Act 1837 (_In re Blewitt_, 1880, 5 P.D. 116).

INITIATION (Lat. _initium_, beginning, entrance, from _inire_, to go

in), the process of formally entering, and especially the rite of

admission into, some office, or religious or secret society, &c. Among

nearly all primitive races initiatory rites of a bloody character were

and are common. The savage pays homage to strength, and the purpose of

his initiatory rites is to test physical vigour, self-control and the

power of enduring pain. Initiation is sometimes religious, sometimes

social, but in primitive society it has always the same character. Thus,

in Whydah (West Africa) the young girls consecrated to the worship of

the serpent, "the brides of the Serpent," had figures of flowers and

animals burnt into their skins with hot irons; while in the neighbouring

Yorubaland the power of enduring a sound thrashing is the qualification

for the throne. In no country was the practice of initiatory rites more

general than in the Americas. The Colombian Indians compelled their

would-be chief to submit to terrible tests. He had first to bear severe

beatings without a murmur. Then, placed in a hammock with his hands

tied, venomous ants were placed on his naked body. Finally a fire was

lit beneath him. All this he had to bear without flinching. In ancient

Mexico there were several orders of chivalry, entry into which was only

permitted after brutal initiation. The nose of the candidate was pierced

with an eagle's talon or a pointed bone, and he was expected to dig

knives into his body. In Peru the young Inca princes had to fast and

live for weeks without sleep. Among the North American Indians

initiatory rites were universal. The Mandans held a feast at which the

young "braves" supported the weight of their bodies on pieces of wood

skewered through the muscles of shoulders, breasts and arms. With the

Sioux, to become a medicine-man, it was necessary to submit to the

ordeal known as "looking at the sun." The sufferer, nearly naked, was

bound on the earth by cords passed through holes made in the pectoral

muscles. With bow and arrow in hand, he lay in this position all day

gazing at the sun. Around him his friends gathered to applaud his

courage.

Religious brotherhoods of antiquity, too, were to be entered only after

long and complicated initiation. But here the character of the ordeal is

rather moral than physical. Such were the rites of admission to the

Mysteries of Isis and Eleusis. Secret societies of all ages have been

characterized by more or less elaborate initiation. That of the

Femgerichte, the famous medieval German secret tribunal, took place at

night in a cave, the neophyte kneeling and making oath of blind

obedience. Imitations of such tests are perpetuated to-day in

freemasonry; while the Mafia, the Camorra, the Clan-na-Gael, the Molly

Maguires, the Ku-Klux Klan, are among more recent secret associations

which have maintained the old idea of initiation.

INJECTOR (from Lat. _injicere_, to throw in), an appliance for supplying

steam-boilers with water, and especially used with locomotive boilers.

It was invented by the French engineer H. V. Giffard in 1858, and

presents the paradox that by the pressure of the steam in the boiler, or

even, as in the case of the exhaust steam injector, by steam at a much

lower pressure, water is forced into the boiler against that pressure. A

diagrammatic section illustrating its construction is shown in figure.

Steam enters at A and blows through the annular orifice C, the size of

which can be regulated by a valve not shown in the figure. The feed

water flows in at B and meeting the steam at C causes it to condense.

Hence a vacuum is produced at C, and consequently the water rushes in

with great velocity and streams down the combining cone D, its velocity

being augmented by the impact of steam on the back of the column. In the

lower part of the nozzle E the stream expands; it therefore loses

velocity and, by a well-known hydrodynamic principle, gains pressure,

until at the bottom the pressure is so great that it is able to enter

the boiler through a check valve which opens only in the direction of

the stream. An overflow pipe F, by providing a channel through which

steam and water may escape before the stream has acquired sufficient

energy to force its way into the boiler, allows the injector to start

into action. Means are also provided for regulating the amount of water

admitted between D and C. In the _exhaust-steam_ injector, which works

with steam from the exhaust of non-condensing engines, the steam orifice

is larger in proportion to other parts than in injectors working with

boiler steam, and the steam supply more liberal. In _self-starting_

injectors an arrangement is provided which permits free overflow until

the injector starts into action, when the openings are automatically

adjusted to suit delivery into the boiler.

[Illustration]

INJUNCTION (from Lat. _injungere_, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a

burden or charge on, to enjoin), a term-meaning generally a command, and

in English law the name for a judicial process whereby a party is

required to refrain from doing a particular thing according to the

exigency of the writ. Formerly it was a remedy peculiar to the court of

chancery, and was one of the instruments by which the jurisdiction of

that court was established in cases over which the courts of common law

were entitled to exercise control. The court of chancery did not presume

to interfere with the action of the courts, but, by directing an

injunction to the person whom it wished to restrain from following a

particular remedy at common law, it effected the same purpose

indirectly. Under the present constitution of the judicature, the

injunction is now equally available in all the divisions of the high

court of justice, and it can no longer be used to prevent an action in

any of them from proceeding in the ordinary course.

Although an injunction is properly a restraining order, there are

instances in which, under the form of a prohibition, a positive order to

do something is virtually expressed. Thus in a case of nuisance an

injunction was obtained to restrain the defendant from preventing water

from flowing in such regular quantities as it had ordinarily done before

the day on which the nuisance commenced. But generally, if the relief

prayed for is to compel something to be done, it cannot be obtained by

injunction, although it may be expressed in the form of a

prohibition--as in the case in which it was sought to prevent a person

from discontinuing to keep a house as an inn. The injunction was used to

stay proceedings in other courts "wherever a party by fraud, accident,

mistake or otherwise had obtained an advantage in proceeding in a court

of ordinary jurisdiction, which must necessarily make that court an

instrument of injustice." As the injunction operates personally on the

defendant, it may be used to prevent applications to foreign

judicatures; but it is not used to prevent applications to parliament,

or to the legislature of any foreign country, unless such applications

be in breach of some agreement, and relate to matters of private

interest. In so far as an injunction is used to prohibit acts, it may be

founded either on an alleged contract or on a right independent of

contract. The jurisdiction of the court to prevent breaches of contract

has been described as supplemental to its power of compelling specific

performance; i.e. if the court has power to compel a person to perform a

contract, it will interfere to prevent him from doing anything in

violation of it. But even when it is not within the power of the court

to compel specific performance, it may interfere by injunction; thus,

e.g. in the case of an agreement of a singer to perform at the

plaintiff's theatre and at no other, the court, although it could not

compel her to sing, could by injunction prevent her from singing

elsewhere in breach of her agreement.

An injunction may as a general rule be obtained to prevent acts which

are violations of legal rights, except when the same may be adequately

remedied by an action for damages at law. Thus the court will interfere

by injunction to prevent waste, or the destruction by a limited owner,

such as a tenant for life, of things forming part of the inheritance.

Injunctions may also be obtained to prevent the continuance of

nuisances, public or private, the infringement of patents, copyrights

and trade marks. Trespass might also in certain cases be prevented by

injunction. Under the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854, and by other

statutes in special cases, a limited power of injunction was conferred

on the courts of common law. But the Judicature Act, by which all the

superior courts of common law and chancery were consolidated, enacts

that an injunction may be granted by an interlocutory order of the court

in all cases in which it shall appear to be just or convenient; ... and,

if an injunction is asked either before or at or after the hearing of

any cause or matter, to prevent any threatened or apprehended waste or

trespass, such injunction may be granted whether the person against whom

it is sought is or is not in possession under any claim of title or

otherwise, or if not in possession does or does not claim to do the act

sought to be restrained under colour of any title, and whether the

estates claimed are legal or equitable.

An injunction obtained on interlocutory application during the progress

of an action is superseded by the trial. It may be continued either

provisionally or permanently. In the latter case the injunction is said

to be perpetual. The distinction between "special" and "common"

injunctions--the latter being obtained as of course--is now abolished in

English law.

In the courts of the United States the writ of injunction remains purely

an equitable remedy. It may be issued at the instance of the president

to prevent any organized obstruction to inter-state commerce or to the

passage of the mails (_in re_ Debs, 158 United States Reports, 564).

Temporary restraining orders may be issued, _ex parte_, pending an

application for a temporary injunction. In the state courts temporary

injunctions are often issued, _ex parte_, subject to the defendant's

right to move immediately for their dissolution. Generally, however,

notice of an application for a temporary injunction is required.

For the analogous practice in Scots law see INTERDICT.

INK (from Late Lat. _encaustum_, Gr. [Greek: enkauston], the purple ink

used by Greek and Roman emperors, from [Greek: enkaiein], to burn in),

in its widest signification, a substance employed for producing graphic

tracings, inscriptions, or impressions on paper or similar materials.

The term includes two distinct conditions of pigment or colouring

matter: the one fluid, and prepared for use with a pen or brush, as

writing ink; the other a glutinous adhesive mass, printing ink, used for

transferring to paper impressions from types, engraved plates and

similar surfaces.

The ancient Egyptians prepared and used inks (Flinders Petrie discovered

a papyrus bearing written characters as old as 2500 B.C.), and in China

the invention of an ink is assigned to Tien-Tcheu, who lived between

2697 B.C. and 2597 B.C. These early inks were prepared from charcoal or

soot mixed with gum, glue or varnish. Sepia (q.v.), the black pigment

secreted by the cuttle-fish, was used as a writing fluid by the Romans.

The iron-gall ink, i.e. an ink prepared from an iron salt and tannin,

appears to have been first described by the monk Theophilus, who lived

in the 11th century A.D., although Pliny, in the 1st century A.D., was

acquainted with the blackening of paper containing green vitriol by

immersion in an infusion of nut-galls. Iron-gall inks, prepared by

mixing extracts of galls, barks, &c., with green vitriol, subsequently

came into common use, and in the 16th century recipes for their

preparation were given in domestic encyclopaedias. Their scientific

investigation was first made by William Lewis in 1748. The earlier

iron-inks were essentially a suspension of the pigment in water. In the

early part of the 19th century the firm of Stephens introduced the first

of the so-called blue-black inks under the name of "Stephens' writing

fluid." Solutions of green vitriol and tannin, coloured by indigo and

logwood, were prepared, which wrote with a blue tint and blackened on

exposure, this change being due to the production of the pigment within

the pores of the paper. The "alizarine" inks, patented by Leonhardi in

1856, are similar inks with the addition of a little madder. The

application of aniline colours to ink manufacture in England dates from

Croc's patent of 1861.

_Writing Inks._--Writing inks are fluid substances which contain

colouring matter either in solution or in suspension, and commonly

partly in both conditions. They may be prepared in all shades of colour,

and contain almost every pigment which can be dissolved or suspended in

a suitable medium. The most important of all varieties is black ink,

after which red and blue are most commonly employed. Apart from colour

there are special qualities which recommend certain inks for limited

applications, such as marking inks, ineradicable ink, sympathetic ink,

&c. A good writing ink for ordinary purposes should continue limpid, and

flow freely and uniformly from the pen; it should not throw down a thick

sludgy deposit on exposure to the air; nor should a coating of mould

form on its surface. It should yield distinctly legible characters

immediately on writing, not fading with age; and the fluid ought to

penetrate into the paper without spreading, so that the characters will

neither wash out nor be readily removed by erasure. Further, it is

desirable that ink should be non-poisonous, that it should as little as

possible corrode steel pens, that characters traced in it should dry

readily on the application of blotting paper without smearing, and that

the writing should not present a glossy, varnished appearance.

_Tannin Inks._--These inks are prepared from galls, or other sources of

tannin, and a salt of iron, with the addition of some agglutinant in the

case of the so-called oxidized inks, or a colouring matter in the case

of unoxidized inks. Such mixtures form the staple black inks of

commerce; they are essentially an insoluble iron gallate in extremely

fine division held in suspension in water or a soluble compound

dissolved in water.

On long exposure to air, as in inkstands, or otherwise, tannin inks

gradually become thick and ropy, depositing a slimy sediment. This

change on exposure is inevitable, resulting from the gradual oxidation

of the ferrous compound, and it can only be retarded by permitting

access of air to as small surfaces as possible. The inks also have a

tendency to become mouldy, an evil which may be obviated by the use of a

minute proportion of carbolic acid; or salicylic acid may be used.

The essential ingredients of ordinary black ink are--first,

tannin-yielding bodies, for which Aleppo or Chinese galls are the most

eligible materials; second, a salt of iron, ferrous sulphate (green

vitriol) being alone employed; and third, a gummy or mucilaginous agent

to keep in suspension the insoluble tinctorial matter of the ink. For

ink-making the tannin has first to be transformed into gallic acid. In

the case of Aleppo galls this change takes place by fermentation when

the solution of the galls is exposed to the air, the tannin splitting up

into gallic acid and sugar. Chinese galls do not contain the ferment

necessary for inducing this change; and to induce the process yeast must

be added to their solution. To prepare a solution of Aleppo galls for

ink-making, the galls are coarsely powdered, and intimately mixed with

chopped straw. This mixture is thrown into a narrow deep oak vat,

provided with a perforated false bottom, and having a tap at the bottom

for drawing off liquid. Over the mixture is poured lukewarm water,

which, percolating down, extracts and carries with it the tannin of the

galls. The solution is drawn off and repeatedly run through the mixture

to extract the whole of the tannin, the water used being in such

proportion to the galls as will produce as nearly as possible a solution

having 5% of tannin. The object of using straw in the extraction process

is to maintain the porosity of the mixture, as powdered galls treated

alone become so slimy with mucilaginous extract that liquid fails to

percolate the mass. For each litre of the 5% solution about 45 grammes

of the iron salt are used, or about 100 parts of tannin for 90 parts of

crystallized green vitriol. These ingredients when first mixed form a

clear solution, but on their exposure to the air oxidation occurs, and

an insoluble blue-black ferrosoferric gallate in extremely fine

division, suspended in a coloured solution of ferrous gallate, is

formed. To keep the insoluble portion suspended, a mucilaginous agent is

employed, and those most available are gum senegal and gum arabic. An

ink so prepared develops its intensity of colour only after some

exposure; and after it has partly sunk into the paper it becomes

oxidized there, and so mordanted into the fibre. As the first faintness

of the characters is a disadvantage, it is a common practice to add some

adventitious colouring matter to give immediate distinctness, and for

that purpose either extract of logwood or a solution of indigo is used.

When logwood extract is employed, a smaller proportion of extract of

galls is required, logwood itself containing a large percentage of

tannin. For making an unoxidized or blue-black ink indigo is dissolved

in strong sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate, instead of being

used direct, is prepared by placing in this indigo solution a proper

quantity of scrap iron. To free the solution from excess of uncombined

acid, chalk or powdered limestone is added, whereby the free acid is

fixed and a deposit of sulphate of lime formed. A solution so prepared,

mixed with a tannin solution, yields a very limpid sea-green writing

fluid, and as all the constituents remain in solution, no gum or other

suspending medium is necessary. In consequence the ink flows freely, is

easily dried and is free from the glossy appearance which arises through

the use of gum.

_China ink_ or _Indian ink_ is the form in which ink was earliest

prepared, and in which it is still used in China and Japan for writing

with small brushes instead of pens. It is extensively used by

architects, engineers and artists generally, and for various special

uses. China ink is prepared in the form of sticks and cakes, which are

rubbed down in water for use. It consists essentially of lamp-black in

very fine condition, baked up with a glutinous substance; and the finer

Oriental kinds are delicately perfumed. The following description of the

manufacture as conducted in Japan is from a native source:--

"The body of the ink is soot obtained from pine wood or rosin, and

lamp-black from sesamum oil for the finest sort. This is mixed with

liquid glue made of ox-skin. This operation is effected in a large

round copper bowl, formed of two spherical vessels, placed 1 in.

apart, so that the space between can be filled up with hot water to

prevent the glue from hardening during the time it is being mixed by

hand with the lamp-black. The cakes are formed in wooden moulds, and

dried between paper and ashes. Camphor, or a peculiar mixture of

scents which comes from China, and a small quantity of carthamine (the

red colouring substance of safflower), are added to the best kinds for

improving the colour as well as for scenting the ink. There is a great

difference both in price and in quality of the various kinds of ink,

the finest article being rather costly."

It is said that the size used in Chinese kinds is of vegetable origin.

_Logwood Ink._--Under the name of chrome ink a black ink was discovered

by Runge, which held out the promise of cheapness combined with many

excellent qualities. It is prepared by dissolving 15 parts of extract of

logwood in 900 parts of water, to which 4 parts of crystallized sodium

carbonate are added. A further solution of 1 part of potassium chromate

(not bichromate) in 100 parts of water is prepared, and is added very

gradually to the other solution with constant agitation. The ink so

obtained possesses an intense blue-black colour, flows freely and dries

readily, is neutral in reaction and hence does not corrode steel pens,

and adheres to and sinks into paper so that manuscripts written with it

may be freely washed with a sponge without danger of smearing or

spreading. It forms a good copying ink, and it possesses all the

qualities essential to the best ink; but on exposure to air it very

readily undergoes decomposition, the colouring matter separating in

broad flakes, which swim in a clear menstruum. It is affirmed by Viedt

that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method first

suggested by Böttger.

Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black inks used,

especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction of logwood or a

strong solution of the extract with ammonium-alum yields a violet ink

which darkens slowly on exposure. Such an ink is costly, on account of

the concentrated condition in which the logwood must be used. If,

however, a metallic salt is introduced, a serviceable ink is obtained

with the expenditure of much less logwood. Either sulphate of copper or

sulphate of iron may be used, but the former, which produces a pleasing

blue-black colour, is to be preferred. The following is the formula most

highly recommended for this ink. A clear solution of 20 kilos of extract

of logwood in 200 litres of water is obtained, to which is added, with

agitation, 10 kilos of ammonium-alum dissolved in 20 litres of boiling

water. The solution is acidified with 0.2 kilo of sulphuric acid, which

has the effect of preventing any deposit, and finally there is added a

solution of 1.5 kilos of sulphate of copper dissolved in 20 litres of

water. This compound is exposed to the air for a few days to allow the

colour to develop by oxidation, after which it is stored in well-corked

bottles. The acid condition of this ink has a corrosive influence on

steel pens; in all other respects it is a most valuable writing fluid.

_Aniline Inks._--Solutions of aniline dye-stuffs in water are widely

used as inks, especially coloured varieties. They are usually fugitive.

Nigrosine is a black ink, which, although not producing a black so

intense as common ink, possesses various advantages. Being perfectly

neutral, it does not attack pens; it can easily be kept of a proper

consistency by making up with water; and its colour is not injuriously

affected by the action of acids. Its ready flow from stylographic pens

led to the name "stylographic ink." Other aniline inks are mentioned

below.

_Copying Ink._--Ink which yields by means of pressure an impression, on

a sheet of damped tissue paper, of characters written in it is called

copying ink. Any ink soluble in water, or which retains a certain degree

of solubility, may be used as copying ink. Runge's chrome ink, being a

soluble compound, is, therefore, so available; and the other logwood

inks as well as the ordinary ferrous gallate inks contain also soluble

constituents, and are essentially soluble till they are oxidized in and

on the paper after exposure to the air. To render these available as

copying inks it is necessary to add to them a substance which will

retard the oxidizing effect of the air for some time. For this purpose

the bodies most serviceable are gum arabic or senegal, with glycerin,

dextrin or sugar, which last, however, renders the ink sticky. These

substances act by forming a kind of glaze or varnish over the surface of

the ink which excludes the air. At the same time when the damp sheet of

tissue paper is applied to the writing, they dissolve and allow a

portion of the yet soluble ink to be absorbed by the moistened tissue.

As copying ink has to yield two or more impressions, it is necessary

that it should be made stronger, i.e. that it should contain more

pigment or body than common ink. It, therefore, is prepared with from 30

to 40% less of water than non-copying kinds; but otherwise, except in

the presence of the ingredients above mentioned, the inks are the same.

Copying ink pencils consist of a base of graphite and kaolin impregnated

with a very strong solution of an aniline colour, pressed into sticks

and dried.

_Red Ink._--The pigment most commonly employed as the basis of red ink

is Brazil-wood. Such an ink is prepared by adding to a strong decoction

of the wood a proportion of stannous chloride (tin spirits), and

thickening the resulting fluid with gum arabic. In some instances alum

and cream of tartar are used instead of the stannous chloride. Cochineal

is also employed as the tinctorial basis of red ink; but, while the

resulting fluid is much more brilliant than that obtained from

Brazil-wood, it is not so permanent. A very brilliant red ink may be

prepared by dissolving carmine in a solution of ammonia, but this

preparation must be kept in closely stoppered bottles. A useful red ink

may also be made by dissolving the rosein of Brook, Simpson and Spiller

in water, in the proportion of 1 to from 150 to 200 parts.

_Blue Ink._--For the production of blue ink the pigment principally used

is Prussian blue. It is first digested for two or three days with either

strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid, the digested

mass is next very largely diluted with water, and after settling the

supernatant liquid is siphoned away from the sediment. This sediment is

repeatedly washed, till all traces of iron and free acid disappear from

the water used, after which it is dried and mixed with oxalic acid in

the proportion of 8 parts of Prussian blue to 1 of the acid, and in this

condition the material is ready for dissolving in water to the degree of

colour intensity necessary. An aniline blue ink may be prepared by

dissolving 1 part of bleu de Paris in from 200 to 250 parts of water.

_Marking Ink._--The ink so called, used principally for marking linen,

is composed of a salt of silver, usually the nitrate, dissolved in water

and ammonia, with a little provisional colouring matter and gum for

thickening. The colour resulting from the silver salt is developed by

heat and light; and the stain it makes, although exceedingly obstinate,

gradually becomes a faint brownish-yellow. The following yields a good

marking ink. Equal parts of nitrate of silver and dry tartaric acid are

triturated in a mortar, and treated with water, when a reaction takes

place, resulting in the formation of tartrate of silver and the

liberation of nitric acid. The acid is neutralized, and at the same time

the silver tartrate is dissolved by the addition of ammonia, and this

solution with colouring matter and gum forms the ink, which may be used

with an ordinary steel pen.

Many vegetable juices, e.g. of _Coriaria thymifolia_, _Semecarpus_

_anacardium_, _Anacardium occidentale_ (Cashew), are inks of this type.

_Gold_ and _silver inks_ are writing fluids in which gold and silver, or

imitations of these metals, are suspended in a state of fine division.

In place of gold, Dutch leaf or mosaic gold is frequently substituted,

and bronze powders are used for preparing a similar kind of ink. The

metallic foil is first carefully triturated into a fine paste with

honey, after which it is boiled in water containing a little alkali, and

then repeatedly washed in hot water and dried at a gentle heat. A

solution is prepared consisting of 1 part of pure gum arabic and 1 part

of soluble potash glass in 4 parts of distilled water, into which the

requisite quantity of the metallic powder prepared is introduced. Owing

to the superior covering nature of pure gold, less of the metal is

required than is necessary in the case of silver and other foils. In

general 1 part of foil to 3 or 4 parts of solution is sufficient. The

metallic lustre of writing done with this solution may be greatly

heightened by gently polishing with a burnishing point. Another gold ink

depends upon the formation of purple of Cassius; the linen is mordanted

with stannous chloride, and the gold applied as a gummy solution of the

chloride.

_Indelible_ or _incorrodible ink_ is the name given to various

combinations of lamp-black or other carbonaceous material with resinous

substances used for writing which is exposed to the weather or to the

action of strong acids or alkaline solutions. An ink having great

resisting powers may be conveniently prepared by rubbing down Indian ink

in common ink till the mixture flows easily from the pen. Other

combinations have more the character of coloured varnishes.

_Sympathetic inks_ are preparations used for forming characters which

only become visible on the application of heat or of some chemical

reagent. Many chemicals which form in themselves colourless solutions,

but which develop colour under the influence of reagents, may be used as

sympathetic ink, but they are of little practical utility. Characters

written in a weak solution of galls develop a dark colour on being

treated with a solution of copperas; or, vice versa, the writing may be

done in copperas and developed by the galls solution. Writing done in

various preparations develops colour on heating which fades as the paper

cools. Among such substances are solutions of the chlorides of cobalt

and of nickel. Very dilute solutions of the mineral acids and of common

salt and a solution of equal parts of sulphate of copper and

sal-ammoniac act similarly. Writing with rice water and developing with

iodine was a device much used during the Indian Mutiny.

_Printing Inks._--Printing inks are essentially mixtures of a pigment

and a varnish. The varnish is prepared from linseed oil, rosin and soap;

the oil must be as old as possible; the rosin may be black or amber; and

the soap, which is indispensable since it causes the ink to adhere

uniformly to the type and also to leave the type clean after taking an

impression, is yellow, or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap

for light inks. The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully

heated until it "strings" properly, i.e. a drop removed from the vessel

on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away, forms a

thread about ½ in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly added and the

mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred in. The ink is prepared

by mixing the varnish with the pigment, and grinding the mass to

impalpable fineness either in a levigating mill or by a stone and

muller. For black ink, lamp-black mixed with a little indigo or Prussian

blue is the pigment employed; for wood engravings it may be mixed with

ivory black, and for copper plates with ivory or Frankfurt black; for

lithographic reproductions Paris black is used. Red inks are made with

carmine or cochineal; red lead is used in cheap inks, but it rapidly

blackens. Blue inks are made with indigo or Prussian blue; yellow with

lead chromate or yellow ochre; green is made by mixing yellow and blue;

and purple by mixing red and blue.

See C. A. Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, _Inks, their Composition and

Manufacture_ (1904); S. Lehner, _Ink Manufacture_ (1902); A. F.

Gouillon, _Encres et cirages_ (1906); L. E. Andés, _Schreib-, Kopier-

und andere Tinten_ (1906).

INKERMAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the 5th of November 1854 between a

portion of the Allied English and French army besieging Sevastopol and a

Russian army under Prince Menshikov (see CRIMEAN WAR). This battle

derives its name from a ruin on the northern bank of the river Tchernaya

near its mouth, but it was fought some distance away, on a nameless

ridge (styled Mount Inkerman after the event) between the Tchernaya and

the Careenage Ravine, which latter marked the right of the siege-works

directed against Sevastopol itself. Part of this ridge, called Home

Ridge and culminating in a knoll, was occupied by the British, while

farther to the south, facing the battleground of Balaklava, a corps

under General Bosquet was posted to cover the rear of the besiegers

against attacks from the direction of Traktir Bridge. The Russians

arranged for a combined attack on the ridge above-mentioned by part of

Menshikov's army (16,000) and a corps (19,000) that was to issue from

Sevastopol. This attack was to have, beside its own field artillery, the

support of fifty-four heavy guns, and the Russian left wing on the

Balaklava battleground was to keep Bosquet occupied. If successful, the

attack on the ridge was to be the signal for a general attack all along

the line. It was apparently intended by Menshikov that the column from

the field army should attack the position from the north, and that the

Sevastopol column should advance along the west side of the Careenage

Ravine. But he only appointed a commander to take charge of both columns

at the last moment, and the want of a clear understanding as to what was

to be done militated against success from the first. General Soimonov,

with the Sevastopol column, after assembling his troops before dawn on

the 5th, led them on to the upland east of Careenage Ravine, while the

field army column, under General Pavlov, crossed the Tchernaya near its

mouth, almost at right angles to Soimonov's line of advance.

[Illustration: Map of Inkerman.]

The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division, 3000,

encamped on the ridge; Codrington's brigade of the Light Division, 1400,

on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine; and the Guards' brigade,

1350, about ¾ m. in rear of the 2nd Division camp. No other forces,

French or British, were within 2 m. except another part of Sir George

Brown's Light Division. A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were

slippery with mud. Soimonov, with his whole force deployed in a normal

attack formation (three lines of battalion columns covered by a few

hundred skirmishers) pushed forward along the ridge (6 A.M.) without

waiting for Pavlov or for Dannenberg, the officer appointed to command

the whole force. Shell Hill, guarded only by a picquet, was seized at

once. The heavy guns that had been brought from the fortress were placed

in position on this hill, and opened fire (7 A.M.) on the knoll, 1400

yds. to the S., behind which the 2nd Division was encamped. The Russian

infantry halted for the guns to prepare the way, and the heavy

projectiles both swept the crest of the British knoll and destroyed the

camp in rear. But already General Pennefather, commanding the division,

had pushed forward one body of his infantry after another down the

forward slope, near the foot of which they encountered the Russians in

great force. On his side, Soimonov had been compelled to break up his

regular lines of columns at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push

his battalions forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of

the ground made the battle even in the beginning a mêlée. The obscurity

of the mist, which had at first allowed the big battalions to approach

unobserved, now favoured the weaker side. Soimonov himself, however,

formed up some 9000 men, who drove back the British left wing--for the

whole of Pennefather's force at the time was no more than 3600 men. But

the right wing, not as yet attacked, either by Soimonov or by Pavlov,

held on to its positions on the forward slope, and a column of Russian

sailors and marines, who had been placed under Soimonov's command and

had moved up the Careenage Ravine to turn the British left, were caught,

just as they emerged on to the plateau in rear of Pennefather's line,

between two bodies of British troops hurrying to the scene of action. On

the front, too, the Russian attack came to a standstill and ebbed, for

Soimonov's overcrowded battalions jostled one another and dissolved on

the narrow and broken plateau. Soimonov himself was killed, and the

disciplined confidence and steady volleys of the defenders dominated the

chaotic _élan_ of the Russians. Thus 3300 defenders were able to repulse

and even to "expunge from the battlefield" the whole of the Sevastopol

column, except that portion of it which drifted away to its left and

joined Pavlov. This stage of the battle had lasted about forty minutes.

But, brilliant as was this overture, it is the second stage of the

battle that gives it its epic interest.

The first attack made by Pavlov's advanced guard, aided by parts of

Soimonov's corps, was relatively slight, but General Dannenberg now

arrived on the field, and arranged for an assault on the British centre

and right, to be delivered by 10,000 men (half his intact forces)

chiefly by way of the Quarry Ravine, the attack to be prepared by the

guns on Shell Hill. Pennefather had been reinforced by the Guards'

brigade and a few smaller units. Not the least extraordinary feature of

the battle that followed is the part played by a sangar of stones at the

head of Quarry Ravine and a small battery, called the Sandbag Battery,

made as a temporary emplacement for two heavy guns a few days before.

The guns had done their work and been sent back whence they came.

Nevertheless these two insignificant works, as points to hold and lines

to defend on an otherwise featureless battlefield, became the centres of

gravity of the battle.

The sangar at first fell into the hands of the Russians, but they were

soon ejected, and small British detachments reoccupied and held it,

while the various Russian attacks flowed up and past it and ebbed back

into the Quarry Ravine. Possession of the Sandbag Battery was far more

fiercely contested. The right wing was defended by some 700 men of the

2nd Division, who were reinforced by 1300 of the Guards. The line of

defence adjacent to the battery looked downhill for about 300 yds.,

giving a clear field of fire for the new Enfield rifle the English

carried; but a sharp break in the slope beyond that range gave the

assailants plenty of "dead ground" on which to form up. For a time,

therefore, the battle was a series of attacks, delivered with great

fierceness by the main body of Pavlov's corps, the repulse of each being

followed by the disappearance of the assailants. But the arrival of part

of the British 4th Division under Sir George Cathcart gave the impulse

for a counter-attack. Most of the division indeed had to be used to

patch up the weaker parts of the line, but Cathcart himself with about

400 men worked his way along the lower and steeper part of the eastern

slope so as to take the assailants of the battery in flank. He had not

proceeded far, however, when a body of Russians moving higher up

descended upon the small British corps and scattered it, Cathcart

himself being killed. Other counterstrokes that his arrival had inspired

were at the same time made from different parts of the defensive front,

and had the effect of breaking up what was a solid line into a number of

disconnected bands, each fighting for its life in the midst of the

enemy. The crest of the position was laid open and parts of the Russian

right wing seized it. But they were flung back to the lower slopes of

the Quarry Ravine by the leading French regiment sent by Bosquet. This

regiment was quickly followed by others. The last great assault was

delivered with more precision, if with less fury than the others, and

had Dannenberg chosen to employ the 9000 bayonets of his reserve, who

stood idle throughout the day, to support the 6000 half-spent troops who

made the attack, it would probably have been successful.

As it was, supported by the heavy guns on Shell Hill, the assailants,

though no longer more than slightly superior in numbers, carried not

only the sangar, but part of the crest line of the allied position. But

they were driven back into the Quarry Ravine, and, relieving the

exhausted British, the French took up the defence along the edge of the

ravine, which, though still not without severe fighting, they maintained

till the close of the battle. Inkerman, however, was not a drawn battle.

The allied field artillery, reinforced by two long 18-pr. guns of the

British siege train and assisted by the bold advance of two French

horse-artillery batteries which galloped down the forward slope and

engaged the Russians at close range, gained the upper hand. Last of all,

the dominant guns on Shell Hill thus silenced, the resolute advance of a

handful of British infantry decided the day, and the Russians retreated.

The final shots were fired about 1.30 P.M.

The total British force engaged was 8500, of whom 2357 were killed and

wounded. The French lost 939 out of about 7000 who came on to the

field, though not all these were engaged. The Russians are said to

have lost 11,000 out of about 42,000 present. The percentage (27.7) of

loss sustained by the British is sufficient evidence of the intensity

of the conflict, and provides a convincing answer to certain writers

who have represented the battle as chiefly a French affair. On the

other hand, the reproaches addressed by some British writers to

General Bosquet for not promptly supporting the troops at Inkerman

with his whole strength are equally unjustifiable, for apparently Sir

George Brown and Sir George Cathcart both declined his first offers of

support, and he had Prince Gorchakov with at least 20,000 Russians in

his own immediate front. He would therefore have risked the failure of

his own mission in order to take part in a battle where his

intervention was not, so far as he could tell, of vital importance.

When Lord Raglan definitely asked him for support, he gave it

willingly and eagerly, sending his troops up at the double, and it

must be remembered that several British divisions took no part in the

action for the same reason that actuated Bosquet. But, in spite of the

seemingly inevitable controversies attendant on an "allied" battle, it

is now generally admitted that, as a "soldiers' battle," Inkerman is

scarcely to be surpassed in modern history.

INLAYING, a method of ornamentation, by incrusting or otherwise

inserting in one material a substance or substances differing therefrom

in colour or nature. The art is practised in the fabrication of

furniture and artistic objects in all varieties of wood, metal, shell,

ivory and coloured, and hard stone, and in compound substances; and the

combinations, styles and varieties of effect are exceedingly numerous.

Several special classes of inlaying may be here enumerated and defined,

details regarding most of which will be found under their separate

headings. In the ornamental treatment of metal surfaces _Niello_

decoration, applied to silver and gold, is an ancient and much-practised

species of inlaying. It consists in filling up engraved designs with a

composition of silver, copper, lead and sulphur incorporated by heat.

The composition is black, and the finished work has the appearance of a

drawing in black on a metallic plate. An art, analogous in effect,

called _bidri_, from Bider in the Deccan, is practised in India. In

bidri work the ground is an alloy of zinc, with small proportions of

copper and lead, in which shallow patterns and devices are traced, and

filled up with thin plates of silver. When the surface has been evened

and smoothed, the bidri ground is stained a permanent black by a paste

the chief ingredients of which are sal-ammoniac and nitre, leaving a

pleasing contrast of bright metallic silver in a dead black ground. The

inlaying of gold wire in iron or steel is known as Damascening (q.v.).

It has been very largely practised in Persia and India for the

ornamentation of arms and armour, being known in the latter country as

Kuft work or Kuftgari. In Kashmir, vessels of copper and brass are very

effectively inlaid with tin--an art which, like many other decorative

arts, appears to have originated in Persia. In the ornamental inlaying

of metal surfaces the Japanese display the most extraordinary skill and

perfection of workmanship. In the inlaying of their fine bronzes they

use principally gold and silver, but for large articles and also for

common cast hollow ware commoner metals and alloys are employed. In

inlaying bronzes they generally hollow out and somewhat undercut the

design, into which the ornamenting metal, usually in the form of wire,

is laid and hammered over. Frequently the lacquer work of the Japanese

is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and other substances, in the same manner

as is practised in ornamenting lacquered papier-mâché among Western

communities. The Japanese also practise the various methods of inlaying

referred to under DAMASCENING. The term _Mosaic_ (q.v.) is generally

applied to inlaid work in hard stones, marble and glass, but the most

important class of mosaics--those which consist of innumerable small

separate pieces--do not properly come under the head of inlaying. Inlaid

mosaics are those in which coloured designs are inserted in spaces cut

in a solid ground or basis, such as the modern Florentine mosaic, which

consists of thin veneers of precious coloured stones set in slabs of

marble. The Taj Mahal at Agra is an example of inlaid mosaic in white

marble, and the art, carried to that city by a French artist, is still

practised by native workmen. _Pietra dura_ is a fine variety of inlaid

mosaic in which hard and expensive stones--agate, cornelian, amethyst

and the like--are used in relief. Certain kinds of enamel might also be

included among the varieties of inlaying. (See also MARQUETRY and BOMBAY

FURNITURE.)

INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), American artist, was born in Utica, New York,

on the 20th of October 1801. Apprenticed to the painter John W. Jarvis

at the age of fourteen, he left him after seven years and set up for

himself, painting portraits, genre and landscape. He was one of the

organizers of the National Academy of Design in New York and its first

vice-president (from 1826 until 1832). As a portrait painter he was

highly successful both in New York and Philadelphia, and going to

England in 1844, he had for sitters the Lord Chancellor (Cottenham), the

poet Wordsworth, Doctor Chalmers, Lord Macaulay and others. His American

sitters included President Van Buren and Chief Justice Marshall. He died

in New York City on the 17th of January 1846.

INN, a river of Europe, an important right bank tributary of the Danube.

It rises at an elevation of 7800 ft., in a small lake under the Piz

Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. After flowing for a

distance of 55 m., through the Engadine it leaves Swiss territory at

Martinsbruck and enters Austria. It next plunges through the deep ravine

of Finstermünz, and, continuing in the main a north-easterly direction,

receives at Landeck the Rosanna. Hence its course becomes more rapid,

until, after swirling through the narrow and romantic Oberinnthal, it

enters the broader and pastoral Unterinnthal. It next passes Innsbruck

and from Hall, a few miles lower down, begins to be navigable for

barges. At Kufstein, down to which point it has still pursued a

north-easterly direction, it breaks through the north Tirol limestone

formation, and, now keeping a northerly course, enters at Rosenheim the

Bavarian high plateau. Its bed is now broad, studded with islands and

enclosed by high banks. Its chief tributaries on this last portion of

its course are the Alz and the Salzach, and at Passau, 309 m. from its

source, it joins the Danube, which river down to that point it equals in

length and far exceeds in volume of water. Its rapid current does not

permit of extensive navigation, but timber rafts are floated down from

above Innsbruck.

See Greinz, _Eine Wanderung durch das Unterinntal_ (Stuttgart, 1902).

INN and INNKEEPER. An inn is a house where travellers are fed and lodged

for reward. A distinction has been drawn between tavern, inn and hotel,

the tavern supplying food and drink, the hotel lodging, the inn both;

but this is fanciful. "Hotel" now means "inn," and "inn" is often

applied to a mere public-house, whilst "tavern" is less used. "Inn,"

still the legal and best, as it is the oldest, is a form of the word

"in" or "within." This sense is retained in the case of the English

legal societies still known as INNS OF COURT (q.v.). In the Bible "inn"

means "lodging-place for the night." Hospitality has always been a

sacred duty in the East. The pilgrim or the traveller claims it as a

right. But some routes were crowded, as that from Bagdad to Babylon. On

these, _khans_ (in or near a town) and _caravanserais_ (in waste places)

were erected at the expense of the benevolent. They consisted of a

square building surrounded by a high wall; on the roof there was a

terrace and over the gateway a tower; inside, was a large court

surrounded by compartments in which was some rude provision for the

animals and baggage of the traveller as well as for himself. The latter

purchased his own food where he chose, and had to "do for himself." In

some such place Jesus was born. Tavern is mentioned once in Scripture

(Acts xxviii. 15) where it is said the brethren from Rome met Paul at

"the Three Taverns." This was a station on the Appian Way, referred to

also in Cicero's _Letters_ (_Ad Att._ ii. 12). So, in modern London,

stations are called "Elephant and Castle," or "Bricklayers' Arms," from

adjacent houses of entertainment. Among the Greeks inns and innkeepers

were held in low repute. The houses were bad and those who kept them had

a bad name. A self-respecting Greek entered them as seldom as possible;

if he travelled he relied on the hospitality of friends. In Rome under

the emperors something akin to the modern inn grew up. There is,

however, scarcely any mention of such institutions in the capital as

distinguished from mere wine-shops or eating-houses. Ambassadors were

lodged in apartments at the expense of the state. But along the great

roads that radiated from Rome there were inns. Horace's account of his

journey to Brundisium (_Sat._ i. 5), that brilliant picture of

contemporary travel, tells us of their existence, and the very name of

the Three Taverns shows that there was sufficient custom to support a

knot of these institutions at one place. Under the Roman law, the

innkeeper was answerable for the property of his guests unless the

damage was due to _damnum fatale_ or _vis major_, in modern language the

act of God or the king's enemies. He was also liable for damage done by

his servant or his slave or other inhabitant of the house.

In the middle ages hospitality was still regarded as a duty, and

provision for travellers was regularly made in the monasteries. People

of rank were admitted to the house itself, others sought the

guest-chamber, which sometimes stood (as at Battle Abbey) outside the

precincts. It consisted of a hall, round which were sleeping-rooms,

though the floor of the hall itself was often utilized. Again,

hospitality was rarely denied at the castle or country house. The knight

supped with his host at the daïs or upper part of the great hall, and

retired with him into his own apartment. His followers, or the meaner

strangers, sat lower down at meat, and after the tables had been removed

stretched themselves to rest upon the floor. In desolate parts hospices

were erected for the accommodation of pilgrims. Such existed in the

Alps and on all the great roads to the Holy Land or to famous shrines,

notably to that of Canterbury. The still impressive remains of the

Travellers' Hospital at Maidstone, founded by Archbishop Boniface in

1260, give an idea of the extent of such places. The mention of

Canterbury recalls two inns celebrated by Chaucer. The pilgrims started

from the "Tabard" at Southwark under the charge of Harry Baily the host,

and they put up at the "Checquers of the Hope," in Mercery Lane,

Canterbury. It is easy to infer that, as time went on, the meagre

hospitality of the monastery or the hospice was not sufficient for an

increasing middle class, and that the want was met by the development of

the mere ale-house into the inn. The "ale-house," to give it the old

English name, was always in evidence, and even in pre-Reformation days

was a favourite subject for the satirist. In Langland's _Piers the

Plowman_ and in Skelton's _Elynour Rummynge_ we have contemporary

pictures of ale-houses of the 14th and 16th centuries, but the Tabard is

quite a modern inn, with a _table d'hôte_ supper, a sign, a landlord

("right a mery man") and a reckoning!

It has been conjectured (Larwood and Hotten, _History of Signboards_,

1874) that the inn sign was taken or imitated from that displayed on the

town houses or _inns_ of noblemen and prelates. The innkeeper alone of

tradesmen retains his individual sign. The inn shared with the tavern

the long projecting pole garnished with branches. These poles had become

of such inordinate length in London that in 1375 they were restricted to

7 ft. But the inn of those times was still a simple affair. In each room

there were several beds, the price of which the prudent traveller

inquired beforehand. Extortion was frequent, though it was forbidden by

a statute of Edward III. The fare was simple; bread, meat and beer, with

fish on Fridays. The tavern sentiment is strong in Elizabethan

literature. The "Boar's Head" in Eastcheap is inseparably connected with

Sir John Falstaff and Dame Quickly. "Shall I not take mine ease in mine

Inn?" (1 Henry IV., Act iii. sc. 3) is well-nigh the most famous word of

the famous knight. A passage in Holinshed's _Chronicle_ (1587, i. 246)

explains the inner meaning of this. He assures us that the inns of

England are not as those of other lands. Abroad the guest is under the

tyranny of the host, but in England your inn is as your own house; in

your chamber you can do what you will, and the host is rather your

servant than your master. The "Mermaid" in Bread Street is associated

with the memory of many wits and poets--Raleigh, Shakespeare, Beaumont,

Fletcher, Ben Jonson--who frequented it and praised it.

Shenstone's lines as to "the warmest welcome at an inn" vent a common

but rather cheap cynicism. Doctor Johnson was a great frequenter of inns

and was outspoken in praise and blame. In the time immediately preceding

railways the inn, which was also a post-house where the public coach as

well as that of the private traveller changed horses, was a place of

much importance. We have it presented over and over again in the pages

of Dickens. The "Maypole" in _Barnaby Rudge_ may be singled out for

mention; it survives at Chigwell, Essex, as the "King's Head."

The effect of railways was to multiply hotels in great centres and

gradually increase their size till we have the huge structures so

plentiful to-day. The bicycle and later the motor car, through the

enormous traffic they caused on the country roads, have restored the old

wayside inns to more than their former prosperity.

In Scotland a statute (1424) of James I. ordained inns for man and

beast, with food and drink at reasonable prices, in each borough, and a

subsequent act prohibited lodging in private houses in places where

there were inns, under a penalty of 40s. But for centuries the Scots inn

was a poor affair. The Clachan of Aberfoyle in _Rob Roy_, kept by the

widow MacAlpine, was probably typical. In _St Ronan's Well_ Scott gives

the more pleasing picture of the Cleikum Inn, kept by the delightful Meg

Dods, and mention should be made of St Mary's Cottage, with its hostess

Tibby Shiels, the scene of one of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, with

memories not merely of Scott but of Christopher North and the Ettrick

Shepherd. Burns had much to do with inns and taverns. If Poosie

Nancie's, where the Jolly Beggars held wild revel, is long vanished, the

Globe at Dumfries still exists, a fair sample of an inn of the period.

As late as 1841 Dickens, writing to John Foster during his first visit

to Scotland, describes the Highland inns as very poor affairs, "a mere

knot of little outhouses" he says of one; and even in Queen Victoria's

_Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands_ the inn is

described as invariably small and unassuming. Thus the development of

hotels in Scotland did not begin much before the middle of the 19th

century.

In America the first hotel mentioned in New York is "Kriger's Tavern"

about 1642, replaced in 1703 by the "King's Arms." When the town came to

be English a proclamation was issued regulating the inns. Meals were not

to cost more than 8d. or beer 2d. per quart.

_Law Relating to Innkeepers._--Whether any special building is an inn is

a question of fact. A temperance hotel is an inn, but a mere

public-house is not. An innkeeper is bound to receive, lodge and feed

travellers if he has accommodation, if they are able and willing to pay,

and are not obviously objectionable. If he refuse he is liable at common

law to indictment, or an action will lie against him at the suit of the

would-be guest. Under the Army Act soldiers of all kinds may be billeted

on the innkeeper, even beyond his power to provide in his own house; he

must find accommodation for them elsewhere. An innkeeper must keep the

goods and chattels of his guest in safety, unless they are destroyed by

the act of God or the king's enemies. Under this last the king's

rebellious subjects are not included. He is not liable for goods stolen

or destroyed by the companion of the guest or through the guest's own

negligence. There are two theories as to the origin of this common law

liability of the innkeeper: (1) it was a survival of the liability of

the common trader, or (2) specially imposed from the nature of his

calling. Old English law held him to some extent suspect. The traveller

amongst strangers seemed forlorn and unprotected, and conspiracy with

thieves was dreaded. In modern times the landlord's responsibilities

were cut down by the Innkeepers Liability Act 1863. He is not liable

(save for horses and other live animals with their gear and carriages)

to a greater extent than £30, unless the loss is caused by the default

or neglect of himself or his servants, or the goods have been formally

deposited with him. He must conspicuously exhibit a copy of the material

parts of the act. The innkeeper may contract himself out of his common

law obligation, and, apart from negligence, he is not liable for injury

to the person or clothes of his guest. In return for these

responsibilities the law gives him a lien over his guest's goods till

his bill be paid. This is a particular and not a general lien. It

attaches only to the special goods brought by the guest to the inn, and

housed by the innkeeper with him. When several guests go together, the

lien extends to all their goods. The innkeeper is only bound to take

ordinary care of goods thus held, but he cannot use them or charge for

their house-room. By the custom of London and Exeter, "when a horse eats

out the price of his head," namely, when the cost of keep exceeds value,

the host may have him as his own. By the Innkeepers Act 1878, if goods

have been kept for six weeks they may be advertised and then sold after

the interval of a month. Although an advertisement in a London paper is

directed, this act (it would seem) applies to Scotland (J. A. Fleming,

in Green's _Encyclopaedia of the Law of Scotland_, vi. 363). In that

country the law is generally the same as in England, though it has been

held that the innkeeper is not responsible for loss by accidental fire.

Nor is his refusal to receive a guest a criminal offence. In the United

States the common law follows that of England, though laws of the

various states have diminished the liability of the innkeeper in much

the same fashion as in England. Innkeepers as retailers of intoxicating

liquors are subject to the provisions of the Licensing Laws.

See Angus, _Bible Handbook_ (new ed., 1904); Beckmann's _Inventions_,

tr. by Johnson (1846); Jusserand, _Les Anglais au moyen âge_ (1884);

Liebenau, _Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schweiz_ _in älterer

Zeit_ (1891); Kempt, _Convivial Caledonia_ (1893); F. W. Hackwood,

_Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England_ (1909); Jelf and

Hurst, _The Law of Innkeepers_ (1904). English and Roman law are

compared in Pymar's _Law of Innkeepers_ (1892). For Scots law, see

Bell's _Principles_. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell, _Law of

Inns, Hotels and Boarding Houses_ (1888). (F. Wa.)

INNERLEITHEN, a police burgh and health resort of Peeblesshire,

Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the Tweed, 6½ m. S.E.

of Peebles by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden

times it seems to have been known as Hornehuntersland, and to have been

mentioned as early as 1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was

drowned in a pool of the Tweed, close to Leithenfoot. Its chief industry

is the manufacture of tweeds and fine yarns, which, together with the

fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into prominence towards

the end of the 18th century. The spa, alleged to be the St Ronan's well

of Scott's novel of that name, has a pump-room, baths, &c. The saline

waters are useful in minor cases of dyspepsia and liver complaints. The

town is flanked on the W. by the hill fort of Caerlee (400 ft. long) and

on the E. by that of the Pirn (350 ft. long). Farther E., close to the

village of Walkerburn, are Purvis Hill terraces, a remarkable series of

earthen banks, from 50 ft. to more than 100 ft. wide, and with a length

varying up to 900 ft., the origin and purpose of which are unknown.

Traquair House, or Palace, on the right bank of the Tweed, is believed

to be the oldest inhabited house in Scotland, the most ancient portion

dating from the 10th century, and including a remnant of the castle. It

was largely added to by Sir John Stewart, first earl of Traquair (d.

1659) and is a good example of the Scottish Baronial mansion with

high-pitched roof and turreted angles. To the west of the house was the

arbour which formed the "bush aboon Traquair" of the songs by Robert

Crawford (d. 1733) and John Campbell Shairp, its site being indicated by

a few birch trees. James Nicol (1769-1819), the poet, was minister of

Traquair, and his son James Nicol (1810-1879), the geologist and

professor of natural history in Aberdeen University, was born in the

manse.

INNESS, GEORGE (1825-1894), American landscape painter, was born near

Newburgh, N.Y., on the 1st of May 1825. Before he was five years of age

his parents had moved to New York and afterwards to Newark, N.J., in

which latter city his boyhood was passed. He would not "take education"

at the town academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer's boy. He had

a strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with a

drawing-master named Barker. At sixteen he went to New York to study

engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where he continued sketching and

painting after his own initiative. In 1843 he was again in New York, and

is said to have passed a month in Gignoux's studio. But he was too

impetuous, too independent in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides,

the knowledge of his teachers must have been limited. Practically he was

self-taught, and always remained a student. In 1851 he went to Europe,

and in Italy got his first glimpse of real art. He was there two years,

and imbibed some traditions of the classic landscape. In 1854 he went to

France, and there studied the Barbizon painters, whom he greatly

admired, especially Daubigny and Rousseau. After his return to America

he opened a studio in New York, then went to Medfield, Mass., where he

resided for five years. A pastoral landscape near this town inspired the

characteristic painting "The Medfield Meadows." Again he went abroad and

spent six years in Europe. He came back to New York in 1876, and lived

there, or near there, until the year of his death, which took place at

Bridge of Allan on the 3rd of August 1894 while he was travelling in

Scotland. He was a National Academician, a member of the Society of

American Artists, and had received many honours at home and abroad. He

was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), being also a

painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperament, of moods,

enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of speculation and experiment in

metaphysics and religion, as in poetry and art. Swedenborgianism,

symbolism, socialism, appealed to him as they might to a mystic or an

idealist. He aspired to the perfect unities, and was impatient of

structural foundations. This was his attitude towards painting. He

sought the sentiment, the light, air, and colour of nature, but was put

out by nature's forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness

was his problem, as it was Corot's. His early education gave him no

great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied with his

achievement. He worked over his pictures incessantly, retouching with

paint, pencil, coal, ink--anything that would give the desired

effect--yet never content with them. In his latter days it was almost

impossible to get a picture away from him, and after his death his

studio was found to be full of experimental canvases. He was a very

uneven painter, and his experiments were not always successful. His was

an original--a distinctly American--mind in art. Most of his American

subjects were taken from New York state, New Jersey and New England. His

point of view was his own. At his best he was often excellent in poetic

sentiment, and superb in light, air and colour. He had several styles:

at first he was somewhat grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in

colour; then under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the

"Grey Lowering Day"; finally he broke out in full colour and light, as

in the "Niagara" and the last "Delaware Water-Gap." Some of his pictures

are in American museums, but most of them are in private hands.

(J. C. Van D.)

INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS), the name of thirteen popes and one antipope.

INNOCENT I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope Anastasius I. It

was during his papacy that the siege of Rome by Alaric (408) took place,

when, according to a doubtful anecdote of Zosimus, the ravages of plague

and famine were so frightful, and help seemed so far off, that papal

permission was granted to sacrifice and pray to the heathen deities; the

pope was, however, absent from Rome on a mission to Honorius at Ravenna

at the time of the sack in 410. He lost no opportunity of maintaining

and extending the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for

the settlement of all disputes; and his still extant communications to

Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and

others, as well as his action on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom

against Theophilus of Alexandria, show that opportunities of the kind

were numerous and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian

controversy, confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of

proconsular Africa held in Carthage in 416, which had been sent to him.

He wrote in the same year in a similar sense to the fathers of the

Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of their number, had

addressed him. Among his letters are one to Jerome and another to John,

bishop of Jerusalem, regarding annoyances to which the first named had

been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem. He died on the 12th of

March 417, and in the Roman Church is commemorated as a confessor along

with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor, martyrs, on the 28th of July.

His successor was Zosimus.

INNOCENT II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope from 1130 to 1143,

was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability, pure life and political

connexions raised him rapidly to power. Made cardinal deacon of Sant

Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal II. he was employed in various diplomatic

missions. Calixtus II. appointed him one of the ambassadors who made

peace with the Empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in

the following year, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni, he

was papal legate in France. On the 13th of February 1130 Honorius II.

died, and on that night a minority of the Sacred College elected

Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II. After a hasty consecration

he was forced to take refuge with a friendly noble by the faction of

Pierleoni, who was elected pope under the name of Anacletus II. by a

majority of the cardinals. Declaring that the cardinals had been

intimidated, Innocent refused to recognize their choice; by June,

however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized

by a synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Étampes. Similar action was

taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In January 1131 Innocent held

a personal interview with King Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in

March, at Liége, with the German King Lothair, whom he induced to

undertake a campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy in

August 1132, and occupied Rome, all except St Peter's church and the

castle of St Angelo which held out against them. Lothair was crowned

emperor at the Lateran in June 1133, and as a further reward Innocent

gave him the territories of the Countess Mathilda as a fief, but refused

to surrender the right of investiture. Left to himself Innocent again

had to flee, this time to Pisa. Here he called a council which condemned

Anacletus. A second expedition of Lothair expelled Roger of Sicily (to

whom Anacletus had given the title of king in return for his support)

from southern Italy, but a quarrel with Innocent prevented the emperor

attacking Rome. At this crisis, in January 1138, Anacletus died, and a

successor elected by his faction, as Victor IV., resigned after two

months. The Lateran council of 1139 restored peace to the Church,

excommunicating Roger of Sicily, against whom Innocent undertook an

expedition which proved unsuccessful. In matters of doctrine the pope

supported Bernard of Clairvaux in his prosecution of Abelard and Arnold

of Brescia, whom he condemned as heretics. The remaining years of

Innocent's life were taken up by a quarrel with the Roman commune, which

had set up an independent senate, and one with King Louis VII. of

France, about an appointment. France was threatened with the interdict,

but before matters came to a head Innocent died on the 22nd of September

1143.

See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, "Innocenz II.," with full

references. Gregorovius, _History of Rome in the Middle Ages_, trans.

by Hamilton (London, 1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420-453. (P. Sm.)

INNOCENT III. (Lando da Sezza), antipope (1179-1180), sprang from a

noble Lombard family. Opponents of Alexander III. tried to make him pope

in September 1179. Alexander, however, bribed his partisans to give him

up, and imprisoned him in the cloister of La Cava in January 1180.

INNOCENT III. (Lotario de' Conti di Segni), pope from 1198 to 1216, was

the son of Trasimondo, count of Segni, and of Claricia, a Roman lady of

the noble family of Scotti, and was born at Anagni about 1160. His early

education he received at Rome, whence he went to the university of Paris

and subsequently to that of Bologna. At Paris, where he attended the

lectures of Peter of Corbeil, he laid the foundations of his profound

knowledge of the scholastic philosophy; at Bologna he acquired an

equally profound knowledge of the canon and civil law. Thus

distinguished by birth, intellect and attainments, on his return to Rome

he rose rapidly in the church. He at once became a canon of St Peter's;

he was made subdeacon of the Roman Church by Gregory VIII.; and in 1190

his uncle, Pope Clement III., created him cardinal-deacon of Santi

Sergio e Baccho. The election of Celestine III. in the following year

withdrew Lotario for a while from the active work of the Curia, the new

pope belonging to the family of the Orsini, who were at feud with the

Scotti. Lotario, however, employed his leisure in writing several works:

_Mysteriorum evangelicae legis ac sacramenti eucharistiae libri VI._,

_De contemtu mundi, sive de miseria humanae conditionis_, and _De

quadrapartita specie nuptiarum_. Of these only the two first are extant;

they are written in the scholastic style, a sea of quotations balanced

and compared, and they witness at once to the writer's profound

erudition and to the fact that his mind had not yet emancipated itself

from the morbid tendencies characteristic of one aspect of medieval

thought. Yet Lotario was destined to be above all things a man of

action, and, though his activities to the end were inspired by

impracticable ideals, they were in their effects intensely practical;

and Innocent III. is remembered, not as a great theologian, but as a

great ruler and man of affairs.

On the 8th of January 1198 Celestine III. died, and on the same day

Lotario, though not even a priest, was unanimously elected pope by the

assembled cardinals. He took the name of Innocent III. On the 21st of

February he was ordained priest, and on the 22nd consecrated bishop.

Innocent was but thirty-seven years old at this time, and the vigour of

youth, guided by a master mind, was soon apparent in the policy of the

papacy. His first acts were to restore the prestige of the Holy See in

Italy, where it had been overshadowed by the power of the emperor Henry

VI. As pope it was his object to shake off the imperial yoke, as an

Italian prince to clear the land of the hated Germans. The circumstances

of the time were highly favourable to him. The early death of Henry VI.

(September 1197) had left Germany divided between rival candidates for

the crown, Sicily torn by warring factions of native and German barons.

It was, then, easy for Innocent to depose the imperial prefect in Rome

itself and to oust the German feudatories who held the great Italian

fiefs for the Empire. Spoleto fell; Perugia surrendered; Tuscany

acknowledged the leadership of the pope; papal _rectores_ once more

governed the patrimony of St Peter. Finally, Henry's widow, Constance,

in despair, acknowledged the pope as overlord of the two Sicilies, and

on her death (November 27, 1198) appointed him guardian of her infant

son Frederick. Thus in the first year of his pontificate Innocent had

established himself as the protector of the Italian nation against

foreign aggression, and had consolidated in the peninsula a secure basis

on which to build up his world-power.

The effective assertion of this world-power is the characteristic

feature of Innocent's pontificate. Other popes before him--from Gregory

VII. onwards--had upheld the theory of the supremacy of the spiritual

over the temporal authority, with various fortune; it was reserved for

Innocent to make it a reality. The history of the processes by which he

accomplished this is given elsewhere. Here it will suffice to deal with

it in the broadest outline. In Germany his support of Otto IV. against

Philip of Swabia, then of Philip against Otto and finally, after

Philip's murder (June 21, 1208), of the young Frederick II. against

Otto, effectually prevented the imperial power, during his pontificate,

from again becoming a danger to that of the papacy in Italy. Concessions

at the cost of the Empire in Italy were in every case the price of his

support (see GERMANY: _History_). In his relations with the German

emperors Innocent acted partly as pope, partly as an Italian prince; his

victories over other and more distant potentates he won wholly in his

spiritual capacity. Thus he forced the masterful Philip Augustus of

France to put away Agnes of Meran and take, back his Danish wife

Ingeborg, whom he had wrongfully divorced; he compelled Peter of Aragon

to forgo his intended marriage with Bianca of Navarre and ultimately

(1204) to receive back his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See; he forced

Alphonso IX. of Leon to put away his wife Berengaria of Castile, who was

related to him within the prohibited degrees, though he pronounced their

children legitimate. Sancho of Portugal was compelled to pay the tribute

promised by his father to Rome, and Ladislaus of Poland to cease from

infringing the rights of the church. Even the distant north felt the

weight of Innocent's power, and the archbishop of Trondhjem was called

to order for daring to remove the ban of excommunication from the

repentant King Haakon IV., as an infringement of the exclusive right of

the pope to impose or remove the ban of the church in the case of

sovereigns. So widespread was the prestige of the pope that Kaloyan,

prince of Bulgaria, hoping to strengthen himself against internal foes

and the aggressions of the Eastern Empire, submitted to Rome and, in

November 1204, received the insignia of royalty from the hands of the

papal legates as the vassal of the Holy See.

Meanwhile Innocent had been zealous in promoting the crusade which

ultimately, under the Doge Dandolo, led to the Latin occupation of

Constantinople (see CRUSADES). This diversion from its original object

was at first severely censured by Innocent; but an event which seemed to

put an end to the schism of East and West came to wear a different

aspect; he was the first pope to nominate a patriarch of Constantinople,

and he expressed the hope that henceforth the church would be "one fold

under one shepherd." By a bull of October 12, 1204, moreover, Innocent

proclaimed the same indulgences for a crusade to Livonia as the Holy

Land. The result was the "conversion" of the Livonians (1206) and the

Letts (1208) by the crusaders headed by the knights of the Teutonic

Order. The organization of the new provinces thus won for the church

Innocent kept in his own hands, instituting the new archbishopric of

Riga and defining the respective jurisdictions of the archbishops and

the Teutonic Knights, a process which, owing to the ignorance at Rome of

the local geography, led to curious confusion.

Another crusade, horrible in its incidents and momentous in its

consequences, was that proclaimed by Innocent in 1207 against the

Albigenses. In this connexion all that can be said in his favour is that

he acted from supreme conviction; that the heresies against which he

appealed to the sword were really subversive of Christian civilization;

and that he did not use force until for ten years he had tried all the

arts of persuasion in vain (see ALBIGENSES).

Of all Innocent's triumphs, however, the greatest was his victory over

King John of England. The quarrel between the pope and the English king

arose out of a dispute as to the election to the vacant see of

Canterbury, which Innocent had settled by nominating Stephen Langton

over the heads of both candidates. John refusing to submit, Innocent

imposed an interdict on the kingdom and threatened him with a crusade;

and, to avert a worse fate, the English king not only consented to

recognize Langton but also to hold England and Ireland as fiefs of the

Holy See, subject to an annual tribute (May 1213). The submission was no

idle form; for years the pope virtually ruled England through his

legates (see ENGLISH HISTORY and JOHN, KING OF ENGLAND). So great had

the secular power of the papacy become that a Byzantine visitor to Rome

declared Innocent to be "the successor not of Peter but of Constantine."

As in the affairs of the world at large, so also in those of the church

itself, Innocent's authority exceeded that of all his predecessors.

Under him the centralization of the ecclesiastical administration at

Rome received a great impulse, and the independent jurisdiction of

metropolitans and bishops was greatly curtailed. In carrying out this

policy his unrivalled knowledge of the canon law gave him a great

advantage. To his desire to organize the discipline of the church was

due the most questionable of his expedients: the introduction of the

system of provisions and reservations, by which he sought to bring the

patronage of sees and benefices into his own hands--a system which led

later to intolerable abuses.

The year before Innocent's death the twelfth ecumenical council

assembled at the Lateran under his presidency. It was a wonderful proof

at once of the world-power of the pope and of his undisputed personal

ascendancy. It was attended by the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, of

kings and of princes, and by some 1500 archbishops, bishops, abbots and

other dignitaries. The business before it, the disciplining of heretics

and Jews, and the proclamation of a new crusade, &c., vitally concerned

the states represented; yet there was virtually no debate and the

function of the great assembly was little more than to listen to and

endorse the decretals read by the pope (see LATERAN COUNCILS). Shortly

after this crowning exhibition of his power the great pope died on the

16th of July 1216.

Innocent III. is one of the greatest historical figures, both in the

grandeur of his aims and the force of character which brought him so

near to their realization. An appreciation of his work and personality

will be found in the article PAPACY; here it will suffice to say that,

whatever judgment posterity may have passed on his aims, opinion is

united as to the purity of the motives that inspired them and the

tireless self-devotion with which they were pursued. "I have no

leisure," Innocent once sighed, "to meditate on supermundane things;

scarce I can breathe. Yea, so much must I live for others, that almost I

am a stranger to myself." Yet he preached frequently, both at Rome and

on his journeys--many of his sermons, inspired by a high moral

earnestness, have come down to us--and, towards the end of his life, he

found time to write a pious exposition of the Psalms. His views on the

papal supremacy are best explained in his own words. Writing to the

patriarch of Constantinople (_Inn. III., lib._ ii. _ep._ 200) he says:

"The Lord left to Peter the governance not of the church only but of the

whole world;" and again in his letter to King John of England (_lib._

xvi. ep. 131): "The King of Kings ... so established the kingship and

the priesthood in the church, that the kingship should be priestly, and

the priesthood royal (_ut sacerdotale sit regnum et sacerdotium sit

regale_), as is evident from the epistle of Peter and the law of Moses,

setting one over all, whom he appointed his vicar on earth." In his

answer to the ambassadors of Philip Augustus he states the premises from

which this stupendous claim is logically developed:--

"To princes power is given on earth, but to priests it is attributed

also in heaven; to the former only over bodies, to the latter also

over souls. Whence it follows that by so much as the soul is superior

to the body, the priesthood is superior to the kingship.... Single

rulers have single provinces, and single kings single kingdoms; but

Peter, as in the plenitude, so in the extent of his power is

pre-eminent over all, since he is the Vicar of Him whose is the earth

and the fullness thereof, the whole wide world and all that dwell

therein."

To the emperor of Constantinople, who quoted 1 Peter ii. 13, 14, to the

contrary, he replied in perfect good faith that the apostle's admonition

to obey "the king as supreme was addressed to lay folk and not to the

clergy." The more intelligent laymen of the time were not convinced even

when coerced. Even so pious a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von

der Vogelweide, giving voice to the indignation of German laymen,

ascribed Innocent's claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic,

but to the fact that he was "too young" (_owê der babest ist ze junc_).

The literature on Innocent III. is very extensive; a carefully

analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck,

_Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., 1901) s. "Innocenz III." In A. Potthast,

_Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a

bibliography of the literature on Innocent's writings. In the _Corpus

juris canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg (Leipzig, 1881), vol. ii., pp.

xiv.-xvii., are lists of the official documents of Innocent III.

excerpted in the _Decretales Gregorii IX_. The most important later

works on Innocent III. are Achille Luchaire's _Innocent III, Rome et

l'Italie_ (Paris, 1904), _Innocent III, la croisade des Albigeois_

(_ib._ 1905), _Innocent III, la papauté et l'empire_ (_ib._ 1906),

_Innocent III, la question d'orient_ (_ib._ 1906); _Innocent III, les

royautés vassales du Saint-Siège_ (_ib._ 1908); and _Innocent III, la

concile de latran et la réforme de l'église_ (1908); _Innocent the

Great_, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (London, 1907); is the only English

monograph on this pope and contains some useful documents, but is

otherwise of little value. See also H. H. Milman, _History of Latin

Christianity_, vol. v.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,

translated by A. Hamilton (1896), vol. v. pp. 5-110; J. C. L.

Gieseler, _Ecclesiastical Hist._, translated by J. W. Hull, vol. iii.

(Edinburgh, 1853), which contains numerous excerpts from his letters,

&c. Innocent's works are found in Migne, _Patrologiae Cursus

Completus, Series Latina_, vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii. For a translation of

Innocent's answer to King John on the interdict, and John's surrender

of England and Ireland to Innocent, see Gee and Hardy, _Documents

illustrative of Church History_ (London, 1896), pp. 73 et seq.

(W. A. P.)

INNOCENT IV. (Sinibaldo Fiesco), pope 1243-1254, belonged to the noble

Genoese family of the counts of Lavagna. Born at Genoa, he was educated

under the care of his uncle Opizo, bishop of Parma. After taking orders

at Parma, when he was made canon of the cathedral, he studied

jurisprudence at Bologna. His first recorded appearance in political

affairs was in 1218-1219, when he was associated with Cardinal Hugolinus

(afterwards Gregory IX.) in negotiating a peace between Genoa and Pisa.

This led to his rapid promotion. In 1223 Pope Honorius III. gave him a

benefice in Parma, and in 1226 he was established at the curia as

_auditor contradictarum literarum_ of the pope, a post he held also

under Gregory IX., until promoted (1227) to be vice-chancellor of the

Roman Church. In September of the same year he was created cardinal

priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina. He was papal _rector_ (governor) of the

March of Ancona from 1235 to 1240. On the 25th of June 1243 he was

elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Anagni.

Innocent was raised to the Holy See when it was at deadly feud with the

emperor Frederick II., who lay under excommunication. Frederick at first

greeted the elevation of a member of an imperialist family with joy; but

it was soon clear that Innocent intended to carry on the traditions of

his predecessors. Embassies and courtesies were, indeed, interchanged,

and on the 31st of March 1244 a treaty was signed at Rome, whereby the

emperor undertook to satisfy the pope's claims in return for his own

absolution from the ban. Neither side, however, was prepared to take

the first steps to carry out the agreement, and Innocent, who had

ventured back to Rome, began to feel unsafe in the city, where the

imperial partisans had the ascendancy. Fearing a plan to kidnap him, he

left Rome, ostensibly to meet the emperor, and from Sutri fled by night

on horseback, pursued by 300 of the emperor's cavalry, to Civitavecchia,

whence he took ship for Genoa and thence proceeded across the Alps to

Lyons, at that time a merely nominal dependence of the Empire. Thence he

wrote to the French king, Louis IX., asking for an asylum in France; but

this Louis cautiously refused. Innocent, therefore, remained at Lyons,

whence he issued a summons to a general council, before which he cited

Frederick to appear in person, or by deputy. The council, which met on

the 5th of June 1245, was attended only by those prepared to support the

pope's cause; and though Frederick condescended to be represented by his

justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, the judgment was a foregone conclusion.

On the 17th of July Innocent formally renewed the sentence of

excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the

imperial throne and that of Naples. Frederick retorted by announcing his

intention of reducing "the clergy, especially the highest, to a state of

apostolic poverty," and by ordaining the severest punishments for those

priests who should obey the papal sentence. Innocent thereupon

proclaimed a crusade against the emperor and armed his ubiquitous

agents, the Franciscan and Dominican friars, with special indulgences

for all those who should take up the cross against the imperial heretic.

At the same time he did all in his power to undermine Frederick's

authority in Germany and Italy. In Naples he fomented a conspiracy among

the feudal lords, who were discontented with the centralized government

established under the auspices of Frederick's chancellor, Piero della

Vigna. In Germany, at his instigation, the archbishops with a few of the

secular nobles in 1246 elected Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia,

German king; but the "priests' king," as he was contemptuously called,

died in the following year, William II., count of Holland, being after

some delay elected by the papal party in his stead.

Innocent's relentless war against Frederick was not supported by the lay

opinion of his time. In Germany, where it wrought havoc and misery, it

increased the already bitter resentment against the priests. From

England the pope's legate was driven by threats of personal violence. In

France not even the saintly King Louis IX., who made several vain

attempts to mediate, approved the pope's attitude; and the failure of

the crusade which, in 1248, he led against the Mussulmans in Egypt, was,

with reason, ascribed to the deflection of money and arms from this

purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy were by no means

altogether on Innocent's side; the council of Lyons was attended by but

150 bishops, mainly French and Spanish, and the deputation from England,

headed by Robert Grossetête of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in

order to obtain the canonization of Edmund of Canterbury and to protest

against papal exactions. Yet, for better or for worse, Innocent

triumphed. His financial position was from the outset strong, for not

only had he the revenue from the accustomed papal dues but he had also

the support of the powerful religious orders; e.g. in November 1245 he

visited the abbey of Cluny and was presented by the abbot with gifts,

the value of which surprised even the papal officials. At first the war

went in Frederick's favour; then came the capture of the strategically

important city of Parma by papal partisans (June 16th, 1247). From this

moment fortune changed. On the 18th of February 1248 Frederick's camp

before Parma (the temporary town of Vittoria) was taken and sacked, the

imperial insignia--of vast significance in those days--being captured.

From this blow the emperor never recovered; and when on the 13th of

December 1250 he died Innocent greeted the news by quoting from Psalm

xcvi. 11, "Let the heavens rejoice and let the earth be glad."

On the 19th of April 1251 Innocent left Lyons, which had suffered

severely from his presence, and returned to Italy. He continued the

struggle vigorously with Frederick's son and successor, Conrad IV., who

in 1252 descended into Italy, reduced the rebellious cities and claimed

the imperial crown. Innocent, determined that the Hohenstaufen should

not again dominate Italy, offered the crown of Sicily in turn to Richard

of Cornwall, Charles of Anjou, and Henry III. of England, the last of

whom accepted the doubtful gift for his son Edmund. Even after Conrad's

capture of Naples Innocent remained inexorable; for he feared that Rome

itself might fall into the hands of the German king. But fortune

favoured him. On the 20th of May 1254 Conrad died, leaving his infant

son Conradin, as Henry VI. had left Frederick II., under the pope's

guardianship. Innocent accepted the charge and posed as the champion of

the infant king. He held, indeed, to his bargain with Henry III. and,

with all too characteristic nepotism, exercised his rights over the

Sicilian kingdom by nominating his own relations to its most important

offices. Finally, when Manfred, who by Frederick's will had been charged

with the government of the two Sicilies, felt obliged to acknowledge the

pope's suzerainty, Innocent threw off the mask, ignored Conradin's

claims, and on the 24th of October formally asserted his own claims to

Calabria and Sicily. He entered Naples on the 27th; but meanwhile

Manfred had fled and had raised a considerable force; and the news of

his initial successes against the papal troops reached Innocent as he

lay sick and hastened his end. He died on the 7th of December 1254.

Innocent IV. is comparable to his greater predecessor Innocent III.

mainly in the extreme assertion of the papal claims. "The emperor," he

wrote, "doubts and denies that all men and all things are subject to the

See of Rome. As if we who are judges of angels are not to give sentence

on earthly things.... The ignorant assert that Constantine first gave

temporal power to the See of Rome; it was already bestowed by Christ

Himself, the true King and Priest, as inalienable from its nature and

absolutely unconditional. Christ established not only a pontifical but a

royal sovereignty (_principatus_) and committed to blessed Peter and his

successors the empire both of earth and heaven, as is sufficiently

proved by the plurality of the keys" (_Codex epist. Vatic._ No. 4957,

49, quoted in Raumer, _Hohenstaufen_, iv. 78). But this language, which

in the mouth of Innocent III. had been consecrated by the greatness of

his character and aims, was less impressive when it served as a cloak

for an unlimited personal ambition and a family pride which displayed

itself in unblushing nepotism. Yet in some respects Innocent IV. carried

on the high traditions of his great predecessors. Thus he admonished

Sancho II. of Portugal to turn from his evil courses and, when the king

disobeyed, absolved the Portuguese from their allegiance, bestowing the

crown on his brother Alphonso. He also established an ecclesiastical

organization in the newly converted provinces of Prussia, which he

divided into four dioceses; but his attempt to govern the Baltic

countries through a legate broke on the opposition of the Teutonic

Order, whose rights in Prussia he had confirmed.

It was Innocent IV. who, at the council of Lyons, first bestowed the red

hat on the Roman cardinals, as a symbol of their readiness to shed their

blood in the cause of the church.

Innocent was a canon lawyer of some eminence. His small work _De

exceptionibus_ was probably written before he became pope; but the

_Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium_, which displays both practical

sense and a remarkable mastery of the available materials, was written

at Lyons immediately after the council. His _Apologeticus_, a defence of

the papal claims against the Empire, written--as is supposed--in

refutation of Piero della Vigna's argument in favour of the independence

of the Empire, has been lost. Innocent was also a notable patron of

learning, he encouraged Alexander of Hales to write his _Summa universae

theologiae_, did much for the universities, notably the Sorbonne, and

founded law schools at Rome and Piacenza.

Innocent's letters, the chief source for his life, are collected by E.

Berger in _Les Registres d'Innocent IV_ (3 vols., Paris, 1884-1887).

For English readers the account in Milman's _Latin Christianity_, vol.

vi. (3rd ed., 1864) is still useful. Full references will be found in

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. ix. (1901). (W. A. P.)

INNOCENT V. (Pierre de Champagni or de Tarentaise), pope from the 21st

of January to the 22nd of June 1276, was born about 1225 in Savoy and

entered the Dominican order at an early age. He studied theology under

Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventura, and in 1262 was elected

provincial of his order in France. He was made archbishop of Lyons in

1271; cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, and grand penitentiary in

1275; and, partly through the influence of Charles of Anjou, was elected

to succeed Gregory X. As pope he established peace between the republics

of Lucca and Pisa, and confirmed Charles of Anjou in his office of

imperial vicar of Tuscany. He was seeking to carry out the Lyons

agreement with the Eastern Church when he died. His successor was Adrian

V. Innocent V., before he became pope, prepared, in conjunction with

Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, a rule of studies for his order,

which was accepted in June 1259. He was the author of several works in

philosophy, theology and canon law, including commentaries on the

Scriptures and on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and is sometimes

referred to as _famosissimus doctor_. He preached the funeral sermon at

Lyons over St Bonaventura. His bulls are in the Turin collection (1859).

See F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs

G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); A. Potthast, _Regesta, pontif.

Roman._ vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois, _Le Bienheureux

Innocent V_ (Paris, 1899); J. E. Borel, _Notice biogr. sur Pierre de

Tarentaise_ (Chambéry, 1890); P. J. Béthaz, _Pierre des Cours de la

Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V_ (Augustae, 1891); L. Carboni, _De

Innocentio V. Romano pontifice_ (1894). (C. H. Ha.)

INNOCENT VI. (Étienne Aubert), pope from the 18th of December 1352 to

the 12th of September 1362, was born at Mons in Limousin. He became

professor of civil law at Toulouse and subsequently chief judge of the

city. Having taken orders, he was raised to the see of Noyon and

translated in 1340 to that of Clermont. In 1342 he was made

cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, and ten years later

cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, grand penitentiary, and

administrator of the bishopric of Avignon. On the death of Clement VI.,

the cardinals made a solemn agreement imposing obligations, mainly in

favour of the college as a whole, on whichever of their number should be

elected pope. Aubert was one of the minority who signed the agreement

with the reservation that in so doing he would not violate any law, and

was elected pope on this understanding; not long after his accession he

declared the agreement null and void, as infringing the

divinely-bestowed power of the papacy. Innocent was one of the best

Avignon popes and filled with reforming zeal; he revoked the

reservations and commendations of his predecessor and prohibited

pluralities; urged upon the higher clergy the duty of residence in their

sees, and diminished the luxury of the papal court. Largely through the

influence of Petrarch, whom he called to Avignon, he released Cola di

Rienzo, who had been sent a prisoner in August 1352 from Prague to

Avignon, and used the latter to assist Cardinal Albornoz, vicar-general

of the States of the Church, in tranquillizing Italy and restoring the

papal power at Rome. Innocent caused Charles IV. to be crowned emperor

at Rome in 1355, but protested against the famous "Golden Bull" of the

following year, which prohibited papal interference in German royal

elections. He renewed the ban against Peter the Cruel of Castile, and

interfered in vain against Peter IV. of Aragon. He made peace between

Venice and Genoa, and in 1360 arranged the treaty of Bretigny between

France and England. In the last years of his pontificate he was busied

with preparations for a crusade and for the reunion of Christendom, and

sent to Constantinople the celebrated Carmelite monk, Peter Thomas, to

negotiate with the claimants to the Greek throne. He instituted in 1354

the festival of the Holy Lance. Innocent was a strong and earnest man of

monastic temperament, but not altogether free from nepotism. He was

succeeded by Urban V.

The chief sources for the life of Innocent VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae

Pap. Avenion_, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); _Magnum bullarium Romanum_, vol.

iv. (Turin, 1859); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI.

et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L. Pastor _History of

the Popes_, vol. i. trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F.

Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W.

Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); D. Cerri, _Innocenzo Papa VI._ (Turin,

1873); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papauté pendant le XIV^e

siècle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, _Die Papstwahlen_

(Brunswick, 1888); G. Daumet, _Innocent VI. et Blanche de Bourbon_

(Paris, 1899); E. Werunsky, _Gesch. Kaiser Karls IV._ (Innsbruck,

1892). There is an excellent article by M. Naumann in Hauck's

_Realencyklopädie_, 3rd ed. (C. H. Ha.)

INNOCENT VII. (Cosimo dei Migliorati), pope from the 17th of October

1404 to the 6th of November 1406, was born of middle-class parentage at

Sulmona in the Abruzzi in 1339. On account of his knowledge of civil and

canon law, he was made papal vice-chamberlain and archbishop of Ravenna

by Urban VI., and appointed by Boniface IX. cardinal priest of Sta Croce

in Gerusalemme, bishop of Bologna, and papal legate to England. He was

unanimously chosen to succeed Boniface, after each of the cardinals had

solemnly bound himself to employ all lawful means for the restoration of

the church's unity in the event of his election, and even, if necessary,

to resign the papal dignity. The election was opposed at Rome by a

considerable party, but peace was maintained by the aid of Ladislaus of

Naples, in return for which Innocent made a promise, inconsistent with

his previous oath, not to come to terms with the antipope Benedict

XIII., except on condition that he should recognize the claims of

Ladislaus to Naples. Innocent issued at the close of 1404 a summons for

a general council to heal the schism, and it was not the pope's fault

that the council never assembled, for the Romans rose in arms to secure

an extension of their liberties, and finally maddened by the murder of

some of their leaders by the pope's nephew, Ludovico dei Migliorati,

they compelled Innocent to take refuge at Viterbo (6th of August 1405).

The Romans, recognizing later the pope's innocence of the outrage, made

their submission to him in January 1406. He returned to Rome in March,

and, by bull of the 1st of September, restored the city's decayed

university. Innocent was extolled by contemporaries as a lover of peace

and honesty, but he was without energy, guilty of nepotism, and showed

no favour to the proposal that he as well as the antipope should resign.

He died on the 6th of November 1406 and was succeeded by Gregory XII.

See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I.

Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol.

i. (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme

d'occident_ (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme

d'occident_ (Paris, 1898); J. Loserth, _Geschichte des späteren

Mittelalters_ (1903); Theodorici de Nyem, _De schismate libri tres_,

ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890); K. J. von Hefele,

_Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; J. von Haller, _Papsttum u.

Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903). (C. H. Ha.)

INNOCENT VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), pope from the 29th of August

1484 to the 25th of July 1492, successor of Sixtus IV., was born at

Genoa (1432), the son of Arano Cibo, who under Calixtus III. had been a

senator of Rome. His youth, spent at the Neapolitan court, was far from

blameless, and it is not certain that he was married to the mother of

his numerous family. He later took orders, and, through the favour of

Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother of Nicholas V., obtained from Paul II.

the bishopric of Savona. Sixtus IV. translated him to the see of

Molfetta, and in 1473 created him cardinal-priest of Sta Balbina,

subsequently of Sta Cecilia. As pope, he addressed a fruitless summons

to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the infidels, and concluded

in 1489 a treaty with Bayezid II., agreeing in consideration of an

annual payment of 40,000 ducats and the gift of the Holy Lance, to

detain the sultan's fugitive brother Jem in close confinement in the

Vatican. Innocent excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand, king of Naples,

by bull of the 11th of September 1489, for refusal to pay the papal

dues, and gave his kingdom to Charles VIII. of France, but in 1492

restored Ferdinand to favour. He declared (1486) Henry VII. to be lawful

king of England by the threefold right of conquest, inheritance and

popular choice, and approved his marriage with Elizabeth, the daughter

of Edward IV. Innocent, like his predecessor, hated heresy, and in the

bull _Summis desiderantes_ (5th of December 1484) he instigated very

severe measures against magicians and witches in Germany; he prohibited

(1486) on pain of excommunication the reading of the propositions of

Pico della Mirandola; he appointed (1487) T. Torquemada to be grand

inquisitor of Spain; and he offered plenary indulgence to all who would

engage in a crusade against the Waldenses. He took the first steps

towards the canonization of Queen Margaret of Scotland, and sent

missionaries under Portuguese auspices to the Congo. An important event

of his pontificate was the capture of Granada (2nd of January 1492),

which was celebrated at Rome with great rejoicing and for which Innocent

gave to Ferdinand of Aragon the title of "Catholic Majesty." Innocent

was genial, skilled in flattery, and popular with the Romans, but he

lacked talent and relied on the stronger will of Cardinal della Rovere,

afterwards Julius II. His Curia was notoriously corrupt, and he himself

openly practised nepotism in favour of his children, concerning whom the

epigram is quoted: "Octo nocens pueros genuit, totidemque puellas:--Hunc

merito poterit dicere Roma patrem." Thus he gave to his undeserving son

Franceschetto several towns near Rome and married him to the daughter of

Lorenzo de' Medici. Innocent died on the 25th of July 1492, and was

succeeded by Alexander VI.

The sources for the life of Innocent VIII. are to be found in L.

Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_, vol. 3, and in Raynaldus, a.

1484-1492. See also L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. 5, trans.

by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898); M. Creighton, _History of the

Papacy_, vol. 4 (London, 1901); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle

Ages_, vol. 7, trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); T.

Hagen, _Die Papstwahlen von 1484 u. 1492_ (Brizen, 1885); S. Riezler,

_Die Hexenprozesse_ (1896); G. Viani, _Memorie della famiglia Cybo_

(Pisa, 1808); F. Serdonati, _Vita e fatti d'Innocenzo VIII._ (Milan,

1829). (C. H. Ha.)

INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti) was born in 1519. He filled

the offices of apostolic vicar of Avignon, legate at the council of

Trent, nuncio to Venice, and president of the Inquisition. He became

cardinal in 1583; and under the invalid Gregory XIV. assumed almost the

entire conduct of affairs. His election to the papacy, on the 29th of

October 1591, was brought about by Philip II., who profited little by

it, however, inasmuch as Innocent soon succumbed to age and feebleness,

dying on the 30th of December 1591.

See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome,

1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De Vitis Pontiff.

Rom._ (both contemporaries of Innocent); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans.,

Austin), ii. 233 sq. (all brief accounts). (T. F. C.)

INNOCENT X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili) was born in Rome on the 6th of

May 1574, served successively as auditor of the Rota, nuncio to Naples,

legate apostolic to Spain, was made cardinal in 1627, and succeeded

Urban VIII. as pope on the 15th of September 1644. Throughout his

pontificate Innocent was completely dominated by his sister-in-law,

Donna Olimpia Maidalchini, a woman of masculine spirit. There is no

reason to credit the scandalous reports of an illicit attachment.

Nevertheless, the influence of Donna Olimpia was baneful; and she made

herself thoroughly detested for her inordinate ambition and rapacity.

Urban VIII. had been French in his sympathies; but the papacy now

shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and there remained for nearly

fifty years. Evidences of the change were numerous: Innocent promoted

pro-Spanish cardinals; attacked the Barberini, protégés of Mazarin, and

sequestered their possessions; aided in quieting an insurrection in

Naples, fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the

independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward he

obtained from Spain and Naples the recognition of ecclesiastical

immunity. In 1649 Castro, which Urban VIII. had failed to take, was

wrested from the Farnese and annexed to the Papal States. The most

worthy efforts of Innocent were directed to the reform of monastic

discipline (1652). His condemnation of Jansenism (1653) was met with the

denial of papal infallibility in matters of _fact_, and the controversy

entered upon a new phase (see JANSENISM). Although the pontificate of

Innocent witnessed the conversion of many Protestant princes, the most

notable being Queen Christina of Sweden, the papacy had nevertheless

suffered a perceptible decline in prestige; it counted for little in the

negotiations at Münster, and its solemn protest against the peace of

Westphalia was entirely ignored. Innocent died on the 7th of January

1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII.

For contemporary lives of Innocent see Oldoin, continuator of

Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._; and _Palazzi,

Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688) iv. 570 sqq.; Ciampi's

_Innoc. X. Pamfili, et la sua Corte_ (Rome, 1878), gives a very full

account of the period. Gualdus' (pseud. of Gregorio Leti; v. bibliog.

note, art. "SIXTUS V.") _Vita de Donna Olimpia Maidalchina_ (1666) is

gossipy and untrustworthy; Capranica's _Donna Olympia Pamfili_ (Milan,

1875, 3rd ed.) is fanciful and historically of no value. See also

Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 40 sqq.; v. Reumont,

_Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des

Kirchenstaates_ (1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, s.v. "Innocenz X." (T. F. C.)

INNOCENT XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), pope from 1676 to 1689, was born at

Como on the 16th of May 1611. He studied law in Rome and Naples, entered

the Curia under Urban VIII. (his alleged military service seems to be

questionable), and became successively protonotary, president of the

Apostolic Chamber, governor of Macerate and commissary of Ancona.

Innocent X. made him a cardinal (1647), legate to Ferrara, and, in 1650,

bishop of Novara. His simple and blameless life, his conscientious

discharge of duty, and his devotion to the needs of the poor had won for

him such a name that, despite the opposition of France, he was chosen to

succeed Clement X. on the 21st of September 1676. He at once applied

himself to moral and administrative reform; declared against nepotism,

introduced economy, abolished sinecures, wiped out the deficit (at the

same time reducing rents), closed the gaming-houses, and issued a number

of sumptuary ordinances. He held monks strictly to the performance of

their vows; took care to satisfy himself of the fitness of candidates

for bishoprics; enjoined regular catechetical instruction, greater

simplicity in preaching, and greater reverence in worship. The moral

teaching of the Jesuits incurred his condemnation (1679) (see LIGUORI),

an act which the society never forgave, and which it partially revenged

by forcing, through the Inquisition, the condemnation of the quietistic

doctrines of Molinos (1687), for which Innocent entertained some

sympathy (see MOLINOS).