the body is branched, and the

meganucleus with it, there are numerous micronuclei. In most cases the

micronucleus has not been recorded, though from the similarity of

conjugation, and its presence in most cases of fission and budding

that have been accurately described, we may infer that it is always

present. In unequal fission the meganucleus sends a process into the

bud, while the micronucleus divides as in Ciliata. The bud may be

nearly equal to the remains of the original animal, or much smaller,

and in that case a depression surrounds it which may deepen so as to

form a brood-cavity, either communicating by a mere "birth-pore" with

the outside or entirely closed. In some cases the budding is multiple

(fig. viii. 8), and a large number of buds are formed and liberated at

the same time. In all cases the bud escapes without tentacles, and

possesses a characteristic supply of cilia, whose arrangement is

constant for the species.

In some cases an adult may withdraw its tentacles, moult its pellicle

and develop an equipment of cilia and swim away: this is the case with

_Dendrocometes_, parasitic on _Gammarus_, when its host moults.

The numerous species of Suctoria, often so abundant on various species

of _Cyclops_, are not found on the other freshwater Copepoda,

_Diaptomus_ and _Canthocamptus_, belonging indeed to other families.

Again, these Suctoria affect different positions, those found on the

antennae not being present on the mouth parts; the ventral part of the

thorax has another set; and the inside of the pleural fold another.

_Rhyncheta_ occupies the front of the "couplers" or median downgrowths

uniting the coxopodites of the swimming legs, and _Choanophrya_

settles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth, preferably on the

epistoma, labrum and metastomatic region, but also on the adoral

appendages and in rare cases extends, when the settlement is

extensive, to the bases of the two pairs of antennae; while distinct

species of _Podophrya_ settle on the antennae, the front of the thorax

and the inside of the pleural folds. _Dendrocometes_ is common on the

gills of the freshwater shrimp (Amphipod) _Gammarus_ and

_Stylocometes_ on the gills and gill-covers of the Isopod Asellus, the

water-slater. The independence of the Acinetaria was threatened by the

erroneous view of Stein that they were phases in the life-history of

Vorticellidae. Small parasitic forms (_Sphaerophrya_) were also

regarded erroneously as the "acinetiform young" of Ciliata. They now

must be regarded as an extreme modification of the Protozoon series,

in which the differentiation of organs in a unicellular animal reaches

its highest point.

_Principal Genera._

1. Unstalked simple forms. _Urnula_ Cl. and L., permanently ciliate;

_Rhyncheta_ Zenker (fig. viii. 1), on the limb couplers of _Cyclops_;

_Sphaerophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 2-6, 12), endoparasitic in

Ciliata and formerly taken for embryos thereof, never attached;

_Trichophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 7), of similar habits, but

temporarily attached, sessile.

2. Stalked simple forms; _Podophrya_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 10, 13, 16),

tentacles all knobbed or flared; _Ephelota_ Strethill Wright,

tentacles all pointed; _Hemiophrya_ S. Kent (fig. viii. 8, 9, 14),

tentacles of both kinds; _Choanophrya_ Hartog, tentacles thick,

truncate, very retractile, when expanded opening into funnels for

aspiration of floating prey, never for attachment--epizoic on

antero-ventral parts of _Cyclops_.

3. Cupped forms; _Solenophrya_ Cl. and L., cup sessile; _Acineta_

Ehr., cup stalked; _Acinetopsis_ Bütschli, like _Acineta_, but the cup

flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures ("pylomes")

for the bundles of tentacles; _Podocyathus_, like _Acineta_, but with

pointed as well as knobbed tentacles.

4. Tentacles in bundles at the tips of one or more processes or

branches of the body. _Ophryodendron_ Cl. and L., tentaculiferous

process single (fig. viii. 21); _Dendrocometes_ Stein (fig. viii. 15),

body rounded, processes repeatedly branched, epizoic on gills of

_Gammarus pulex_; _Dendrosoma_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 17-20), body freely

branched from a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the

body.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) Infusoria in the widest sense: C. E. Ehrenberg.

_Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (1838); F.

Dujardin, _Zoophytes infusoires_ (1841). (b) Infusoria, including

Mastigophora: M. Perty, _Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen_ (1852);

E. Claparède and J. Lachmann, _Études sur les infusoires_ _et les

Rhizopodes_ (1858-1861); F. von Stein, _Der Organismus der

Infusionstiere_ (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, _A Manual of the

Infusoria_, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate

and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (c) Infusoria, as limited by

Bütschli. O. Bütschli, _Bronn's Tierreich_, vol. i. _Protozoa_, pt. 3

_Infusoria_ (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without

specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, "The Infusoria" in Lankester's

_Treatise on Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well

illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and

Hérouard, _Traité de Zoologie concrète_, vol. i. "La Cellule et les

Protozoaires" (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera; E.

Maupas, "Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des

Infusoires ciliés," _Arch. zool. exp._ vi. (1888); and "Le

Rajeunissement karyogomique chez les Ciliés," _ib._ vii. (1889); R.

Sand, _Étude monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires

tentaculifères_ (Suctoria), (1899), with diagnoses of species; A.

Lang, _Lehrb. der vergleich, Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere_, vol. i.

"Protozoa" (1901) (a view of comparative anatomy, physiology and

bionomics); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_,

i. (1906); H. S. Jennings, _Contributions to the Study of the

Behaviour of Lower Organisms_ (1904); G. N. Calkins, "Studies on the

Life History of Protozoa" (Life cycle of Paramecium), I. _Arch. Entw._

xv. (1902), II. _Arch. Prot._ i. (1902), III. _Biol. Bull._ iii.

(1902), IV. _J. Exp. Zool._ i. (1904). Numerous papers dealing

especially with advances in structural knowledge have appeared in the

_Archiv für Protistenkunde_, founded by F. Schaudinn in 1902.

(M. Ha.)

INGEBORG [INGEBURGE, INGELBURGE, INGELBORG, ISEMBURGE, Dan. INGIBJÖRG]

(c. 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, was the daughter of Valdemar

I., king of Denmark. She married in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of

France, but on the day after his marriage the king took a sudden

aversion to her, and wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty

years he strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration

of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiègne acceded to his wish

on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine III. and Innocent

III. successively took up the defence of the unfortunate queen. Philip,

having married Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as

he remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes

was finally sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the château of Étampes,

had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The king attempted

to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to enter a convent. At

last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to justify by his wife's claims his

pretensions to England, Philip was reconciled with Ingeborg, whose life

from henceforth was devoted to religion. She survived him more than

fourteen years, passing the greater part of the time in the priory of St

Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded.

See Robert Davidson, _Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg_

(Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, "Zur Geschichte der Königin

Ingelborg" in the _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_ (1890).

INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the name of two

contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the grand-duchy of

Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Selz, near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 m.

W.N.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz. Ober-Ingelheim, formerly an

imperial town, is still surrounded by walls. It has an Evangelical

church with painted windows representing scenes in the life of

Charlemagne, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. Its chief industry

is the manufacture of red wine. Pop. (1900) 3402. Nieder-Ingelheim has

an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and, in addition to wine,

manufactories of paper, chemicals, cement and malt. Pop. 3435.

Nieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace of

Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built by that

emperor between 768 and 774. The building contained one hundred marble

pillars, and was also adorned with sculptures and mosaics sent from

Ravenna by Pope Adrian I. It was extended by Frederick Barbarossa, and

was burned down in 1270, being restored by the emperor Charles IV. in

1354. Having passed into the possession of the elector palatine of the

Rhine, the building suffered much damage during a war in 1462, the

Thirty Years' War, and the French invasion in 1689. Only few remains of

it are now standing; but of the pillars, several are in Paris, one is in

the museum at Wiesbaden and another on the Schillerplatz in Mainz.

Inside its boundaries there is the restored Remigius Kirche, apparently

dating from the time of Frederick I.

See Hilz, _Der Reichspalast zu Ingelheim_ (Ober-Ingelheim, 1868); and

Clemen, "Der Karolingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim," in

_Westdeutsche Zeitschrift_, Band ix. (Trier, 1890).

INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist, was born at

Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 17th of March 1820. She was the daughter

of William Ingelow, a banker of that town. As a girl she contributed

verses and tales to the magazines under the pseudonym of "Orris," but

her first (anonymous) volume, _A Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and

Feelings_, did not appear until her thirtieth year. This Tennyson said

had "very charming things" in it, and he declared he should "like to

know" the author, who was later admitted to his friendship. Miss Ingelow

followed this book of verse in 1851 with a story, _Allerton and Dreux_,

but it was the publication of her _Poems_ in 1863 which suddenly raised

her to the rank of a popular writer. They ran rapidly through numerous

editions, were set to music, and sung in every drawing-room, and in

America obtained an even greater hold upon public estimation. In 1867

she published _The Story of Doom and other Poems_, and then gave up

verse for a while and became industrious as a novelist. _Off the

Skelligs_ appeared in 1872, _Fated to be Free_ in 1873, _Sarah de

Berenger_ in 1880, and _John Jerome_ in 1886. She also wrote _Studies

for Stories_ (1864), _Stories told to a Child_ (1865), _Mopsa the Fairy_

(1869), and other excellent stories for children. Her third series of

_Poems_ was published in 1885. She resided for the last years of her

life in Kensington, and somewhat outlived her popularity as a poet. She

died on the 20th of July 1897. Her poems, which were collected in one

volume in 1898, have often the genuine ballad note, and as a writer of

songs she was exceedingly successful. "Sailing beyond Seas" and "When

Sparrows build" in _Supper at the Mill_ were deservedly among the most

popular songs of the day; but they share, with the rest of her work, the

faults of affectation and stilted phraseology. Her best-known poem was

the "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," which reached the highest

level of excellence. The blemishes of her style were cleverly indicated

in a well-known parody of Calverley's; a false archaism and a deliberate

assumption of unfamiliar and unnecessary synonyms for simple objects

were among the most vicious of her mannerisms. She wrote, however, in

verse with a sweetness which her sentiment and her heart inspired, and

in prose she displayed feeling for character and the gift of narrative;

while a delicate underlying tenderness is never wanting in either medium

to her sometimes tortured expression. Miss Ingelow was a woman of frank

and hospitable manners, with a look of the Lady Bountiful of a country

parish. She had nothing of the professional authoress or the "literary

lady" about her, and, as with characteristic simplicity she was

accustomed to say, was no great reader. Her temperament was rather that

of the improvisatore than of the professional author or artist.

INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), Danish poet and novelist, was

born at Torkildstrup, in the island of Falster, on the 28th of May 1789.

He was educated at the grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the

university of Copenhagen in 1806. His studies were interrupted by the

English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment of the city

Ingemann stood with the young poet Blicher on the walls, while the

shells whistled past them, and comrades were killed on either side. All

his early and unpublished writings were destroyed when the English

burned the town. In 1811 he published his first volume of poems, and in

1812 his second, followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics entitled _Procne_

and in 1814 the verse romance, _The Black Knights_. In 1815 he published

two tragedies, _Masaniello and Blanca_, followed by _The Voice in the

Desert_, _The Shepherd of Tolosa_, and other romantic plays. After a

variety of publications, all very successful, he travelled in 1818 to

Italy. At Rome he wrote _The Liberation of Tasso_, and returned in 1819

to Copenhagen. In 1820 he began to display his real power in a volume of

delightful tales. In 1821 his dramatic career closed with the production

of an unsuccessful comedy, _Magnetism in a Barber's Shop_. In 1822 the

poet was nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Sorö

College, and he now married. _Valdemar the Great and his Men_, an

historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were occupied with

his best and most durable work, his four great national and historical

novels of _Valdemar Seier_, 1826; _Erik Menved's Childhood_, 1828; _King

Erik_, 1833; and _Prince Otto of Denmark_, 1835. He then returned to

epic poetry in _Queen Margaret_, 1836, and in a cycle of romances,

_Holger Danske_, 1837. His later writings consist of religious and

sentimental lyrics, epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and

fairy tales. His last publication was _The Apple of Gold_, 1856. In 1846

Ingemann was nominated director of Sorö College, a post from which he

retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Ingemann enjoyed

during his lifetime a popularity unapproached even by that of

Öhlenschläger. His boundless facility and fecundity, his sentimentality,

his religious melancholy, his direct appeal to the domestic affections,

gave him instant access to the ear of the public. His novels are better

than his poems; of the former the best are those which are directly

modelled on the manner of Sir Walter Scott. As a dramatist he outlived

his reputation, and his unwieldy epics are now little read.

Ingemann's works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen (1843-1865).

His autobiography was edited by Galskjöt in 1862; his correspondence

by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig

(1882). See also H. Schwanenflügel, _Ingemanns Liv og Digtning_

(1886); and Georg Brandes, _Essays_ (1889).

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American lawyer and lecturer, was

born in Dresden, New York, on the 11th of August 1833. His father was a

Congregational minister, who removed to Wisconsin in 1843 and to

Illinois in 1845. Robert, who had received a good common-school

education, was admitted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with

success in Illinois. Late in 1861, during the Civil War, he organized a

cavalry regiment, of which he was colonel, until captured at Lexington,

Tennessee, on the 18th of December 1862, by the Confederate cavalry

under General N. B. Forrest. He was paroled, waited in vain to be

exchanged, and in June 1863 resigned from the service. He was

attorney-general of Illinois in 1867-1869, and in 1876 his speech in the

Republican National Convention, naming James G. Blaine for the

Presidential candidate, won him a national reputation as a public

speaker. As a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel

for the defendants in the "Star-Route Fraud" trials. He was most widely

known, however, for his public lectures attacking the Bible, and his

anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his political advancement.

Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician rather than a logical reasoner. He

died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., on the 21st of July 1899.

His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles:

_The Gods and Other Lectures_ (1876); _Some Mistakes of Moses_ (1879);

_Prose Poems_ (1884); _Great Speeches_ (1887). His lectures, entitled

"The Bible," "Ghosts," and "Foundations of Faith," attracted

particular attention. His complete works were published in 12 vols. in

New York in 1900.

INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county, Ontario, Canada,

19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames and the Grand Trunk and Canadian

Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 4572. The principal manufactures are

agricultural implements, furniture, pianos and screws. There is a large

export trade in cheese and farm produce.

INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL (1796-1863), American artist, was born in

Dublin, Ireland. He was a pupil of the Dublin Academy, emigrated to the

United States at the age of twenty-one, and immediately became

identified with the art life of that country, being one of the founders

of the National Academy of New York in 1826 and its vice-president from

1845 to 1850. He painted portraits of the reigning beauties of New York

and acquired considerable reputation, continuing to practise his

profession until his death, in New York, on the 10th of December 1863.

INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Volterra. The

following are its most important members:

TOMMASO INGHIRAMI (1470-1516), a humanist, is best known for his Latin

orations, seven of which were published in 1777. His success in the part

of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca's _Hippolytus_ (or _Phaedra_) led

to his being generally known as _Fedra_. He received high honours from

Alexander VI., Leo X. and Maximilian I.

FRANCESCO INGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeologist, fought

in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted himself especially to

the study of Etruscan antiquities. He founded a college at Fiesole and

collected, though without critical insight, a mass of valuable material

in his _Monumenti etruschi_ (10 vols., 1820-1827), _Galleria omerica_ (3

vols., 1829-1851), _Pitture di vasi fittili_ (1831-1837), _Museo etrusco

chiusino_ (2 vols., 1833), and the incomplete _Storia della Toscana_

(1841-1845): these works were elaborately illustrated.

His brother, GIOVANNI INGHIRAMI (1779-1851), was an astronomer of

repute. He was professor of astronomy at the Institute founded by

Ximenes in Florence and published beside a number of text-books

_Effemeridi dell' occultazione delle piccole stelle sotto la luna_

(1809-1830); _Effemeridi di Venese e Giove all' uso de' naviganti_

(1821-1824); _Tavole astronomichi universali portatili_ (1811); _Base

trigonometrica misurata in Toscana_ (1818); _Carta topografica e

geometrica della Toscana_ (1830).

INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), English Shakespearian scholar,

was born at Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 29th of October 1823, the son

of a solicitor. After taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,

he entered his father's office, eventually becoming a partner. In 1859

he abandoned the law and left Birmingham to live near London. He

contributed articles on literary, scientific and other subjects to

various magazines, but from 1874 devoted himself almost entirely to

Shakespearian literature. His first work in this field had been an

exposure of the manipulations of John Payne Collier, entitled _The

Shakespeare Fabrications_ (1859); his work as a commentator began with

_The Still Lion_ (1874), enlarged in the following year into

_Shakespeare Hermeneutics_. In this book many of the then existing

difficulties of Shakespeare's text were explained. In the same year

(1875) he published the _Centurie of Prayse_, a collection of references

to Shakespeare and his works between 1592 and 1692. His _Shakespeare:

the Man and the Book_ was published in 1877-1881; he also wrote

_Shakespeare's Bones_ (1882), in which he suggested the disinterment of

Shakespeare's bones and an examination of his skull. This suggestion,

though not due to vulgar curiosity, was regarded, however, by public

opinion as sacrilegious. He died on the 26th of September 1886, at

Ilford, Essex. Although Ingleby's reputation now rests solely on his

works on Shakespeare, he wrote on many other subjects. He was the author

of hand-books on metaphysic and logic, and made some contributions to

the study of natural science. He was at one time vice-president of the

New Shakspere Society, and one of the original trustees of the

"Birthplace."

INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820-1894), British admiral and

explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on the 27th of March 1820, and

educated at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth. His father was

Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield (1783-1848), and his grandfather

Captain John Nicholson Inglefield (1748-1828), who served with Lord Hood

against the French. The boy went to sea when fourteen, took part in the

naval operations on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in 1845 was promoted

to the rank of commander for gallant conduct at Obligado. In 1852 he

commanded Lady Franklin's yacht "Isabel" on her cruise to Smith Sound,

and his narrative of the expedition was published under the title of _A

Summer Search for Sir John Franklin_ (1853). He received the gold medal

of the Royal Geographical Society on his return and was given command of

the "Phoenix," in which he made three trips to the Arctic, bringing home

part of the Belcher Arctic expedition in 1854. In that year he was again

sent out on the last attempt made by the Admirally to find Sir John

Franklin.

In the Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege of

Sevastopol. He was knighted in 1877, and nominated a Knight Commander of

the Bath ten years later. He was promoted admiral in 1879. Besides being

an excellent marine artist, he was the inventor of the hydraulic

steering gear and the Inglefield anchor. He died on the 5th of September

1894. His son, Captain Edward Fitzmaurice Inglefield (b. 1861), became

secretary of Lloyds in 1906. Sir Edward Inglefield's brother,

Rear-Admiral V. O. Inglefield, was the father of Rear-Admiral Frederick

Samuel Inglefield (b. 1854), director of naval intelligence in

1902-1904, and of two other sons distinguished as soldiers.

INGLE-NOOK (from Lat. _igniculus_, dim. of _ignis_, fire), a corner or

seat by the fireside, within the chimney-breast. The open Tudor or

Jacobean fire-place was often wide enough to admit of a wooden settle

being placed at each end of the embrasure of which it occupied the

centre, and yet far enough away not to be inconveniently hot. This was

one of the means by which the builder sought to avoid the draughts which

must have been extremely frequent in old houses. English literature is

full of references, appreciatory or regretful, to the cosy ingle-nook

that was killed by the adoption of small grates. Modern English and

American architects are, however, fond of devising them in houses

designed on ancient models, and owners of old buildings frequently

remove the modern grates and restore the original arrangement.

INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (1814-1862), British major-general, was

born in Nova Scotia on the 15th of November 1814. His father was the

third, and his grandfather the first, bishop of that colony. In 1833 he

joined the 32nd Foot, in which all his regimental service was passed. In

1837 he saw active service in Canada, and in 1848-1849 in the Punjab,

being in command at the storming of Mooltan and at the battle of Gujrat.

In 1857, on the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, he was in command of his

regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence being mortally wounded during

the siege of the residency, Inglis took command of the garrison, and

maintained a successful defence for 87 days against an overwhelming

force. He was promoted to major-general and made K.C.B. After further

active service in India, he was, in 1860, given command of the British

troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on the 27th of

September 1862.

INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British soldier, was born in 1764, a

member of an old Roxburghshire family. He entered the army in 1781.

After ten years in America he served in Flanders, and in 1796 took part

in the capture of St Lucia. In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the

Peninsula, taking part in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first

siege of Badajoz. At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most

important position, and was exposed to a deadly fire. "Die hard!

Fifty-Seventh," cried Inglis, "Die hard!" The regiment's answer has gone

down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23 officers and 415

rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis himself was wounded. On

recovering, he saw further Peninsular service. In two engagements his

horse was shot under him. His services were rewarded by the thanks of

parliament and in 1825 he became lieutenant-general, and was made a

K.C.B. After holding the governorships of Kinsale and Cork, he was, in

1830, appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate on the 29th of

November 1835.

INGOLSTADT, a fortified town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on

the left bank of the Danube at its confluence with the Schutter, 52 m.

north of Munich, at the junction of the main lines of railway, Munich,

Bamberg and Regensburg-Augsburg. Pop. (1900) 22,207. The principal

buildings are the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now

used as an arsenal; the new palace on the Danube; the remains of the

earliest Jesuits' college in Germany, founded in 1555; the former

university buildings, now a school; the theatre; the large Gothic

Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive towers, containing

several interesting monuments, among them the tomb of Dr Eck, Luther's

opponent; the Franciscan convent and nunnery; and several other churches

and hospitals. Ingolstadt possesses several technical and other

schools. In 1472 a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian

duke, Louis the Rich, which at the end of the 16th century was attended

by 4000 students. In 1800 it was removed to Landshut, whence it was

transferred to Munich in 1826. Its newer public buildings include an

Evangelical church, a civil hospital, an arsenal and an orphanage. The

industries are cannon-founding, manufacture of gunpowder and cloth, and

brewing.

Ingolstadt, known as _Aureatum_ or _Chrysopolis_, was a royal villa in

the beginning of the 9th century, and received its charter of civic

incorporation before 1255. After that date it grew in importance, and

became the capital of a dukedom which merged in that of Bavaria-Munich.

The fortifications, erected in 1539, were put to the test during the

contests of the Reformation period and in the Thirty Years' War.

Gustavus Adolphus vainly besieged Ingolstadt in 1632, when Tilly, to

whom there is a monument in the Frauenkirche, lay mortally wounded

within the walls. In the War of the Spanish Succession it was besieged

by the margrave of Baden in 1704. In 1743 it was surrendered by the

French to the Austrians, and in 1800, after three months' siege, the

French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the

fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King

Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked as a fortress of the

first class. In 1872 even more important fortifications were

constructed, which include têtes-de-pont with round towers of massive

masonry, and the redoubt Tilly on the right bank of the river.

See Gerstner, _Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt_ (Munich, 1853); and

Prantl, _Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universität_ (Munich,

1872).

INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now a mass of

metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small bars of the precious

metals, cast in the shape of an oblong brick or wedge with slightly

sloping sides, in which form gold and silver are handled as bullion at

the Bank of England and the Mint. Ingots of varying sizes and shapes are

cast of other metals, and "ingot-steel" and "ingot-iron" are technical

terms in the manufacture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL). The

word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer ("The Canon's Yeoman's

Tale") as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a mould for

casting metal, and, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, an

English origin for such a term is unlikely. It may, however, be derived

from _in_ and the O. Eng. _géotan_ to pour; cf. Ger. _giessen_ and

_Einguss_, a mould. The Fr. _lingot_, with the second English meaning

only, has been taken as the origin of "ingot" and derived from the Lat.

_lingua_, tongue--with a supposed reference to the shape. This

derivation is wrong, and French etymologists have now accepted the

English origin for the word, _lingot_ having coalesced from _l'ingot_.

INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and Anglo-Saxon scholar,

was born near Salisbury on the 21st of December 1774. He was educated at

Warminster and Winchester schools and at Trinity College, Oxford, of

which he became a fellow in 1803. From 1803 to 1808 he was Rawlinsonian

professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and in 1824 was made President of

Trinity College and D.D. His time, however, was principally spent in

antiquarian research, and especially in the study of Anglo-Saxon, in

which field he was the pre-eminent scholar of his time. He published in

1823 an edition of the _Saxon Chronicle_. His other works include

admirable _Memorials of Oxford_ (1832-1837), and _The Church in the

Middle Centuries_ (1842). He died on the 5th of September 1850.

INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907), Irish scholar and economist, was born in

Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 7th of July 1823. Educated at Newry School

and Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected a fellow of his college in

1846. He held the professorship of Oratory and English Literature in

Dublin University from 1852 to 1866, when he became regius professor of

Greek. In 1879 he was appointed librarian. Ingram was remarkable for his

versatility. In his undergraduate days he had written the well-known

poem "Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight?" and his _Sonnets and other

Poems_ (1900) reveal the poetic sense. He contributed many important

papers to mathematical societies on geometrical analysis, and did much

useful work in advancing the science of classical etymology, notably in

his _Greek and Latin Etymology in England_, _The Etymology of Liddell

and Scott_. His philosophical works include _Outlines of the History of

Religion_ (1900), _Human Nature and Morals according to A. Comte_

(1901), _Practical Morals_ (1904), and the _Final Transition_ (1905). He

contributed to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ an

historical and biographical article on political economy, which was

translated into nearly every European language. His _History of Slavery

and Serfdom_ was also written for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia

Britannica_. He died in Dublin on the 18th of May 1907.

INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), French painter, was born at

Montauban, on the 29th of August 1780. His father, for whom he

entertained the most tender and respectful affection, has described

himself as _sculpteur en plâtre_; he was, however, equally ready to

execute every other kind of decorative work, and now and again eked out

his living by taking portraits or obtained an engagement as a

violin-player. He brought up his son to command the same varied

resources, but in consequence of certain early successes--the lad's

performance of a concerto of Viotti's was applauded at the theatre of

Toulouse--his attention was directed chiefly to the study of music. At

Toulouse, to which place his father had removed from Montauban in 1792,

Ingres had, however, received lessons from Joseph Roques, a painter whom

he quitted at the end of a few months to become a pupil of M. Vigan,

professor at the academy of fine arts in the same town. From Vigan,

Ingres, whose vocation became day by day more distinctly evident, passed

to M. Briant, a landscape-painter who insisted that his pupil was

specially gifted by nature to follow the same line as himself. For a

while Ingres obeyed, but he had been thoroughly aroused and enlightened

as to his own objects and desires by the sight of a copy of Raphael's

"Madonna della Sedia," and, having ended his connexion with Briant, he

started for Paris, where he arrived about the close of 1796. He was then

admitted to the studio of David, for whose lofty standard and severe

principles he always retained a profound appreciation. Ingres, after

four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second

place in the yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix

(1801). The work thus rewarded--the "Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the

Tent of Achilles" (École des Beaux Arts)--was admired by Flaxman so much

as to give umbrage to David, and was succeeded in the following year

(1802) by the execution of a "Girl after Bathing," and a woman's

portrait; in 1804 Ingres exhibited "Portrait of the First Consul" (Musée

de Liége), and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed

in 1806 by "Portrait of the Emperor" (Invalides), and portraits of M,

Mme, and Mlle Rivière (the first two now in the Louvre). These and

various minor works were executed in Paris (for it was not until 1809

that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the

Academy of France at Rome), and they produced a disturbing impression on

the public. It was clear that the artist was some one who must be

counted with; his talent, the purity of his line, and his power of

literal rendering were generally acknowledged; but he was reproached

with a desire to be singular and extraordinary. "Ingres," writes Frau v.

Hastfer (_Leben und Kunst in Paris_, 1806) "wird nach Italien gehen, und

dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu etwas Grossem geboren ist,

und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel erreichen." In this spirit, also,

Chaussard violently attacked his "Portrait of the Emperor" (_Pausanias

Français_, 1806), nor did the portraits of the Rivière family escape.

The points on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange

discordances of colour--such as the blue of the cushion against which

Mme Rivière leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, but he

omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole, shown in the

portraits of both husband and wife, which already evidences the strength

and sincerity of the passionless point of view which marks all Ingres's

best productions. The very year after his arrival in Rome (1808) Ingres

produced "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre,

engraved by Gaillard), a work which proved him in the full possession of

his mature powers, and began the "Venus Anadyomene" (Collection Rieset;

engraving by Pollet), completed forty years later, and exhibited in

1855. These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of

M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la Comtesse de Tournon, mother of

the prefect of the department of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished "Jupiter

and Thetis," an immense canvas now in the Musée of Aix; in 1812 "Romulus

and Acron" (École des Beaux Arts), and "Virgil reading the _Aeneid_"--a

composition very different from the version of it which has become

popular through the engraving executed by Pradier in 1832. The original

work, executed for a bedchamber in the Villa Aldobrandini-Miollis,

contained neither the figures of Maecenas and Agrippa nor the statue of

Marcellus; and Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his

second stay in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for

engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation, and the

picture left by him, together with various other studies and sketches,

to the Musée of his native town, remains half destroyed by the process

meant for its regeneration. The "Virgil" was followed by the "Betrothal

of Raphael," a small painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of

Naples; "Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV." (Collection

Deymié; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together with the

"Chapelle Sistine" (Collection Legentil; lithographed by Sudre), and the

"Grande Odalisque" (Collection Seillière; lithographed by Sudre). In

1815 Ingres executed "Raphael and the Fornarina" (Collection Mme N. de

Rothschild; engraved by Pradier); in 1816 "Aretin" and the "Envoy of

Charles V." (Collection Schroth), and "Aretin and Tintoret" (Collection

Schroth); in 1817 the "Death of Leonardo" (engraved by Richomme) and

"Henry IV. Playing with his Children" (engraved by Richomme), both of

which works were commissions from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador

of France at the Vatican. "Roger and Angelique" (Louvre; lithographed by

Sudre), and "Francesca di Rimini" (Musée of Angers; lithographed by

Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and followed in 1820 by "Christ

giving the Keys to Peter" (Louvre). In 1815, also, Ingres had made many

projects for treating a subject from the life of the celebrated duke of

Alva, a commission from the family, but a loathing for "cet horrible

homme" grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered in

his diary--"J'étais forcé par la nécessité de peindre un pareil tableau;

Dieu a voulu qu'il restât en ébauche." During all these years Ingres's

reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his "Chapelle

Sistine" had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was

the public indifferent, but amongst his brother artists Ingres found

scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade,

and strangely enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin--the leaders

of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life,

always expressed the deepest abhorrence--alone seem to have been

sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, too, was hard to bear. In

1813 Ingres had married; his marriage had been arranged for him with a

young woman who came in a business-like way from Montauban, on the

strength of the representations of her friends in Rome. Mme Ingres

speedily acquired a faith in her husband which enabled her to combat

with heroic courage and patience the difficulties which beset their

common existence, and which were increased by their removal to Florence.

There Bartolini, an old friend, had hoped that Ingres might have

materially bettered his position, and that he might have aroused the

Florentine school--a weak offshoot from that of David--to a sense of its

own shortcomings. These expectations were disappointed. The good offices

of Bartolini, and of one or two other persons, could only alleviate the

miseries of this stay in a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the

means of gaining daily bread by the making of those small portraits for

the execution of which, in Rome, his pencil had been constantly in

request. Before his departure he had, however, been commissioned to

paint for M. de Pastoret the "Entry of Charles V. into Paris," and M.

de Pastoret now obtained an order for Ingres from the Administration of

Fine Arts; he was directed to treat the "Voeu de Louis XIII." for the

cathedral of Montauban. This work, exhibited at the Salon of 1824, met

with universal approbation: even those sworn to observe the

unadulterated precepts of David found only admiration for the "Voeu de

Louis XIII." On his return Ingres was received at Montauban with

enthusiastic homage, and found himself celebrated throughout France. In

the following year (1825) he was elected to the Institute, and his fame

was further extended in 1826 by the publication of Sudre's lithograph of

the "Grande Odalisque," which, having been scorned by artists and

critics alike in 1819, now became widely popular. A second commission

from the government called forth the "Apotheosis of Homer," which,

replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for which it was

designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second storey of the Louvre.

From this date up till 1834 the studio of Ingres was thronged, as once

had been thronged the studio of David, and he was a recognized _chef

d'école_. Whilst he taught with despotic authority and admirable wisdom,

he steadily worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the

"Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien" (cathedral of Autun; lithographed by

Trichot-Garneri), it was with angry disgust and resentment that he found

his work received with the same doubt and indifference, if not the same

hostility, as had met his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils,

and of one or two men--like Decamps--of undoubted ability, could not

soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer for the

public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to return to Rome,

as director of the École de France, in the room of Horace Vernet. There

he executed "La Vierge à l'Hostie" (Imperial collections, St

Petersburg), "Stratonice," "Portrait of Cherubini" (Louvre), and the

"Petite Odalisque" for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in

1814, Ingres had painted the "Chapelle Sistine." The "Stratonice,"

executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the Palais Royal

for several days after its arrival in France, and the beauty of the

composition produced so favourable an impression that, on his return to

Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with all the deference that

he felt to be his due. A portrait of the purchaser of "Stratonice" was

one of the first works executed after his return; and Ingres shortly

afterwards began the decorations of the great hall in the Château de

Dampierre, which, unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were

begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres,

having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and

courageous wife, abandoned all hope of their completion, and the

contract with the duc de Luynes was finally cancelled. A minor work,

"Jupiter and Antiope," marks the year 1851, but Ingres's next

considerable undertaking (1853) was the "Apotheosis of Napoleon I.,"

painted for the ceiling of a hall in the Hôtel de Ville; "Jeanne d'Arc"

(Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the

resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the

International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works.

Prince Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional

recompense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres's

nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With renewed

confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of his most charming

productions--"La Source" (Louvre), a figure of which he had painted the

torso in 1823, and which seen with other works in London (1862) there

renewed the general sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the

imperial government, the dignity of senator. After the completion of "La

Source," the principal works produced by Ingres were with one or two

exceptions ("Molière" and "Louis XIV.," presented to the Théâtre

Français, 1858; "Le Bain Turc," 1859), of a religious character; "La

Vierge de l'Adoption," 1858 (painted for Mlle Roland-Gosselin), was

followed by "La Vierge Couronnée" (painted for Mme la Baronne de

Larinthie) and "La Vierge aux Enfans" (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these

were followed by repetitions of "La Vierge à l'Hostie"; and in 1862

Ingres completed "Christ and the Doctors" (Musée Montauban), a work

commissioned many years before by Queen Marie Amélie for the chapel of

Bizy.

On the 17th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth year,

having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to the last. For

a moment only--at the time of the execution of the "Bain Turc," which

Prince Napoleon was fain to exchange for an early portrait of the master

by himself--Ingres's powers had seemed to fail, but he recovered, and

showed in his last years the vigour which marked his early maturity. It

is, however, to be noted that the "Saint Symphorien" exhibited in 1834

closes the list of the works on which his reputation will chiefly rest;

for "La Source," which at first sight seems to be an exception, was

painted, all but the head and the extremities, in 1821; and from those

who knew the work well in its incomplete state we learn that the

after-painting, necessary to fuse new and old, lacked the vigour, the

precision, and the something like touch which distinguished the original

execution of the torso. Touch was not, indeed, at any time a means of

expression on which Ingres seriously calculated; his constant employment

of local tint, in mass but faintly modelled in light by half tones,

forbade recourse to the shifting effects of colour and light on which

the Romantic school depended in indicating those fleeting aspects of

things which they rejoiced to put on canvas;--their methods would have

disturbed the calculations of an art wholly based on form and line.

Except in his "Sistine Chapel," and one or two slighter pieces, Ingres

kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour

and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into

an attitude of stricter protest, "ce que l'on sait" he would repeat, "il

faut le savoir l'épée à la main." Ingres left himself therefore, in

dealing with crowded compositions, such as the "Apotheosis of Homer" and

the "Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien," without the means of producing the

necessary unity of effect which had been employed in due measure--as the

Stanze of the Vatican bear witness--by the very master whom he most

deeply reverenced. Thus it came to pass that in subjects of one or two

figures Ingres showed to the greatest advantage: in "Oedipus," in the

"Girl after Bathing," the "Odalisque" and "La Source"--subjects only

animated by the consciousness of perfect physical well-being--we find

Ingres at his best. One hesitates to put "Roger and Angelique" upon this

list, for though the female figure shows the finest qualities of

Ingres's work,--deep study of nature in her purest forms, perfect

sincerity of intention and power of mastering an ideal conception--yet

side by side with these the effigy of Roger on his hippogriff bears

witness that from the passionless point of view, which was Ingres's

birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen.

A graphic account of "Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux," and a complete

catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in 1870, and

dedicated to Mme Ingres, _née_ Ramel, Ingres's devoted second wife,

whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter's early days will be

found in Delécluze's _Louis David_; and amongst less important notices

may be cited that by Théophile Silvestre in his series of living

artists. Most of Ingres's important works are engraved in the

collection brought out by Magimel. (E. F. S. D.)

INGRESS (Lat. _ingressus_, going in), entrance as opposed to exit or

egress; in astronomy, the apparent entrance of a smaller body upon the

disk of a larger one, as it passes between the latter and the observer;

in this sense it is applied especially to the beginning of a transit of

a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of the planet.

INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50´ S., 35° 25´ E.

The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, is finely situated

on the bank of a river of the same name which empties into a bay also

called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique Inhambane, which dates from the

middle of the 16th century, is architecturally the most important town

in Portuguese East Africa. The chief buildings are the fort, churches

and mosque. The principal church is built with stone and marble brought

from Portugal. The population, about 4000 in 1909, is of a motley

character: Portuguese and other Europeans, Arabs, Banyans, half-castes

and negroes. Its commerce was formerly mostly in ivory and slaves. In

1834 Inhambane was taken and all its inhabitants save ten killed by a

Zulu horde under Manikusa (see GAZALAND). It was not until towards the

close of the 19th century that the trade of the town revived. The value

of exports and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief exports are

wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies and sugar. Cotton goods

and cheap wines (for consumption by natives) are the principal imports.

The harbour, about 9 m. long by 5 wide, accommodates vessels drawing 10

to 12 ft. of water. The depth of water over the bar varies from 17 to 28

ft., and large vessels discharge into and load from lighters. Inhambane

is the natural port for the extensive and fertile district between the

Limpopo and Sabi rivers. This region is the best recruiting ground for

labourers in the Rand gold mines. Mineral oils have been found within a

short distance of the port.

INHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir and other kindred words

have a meaning very different from that of the Latin _haeres_, from

which they are derived. In Roman law the heir or heirs represented the

entire legal personality of the deceased--his _universum jus_. In

English law the heir is simply the person on whom the real property of

the deceased devolves by operation of law if he dies intestate. He has

nothing to do as heir with the personal property; he is not appointed by

will; and except in the case of coparceners he is a single individual.

The Roman _haeres_ takes the whole estate; his appointment may or may

not be by testament; and more persons than one may be associated

together as heirs.

The devolution of an inheritance in England is now regulated by the

rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833, amended by the

Law of Property Amendment Act 1859.

1. The first rule is that inheritance shall descend to the issue of the

last "purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who acquires an estate

otherwise than by descent, e.g. by will, by gratuitous gift, or by

purchase in the ordinary meaning of the word. This rule is one of the

changes introduced by the Inheritance Act, which further provides that

"the person last entitled to the land shall be considered the purchaser

thereof unless it be proved that he inherited the same." Under the

earlier law descent was traced from the last person who had "seisin" or

feudal possession, and it was occasionally a troublesome question

whether the heir or person entitled had ever, in fact, acquired such

possession. Now the only inquiry is into title, and each person entitled

is presumed to be in by purchase unless he is proved to be in by

descent, so that the stock of descent is the last person entitled who

cannot be shown to have inherited. 2. The male is admitted before the

female. 3. Among males of equal degree in consanguinity to the

purchaser, the elder excludes the younger; but females of the same

degree take together as "coparceners." 4. Lineal descendants take the

place of their ancestor. Thus an eldest son dying and leaving issue

would be represented by such issue, who would exclude their father's

brothers and sisters. 5. If there are no lineal descendants of the

purchaser, the next to inherit is his nearest lineal ancestor. This is a

rule introduced by the Inheritance Act. Under the former law inheritance

never went to an ancestor--collaterals, however remote of the person

last seized being preferred even to his father. Various explanations

have been given of this seemingly anomalous rule--Bracton and Blackstone

being content to say that it rests on the law of nature, by which heavy

bodies gravitate downwards. Another explanation is that estates were

granted to be descendible in the same way as an ancient inheritance,

which having passed from father to son _ex necessitate_ went to

collaterals on failure of issue of the person last seized. 6. The sixth

rule is thus expressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on _The Law of

Real Property_:--

"The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser and

their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female paternal

ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors and their

heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors or her or

their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal ancestors

and her and their descendants before any of the female maternal

ancestors or their heirs."

7. Kinsmen of the half-blood may be heirs; such kinsmen shall inherit

next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole blood, and after

the issue of such kinsman where the common ancestor is a male and next

after the common ancestor where such ancestor is a female. The admission

of kinsmen of the half-blood into the chain of descent is an alteration

made by the Inheritance Act. Formerly a relative, however nearly

connected in blood with the purchaser through one only and not both

parents, could never inherit--a half-brother for example. 8. In the

admission of female paternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote

male paternal ancestor and her heirs shall be preferred to the mother of

the less remote male paternal and her heirs; and, in the case of female

maternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male maternal ancestor

shall be preferred to the mother of a less remote male maternal

ancestor. This rule, following the opinion of Blackstone, settles a

point much disputed by text-writers, although its importance was little

more than theoretical. 9. When there shall be a total failure of heirs

of the purchaser, or when any lands shall be descendible as if an

ancestor had been the purchaser thereof, and there shall be a total

failure of the heirs of such ancestor, then and in every such case the

descent shall be traced from the person last entitled to the land as if

he had been the purchaser thereof. This rule is enacted by the Law of

Property Amendment Act 1859. It would apply to such a case as the

following: Purchaser dies intestate, leaving a son and no other

relations, and the son in turn dies intestate; the son's relations

through his mother are now admitted by this rule. If the purchaser is

illegitimate, his only relations must necessarily be his own issue.

Failing heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate purchaser, not

alienated by him, would revert by "escheat" to the next immediate lord

of the fee, who would generally be the crown. If an intermediate

lordship could be proved to exist between the crown and the tenant in

fee simple, such intermediate lord would have the escheat. But escheat

is a matter of rare occurrence.

The above rules apply to all freehold land whether the estate therein of

the intestate is legal or equitable. Before 1884, if a sole trustee had

the legal estate in realty, and his _cestui que trust_ died intestate

and without heirs, the land escheated to the trustee. This distinction

was abolished by the Intestate Estates Act 1884.

The descent of an estate in tail would be ascertained by such of the

foregoing rules as are not inapplicable to it. By the form of the entail

the estate descends to the "issue" of the person to whom the estate was

given in tail--in other words, the last purchaser. The preceding rules

after the fourth, being intended for the ascertainment of heirs other

than those by lineal descent, would therefore not apply; and a special

limitation in the entail, such as to heirs male or female only, would

render unnecessary some of the others. When the entail has been barred,

the estate descends according to these rules. In copyhold estates

descent, like other incidents thereof, is regulated by the custom of

each particular manor; e.g. the youngest son may exclude the elder sons.

How far the Inheritance Act applies to such estates has been seriously

disputed. It has been held in one case (_Muggleton_ v. _Barnett_) that

the Inheritance Act, which orders descent to be traced from the last

purchaser, does not override a manorial custom to trace descent from the

person last seized, but this position has been controverted on the

ground that the act itself includes the case of customary holdings.

Husband and wife do not stand in the rank of heir to each other. Their

interests in each other's real property are secured by courtesy and

dower.

The personal property of a person dying intestate devolves according to

an entirely different set of rules (see INTESTACY).

In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the above in several

particulars. Descent is traced, as in England before the Inheritance

Act, to the person last seized. The first to succeed are the lineal

descendants of the deceased, and the rules of primogeniture,

preference of males to females, equal succession of females

(heirs-portioners), and representation of ancestors are generally the

same as in English law. Next to the lineal descendants, and failing

them, come the brothers and sisters, and their issue as collaterals.

Failing collaterals, the inheritance ascends to the father and his

relations, to the entire exclusion of the mother and her relations.

Even when the estate has descended from mother to son, it can never

revert to the maternal line. As to succession of brothers, a

distinction must be taken between an estate of heritage and an estate

of conquest. Conquest is where the deceased has acquired the land

otherwise than as heir, and corresponds to the English term purchase

in the technical sense explained. Heritage is land acquired by

deceased as heir. The distinction is important only in the case when

the heir of the deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the

descent is lineal, conquest and heritage go to the same person. And

when the brothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest and

heritage go to the brother (or his issue) next in order of age. But

when the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their

issues), the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the

heritage. Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one next

in age to the deceased takes the conquest before the more remote, and

when there are several younger brothers, the one next to the deceased

takes the heritage before the more remote. When heritage of the

deceased goes to an elder brother (as might happen in certain

eventualities), the younger of the elder brothers is preferred. The

position of the father, after the brothers and sisters of the

deceased, will be noticed as an important point of difference from the

English axioms; so also is the total exclusion of the mother and the

maternal line. As between brothers and sisters the half-blood only

succeeds after the full blood. Half-blood is either consanguinean, as

between children by the same father, or uterine, as between children

having the same mother. The half-blood uterine is excluded altogether.

Half-blood consanguinean succeeds thus: if the issue is by a former

marriage, the youngest brother (being nearest to the deceased of the

consanguinean) succeeds first; if by a later marriage than that from

which the deceased has sprung, the eldest succeeds first.

_United States._--American law has borrowed its rules of descent

considerably more from the civil law than the common law. "The 118 novel

of Justinian has a striking resemblance to American law in giving the

succession of estates to all legitimate children without distinction and

disregarding all considerations of primogeniture. There is one

particular in which the American law differs from that of Justinian,

that while generally in this country lineal descendants if they stand in

an equal degree from the common ancestor share equally _per capita_,

under the Roman law regard was had to the right of representation, each

lineal branch of descendants taking only the portion which their parent

would have taken had he been living, the division being _per stirpes_

and not _per capita_. But in some of the states the rule of the Roman

law in this respect has been adopted and retained. Among these are Rhode

Island, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana" (3

Washburn's _Real Property_, pp. 408, 409; 4 Kent's _Comm._ p. 375). When

such lineal descendants stand in unequal degrees of consanguinity the

inheritance is _per stirpes_ and not _per capita_ (_In re Prote_, 1907;

104, N.Y. Supplement 581). This is the rule in practically all the

states. But as in no two states or territories are the rules of descent

identical, the only safe guides are the statutes and decisions of the

particular state in which the land to be inherited is situated. The law

of primogeniture as understood in England is generally abolished

throughout the United States, and male and female relatives inherit

equally. In some states, as in Massachusetts, relatives of the

half-blood inherit equally with chose of the whole-blood of the same

degree; in others, like Maryland, they can inherit only in case none of

whole-blood exist. In some of the states the English rule that natural

children have no inheritable blood has been greatly modified. In

Louisiana, if duly acknowledged, they may inherit from both father and

mother in the absence of lawful issue. Degrees of kindred in the United

States generally are computed according to the civil law, i.e. by adding

together the number of degrees between each of the two persons whose

relationship is to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus,

relationship between two brothers is in the second degree; between uncle

and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the fourth, &c.

In a few states such degrees are computed according to the common law,

i.e. by counting from the common ancestor to the most remote

descendant of the two from him--thus, brothers would be related in the

first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, &c. In most states

representation amongst collaterals is restricted--in some to the

descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children only.

In some states, e.g. in California, Louisiana and Texas, the law of

"community property" of husband and wife prevails. This is derived

from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories out of

which those states were formed, as the result of the conquest of

Mexico by Spain and the colonizing of Louisiana by France. The

foundation idea is an equal division at death of either party of all

property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or

descent. In general the husband has the control and management thereof

during the marriage, and either survivor has the administration of the

moiety of the one deceased. There is a conflict in the laws in such

states as to the exact definition and as to whether or not the gains

or profits of such property are to be deemed separate property or

community property [Succession of Dielman (Louisiana, 1907), 43

Southern Rep. 972].

INHIBITION (from Lat. _inhibere_, to restrain, prevent), an act of

restraint or prohibition, an English legal term, particularly used in

ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior court,

suspending proceedings in a case under appeal, also for the suspension

of a jurisdiction of a bishop's court on the visitation of an

archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the visitation of a bishop.

It is more particularly applied to a form of ecclesiastical _censure_,

suspending an offending clergyman from the performance of any service of

the Church, or other spiritual duty, for the purpose of enforcing

obedience to a monition or order of the bishop or judge. Such

inhibitions are at the discretion of the ordinary if he considers that

scandal might arise from the performance of spiritual duties by the

offender (Church Discipline Act 1860, re-enacted by the Clergy

Discipline Act 1892, sect. 10). By the Sequestration Act 1871, sect. 5,

similar powers of inhibition are given where a sequestration remains in

force for more than six months, and also, by the Benefices Act 1898, in

cases where a commission reports that the ecclesiastical duties of a

benefice are inadequately performed through the negligence of the

incumbent.

INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from _Faul_ or

_Lia-fail_, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend with the

stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he dreamed of the heavenly

ladder. The Lia-fail was supposed to have been brought to Ireland by the

Dedannans and set up at Tara as the "inauguration stone" of the Irish

kings; it was subsequently removed to Scone where it became the

coronation stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by James VI.

of Scotland to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair in the

Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus the island of the

Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned at Tara on the sacred

inauguration stone.

INITIALS (Lat. _initialis_, of or belonging to a beginning, _initium_),

the first letters of names. In legal and formal documents it is usually

the practice in appending a signature to write the name in full. But

this is by no means necessary, even in cases where a signature is

expressly required by statute. It has been held that it is sufficient if

a person affixes to a document the usual form in which he signs his

name, with the intent that it shall be treated as his signature. So,

signature by initials is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds

(_Phillimore_ v. _Barry_, 1818, I Camp. 513), and also under the Wills