efficiency; the premium job is carefully inspected, and unless it is
of the highest standard the bonus is forfeited; so that the workman is
continuously careful to avoid any risk which will result in the loss
of the reward for his extra work. The reduction in time taken is, in
a large measure, due to the exercise of foresight and ingenuity on
the part of the workman. He is ever on the alert to ensure that he
will not be kept waiting for material to enable work to progress. The
machine-man makes certain that before one unit is out of his machine
the casting, forging, or bar for the next is alongside. This is further
facilitated by a man in each shop whose only duty is to see that there
is a supply of work for every tool. Encouragement is always accorded
to those who suggest modifications to increase the output from any
machine. Again, in the erecting of engines, considerable economy has
been attained, owing to similar foresight being exercised to ensure
that each unit is machined before it is wanted by the erector.
To the employer also there is gain in the increased production, from
a given number of machines and men, for a constant establishment
expenditure--rent, rates, taxes, etc. While the wage paid to the men
is increased, there is a reduction in the cost of production, which
of itself encourages capital expenditure on improved methods and
appliances. Concurrently with the adoption of the bonus system there
has been a great increase in the cutting speed of tools, which has also
augmented the rate of production. This "speeding-up" is partly due
to the fitting of new machines, to the substitution of forged steel
machine-cut gear for cast spur-wheels, to the strengthening of lathe
headstocks, to wider belts, to the application of reversible motors to
some machines, and to quicker return speeds.
Some indication may be given of the increased economy resulting from
the bonus system and from the "speeding-up" of tools, as compared with
the former system, with slower speeds and piece-work rates. A typical
job, which had formerly occupied eighty hours, was, after experience,
given a standard time of sixty hours. When first carried out under the
bonus system the time actually taken was forty-five hours, the labour
cost being reduced from £2 13s. 4d. at piece-work rate to £1 17s. 6d.
under the bonus system, while the wage of the worker was increased by
2d. per hour. Subsequently, a repeat of this job was machined by the
same man, who, having confidence that the time allowed would not be
reduced, finished the work in thirty-nine hours, saving twenty-one
hours on the standard time, reducing the cost to £1 15s. 0d., and
increasing his rate of pay by 2.8d. per hour. Other comparisons might
be given to show the advantage over the piece-work. In successive
fortnights after the introduction of the system, the percentage of
time saved on the time taken on piece-work in one department steadily
advanced from 16 per cent. to 47 per cent., and ultimately the pay
of the men per hour was increased 75 per cent., while the saving to the
employer was 50 per cent.
[Illustration: Plate XXXIX. ENGINE CONSTRUCTION. (_See page_ 108.)]
The client profits, as the contract price is reduced without any
diminution in the satisfactory character of the work done; indeed it
is probable that this is improved because of the special inspection
to ascertain if the bonus has been conscientiously earned. A lower
contract price, therefore, is possible; and this places the firm,
both directly and indirectly, in a better position in competition in
shipbuilding. There is more work obtainable, more constant employment
for the workmen, with the additional inducement of higher wages to
capable and diligent men.
[Illustration: decoration]
[Illustration: decoration]
The Shipbuilding Yard.
[Illustration: decoration]
Covering an area of 40 acres, the Works have ten berths for the
construction of ships of all sizes, with departments for producing all
the accessories and machinery--engine and boiler works, steam-turbine
factory, foundries, brass, copper, and sheet-iron shops, saw-mill
and extensive wood-working department--and these give employment to
four thousand workmen. The equipment has been greatly extended and
modernised during the past few years. The building of the China Steam
Navigation Company's steamer _Fengtien_ in nineteen weeks, from the
laying of the keel to the trials, is one of several instances of rapid
construction which might be enumerated.
The plans of ships prepared in the designing department and drawing
offices, to which reference has been made in the previous Chapter,
are passed to the moulding loft, where the work of construction is
commenced. This loft is situated in a substantial four-storey building,
accommodating practically all the wood-finishing departments. Each
floor has an area of 12,500 square feet; the ground and first floors
are given up to the joiners and cabinet-makers, with their numerous
machine tools, while the top floor is at present utilised for storing
completed joiner work, etc. The moulding loft monopolises the
third floor, and as the length is 240 ft. and the width 52 ft., there
is ample space, as is shown on the engraving in Plate XL., facing page
94, for laying down full size deck-plating, stringers, margin plates,
deck girders, etc., so that moulds or templates may be prepared for the
iron workers. Armour-plates for warship belts, barbettes, and casemates
are similarly prepared in template, to assist the makers to form them
to the required curvature and size.
[Illustration: Plate XL. THE MOULDING LOFT.]
[Illustration: Plate XLI. BEAM SHEARING MACHINE. BEVELLING MACHINE.
HYDRAULIC JOGGLING MACHINE.]
The ironworkers' department is extensive and important. When the
material is delivered into the yard, it is discharged from the railway
wagons by a 5-ton electric overhead travelling high-speed crane, which
stacks the plates and bars in such a way that any piece can be readily
removed by the same crane for conveyance to the furnaces.
There are six furnaces suitable for heating shell plates of the largest
size, and angles and bars for frames, etc., up to 60 ft. in length.
Adjacent to the furnaces are the screeve boards and the frame-bending
blocks. The channel, bulb angle, or Z bars, used so extensively now for
framing in large ships, are bevelled as they pass from the furnace to
the bending blocks. This is done in a special machine made by Messrs.
Davis and Primrose, Leith, and illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining
this page. The bars, as delivered from the rolling mills, have flanges
at an angle of 90 deg., which is not suitable for taking the skin
plating of ships. One angle has therefore to be altered, so that while
the inner flange may lie at right angles to the keel-plate, that to the
outside will fit closely to the shell plating throughout the entire
length of the frame from keel to shear stroke, which may be 50 ft. or
60 ft.
As the bar passes through the machine, the web is carried on an
ordinary flat roller, while bevelling rolls, set to the desired angle,
work on each side of one of the flanges to give it the desired set.
There are several of these machines in use, and they run on rails laid
across the front of the furnace, so that the angles, Z sections, or
channels may be bevelled while passing out of the furnace on to the
bending blocks. The manipulation of the plates from the furnace is by
means of steam and electric winches.
Formerly, the turning of the frames to the required curvature against
the pins on the bending blocks was carried out by hand. To suit the
heavier scantlings of the larger ships of the present day, a portable
hydraulic machine is now utilised. It is fixed at its base by pins,
which fit into the ordinary holes in the blocks, and hydraulic pressure
is supplied through a flexible pipe to work the ram-head against the
angles, forcing them to take the desired form. The machine is a great
labour economiser, as it ensures work on the heaviest of bulb angles
being carried out in the minimum of time, and therefore at top heat.
The bars are usually cut to length by a guillotine, but it was
considered that this tended to twist the metal, and perhaps unduly
fatigue it; and as a consequence the firm have fitted John's shearing
and notching machine, as constructed by Messrs. Henry Pels and Co.,
of Berlin. This new machine is illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining
page 95. The tool is shown in the act of cutting through a channel
section. The cutting tool is seen immediately in front of the operator,
and is actuated by gearing accommodated within the standards of the
machine. When the cutting tool is brought down on the angle or beam
to be sheared, and the shaft at the rear started, the rotation of
an eccentric actuated by the shaft causes the point of the tool to
slide idly a short distance to-and-fro on the bar. The hand lever on
the right hand side of the machine is depressed, forcing the tool
downwards, and the continued rotation of the eccentric causes the tool
to pierce through the bar with a downward and inward motion. Where
there is a deep web with flanges, the beam is reversed on the anvil,
to enable the other flange to be cut. The cutting of any bar in this
machine is a matter of only a few seconds.
[Illustration: Plate XLII. IN ONE OF THE PLATERS' SHEDS.]
Of the platers' shed, where the plates, angles, bulbs, bars, etc., are
machined, two views are given on Plates XLII. and XLIII., facing pages
96 and 98 respectively. It may be said generally that the machines are
designed to deal with plates up to 50 ft. in length, and with angles
up to 60 ft. in length, and of corresponding sections. It follows that
the straightening and bending rolls, edge-planers, and punching and
shearing machines, are of great power. It is scarcely necessary to make
detailed references to all of the tools for these and other purposes.
All the tools are electrically driven. The plate-flattening rolls,
which have 15 and 20 horse-power reversible motors, take plates 8 ft.
wide, and the rolls are from 21-1/2 in. to 19 in. in diameter. The
bending rolls are driven by a 20 horse-power motor. The plate-edge
planers, shown to the left in the view, Plate XLII., facing page 96,
are operated by 16 horse-power motors, and the plate is held on the
table by means of hydraulic rams as well as screw-jacks. For drilling
and countersinking plates there are several modern tools, each actuated
by an independent electric motor. One of these is a three-standard
drill, to deal with plates of the largest size. The spindles have a
rise and fall of 10 in., and are fitted with self-acting, as well as
hand, feed, and with the usual rack arrangement for the traverse of
the head. Several radial countersinking machines, with 11-ft. jibs and
spindles 2-1/2 in. in diameter, are driven by 10 horse-power motors.
There are many heavy punching and shearing machines, nearly all of them
having 42-in. gaps, so that they can punch holes at any part of the
widest plates. As a rule, they are arranged to punch 1-1/2-in. holes
through 1-1/2-in. plates at the rate of thirty holes per minute. The
shears are of corresponding power.
For dealing with angles and bars there are several interesting tools,
in addition to shears and punches. Some of the shears cut 8-in. by
4-in. angles, and are driven by 10 horse-power motors. There are
channel-angle shearing machines, taking work 16 in. by 6 in., and
operated by hydraulic pressure. These machines are made with revolving
gear to suit almost any angle of flange.
There is also an hydraulic stamping press for bending angles and tees
to form knee-bars and other stiffening pieces, the cylinders being 14
in. in diameter, working at a pressure of 800 lb. per square inch,
with a stroke of 18 in. The machine, which has been constructed by Sir
William Arrol and Company, Limited, consists of an hydraulic cylinder
mounted horizontally on a massive table. On the ram-head there are
former blocks, while on the table in front there are corresponding
dies. The bar is placed on the table between the blocks and dies, and
as these are forced together by hydraulic pressure, the bar between
them is squeezed into the exact shape required. Not only is the
operation expeditiously executed, but there is no uncertainty. The
whole of the metal within the bar is retained inside the knee, which
becomes thicker and broader, materially adding to its strength. As
the moulds or dies can be made to suit any form, the machine can be
utilised in the preparation of various details of structures, provided
they are designed with a view to their production by aid of dies.
The great economy resulting from the use of special machines is only
realised when the designing staff remember that they must be kept
employed.
A specially powerful tool is provided for bending channel irons
and beams, and for drilling horizontal holes in them. Hydraulic
manhole-punching and flanging machines are employed, each having a ram
of 27 in. in diameter, and capable of punching a hole 42 in. by 16 in.
through a plate 3/4 in. thick. There are provided dies for forming
flanges 4 ft. 6 in. deep in the widest of plates.
[Illustration: Plate XLIII. PUNCHING AND SHEARING.]
The modern practice of joggling and of scarfing the laps and edges of
plates is applied in many instances, and special hydraulic tools are
provided to carry out this work. The firm were also early in adopting
the practice of joggling frames, deck beams, etc. The frames and beams
are joggled when cold, to suit each alternate inner strake of plating,
in a special design of hydraulic press, of which there are several in
the works. This tool, illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining page 95,
carries dies on the ram-head and on the anvil, to form between them
the obverse and reverse sides of the dent or joggle desired. Movable
centre-pieces on the ram-head and anvil are traversed in all directions
by screw thread to suit the position and width of the joggled part, and
a gauge shows variations of 0.1 in. in the position of the joggled part
of the frame. A 2 ft. length of angle can be joggled at each stroke.
The machines are by Messrs. Hugh Smith and Co., Limited, Glasgow.
The same machine joggles the lap or edge of a shell, inner bottom, or
deckplate in a similar way. The whole length of the frame or plate can
thus be worked in a very short time. A powerful jib crane, of 16 ft.
radius, assists materially in the rapidity of the work turned out by
these tools. The only slips required are at the ends of the vessel,
where the bevel of the frames precludes the use of joggling. A special
electrically-driven hammer is used for forming these taper slips.
The angles, etc., to form the frames are assembled at the head of the
building-berth, and when lying on skids are riveted to form the double
bottom, frames and margin plates. Hydraulic riveters are used wherever
possible. There are about a score of these at work in the shipbuilding
yard, with cylinders from 8 in. to 10-1/2 in. in diameter, a stroke of
7-1/2 in., and a gap of 55 in., so that heavy work can be done. Some of
them are specially designed for keel work, for closing rivets in beams,
and for difficult parts.
The frames thus riveted are conveyed down the berth by a simple and
ingenious cableway, known in the Works as the "switchback," from its
resemblance to the well-known amusement railway. A derrick-post stands
at the head of the berth adjacent to the skids on which the frames are
riveted. The cable stretches from a small derrick at the foot of the
shipbuilding berth over a pulley at the top of the large derrick-post,
and thence, through a similar block at its base, to an electric winch.
The frame or unit of the ship's structure is suspended on a running
block on the cable, which is then made taut, partly by the working
of the winch and partly by the large derrick post being inclined
backwards. The running block with its load travels down the taut cable
by gravity, under the guidance of the squad of fitters. The gradient of
the cableway is only sufficient to enable the load to move slowly to
its position in the shipbuilding berth.
The double-bottom frames and margin plates are united with the
keel-plate, and subsequently there are successively worked into the
structure the tank top plates, side frames, the skin plates, beams,
bulk-heads, and other units, portable hydraulic punches and riveters
being largely used. Pneumatic tools are also extensively employed for
boring, drilling, riveting, chipping, caulking, etc. There are from 130
to 140 of these tools in use on vessels in course of construction.
There are ten building berths ranging in length up to 700 ft.; but
slight alterations would enable the firm to build vessels of still
greater size. Several of these are shown on the engraving on Plate
XXXVII., facing page 88. The launching ground is probably the finest
in the river, the channel being here of great depth and very wide, as
is shown on the engraving opposite. Indeed, ordinary merchant vessels
with full lines are launched without any check chains; the fine-ended
ships--mail steamers and cruisers--are, as a precautionary measure,
checked by drags in the usual way. The engraving on Plate
XXXVIII., facing page 90, shows the launch of H.M.S. _Argyll_.
[Illustration: Plate XLIV. THE FITTING-OUT DOCK.]
[Illustration: Plate XLV. THE GRAVING DOCK.]
The ships launched are completed in the fitting-out dock, constructed
about two years ago, and illustrated on Plate XLIV. The engraving shows
H.M.S. _Argyll_ under the big jib-crane. This dock has a length of 560
ft. and a width of 172 ft., and opens directly into the channel of the
Clyde. The depth of water is never less than 28 ft., so that warships
are afloat at all states of the tide. A prominent feature in the view
is the crane, which was supplied by Messrs. George Russell and Co.,
Limited, of Motherwell, and lifts 120 tons at a radius of 70 ft. It is
carried on concrete foundations and piers, which rise 20 ft. above the
level of the quay. In addition to the pier for carrying the mast of the
crane, there are similar supports for each of the back legs through
which the crane is anchored.
One advantage of the derrick type is that the crane may be placed close
to the edge of the quay; in this case the centre is only 7 ft. from the
front of the wharf, so that the full load of 120 tons can be dealt with
at an effective outreach of 63 ft. from the quay. The maximum radius
of the heavy purchase with a load of over 60 tons is 90 ft., and of
the light purchase gear, with a load of 10 tons, 98 ft. The minimum
radius of the crane is 25 ft. There are four sets of gear: for lifting
heavy loads, for raising light weights, for derricking the jib, and
for slewing; a separate controller of the enclosed tramway type is
provided for each. The main hoisting and derricking motors are of 50
horse-power, and the others of 35 horse-power. The speed of hoisting
120 tons is 5 ft. per minute, while a 10-ton load is raised at the
rate of 40 ft. per minute. Automatic brakes are fitted for the slewing
motion, and powerful hand-brakes for the hoisting and derricking gears.
All motions are controlled by one man in the steelhouse fixed to the
mast of the crane 56 ft. above the quay level.
There is on the opposite wharf of the dock a 20-ton travelling electric
crane, and throughout the Works there are many portable and hydraulic
cranes, in addition to the hydraulic and other cranes commanding the
machine tools.
Reference may here be made to the Company's graving dock, illustrated
on Plate XLV., adjoining page 101. The length is 360 ft., and it is
largely used for docking ships for repair, as well as for cleaning
ships preparatory to trial. Our view shows a torpedo-boat destroyer
in the dock. The pumps for the emptying of the dock are electrically
driven.
We may return now to our narrative of the construction of a ship, and
deal with the supplementary departments, including those of joiners,
smiths, plumbers, sheet-iron, and other workers.
Wood-work forms a large and important item in most of Scotts' ships, as
many of them are for passenger service. We illustrate on Plate XLVI.
one of the saw-mills. It is self-contained, having its own power plant,
including a compound engine, having cylinders 15-1/4 in. and 27-1/2 in.
in diameter by 44-in. stroke. There are four vertical saw frames, the
largest having a 36-in. frame, six rollers, and two bogies to take in
the heaviest logs. In addition, there are circular saws, ranging up to
6 ft. in diameter, a swing cross-cut saw, special planing, moulding,
and turning machines to do heavy work, and saw-sharpeners, grindstones,
punching machines and anvils to carry out all repairs and fettling
of the blades, etc. There are also large steam-heated drying stoves,
and a timber-drying yard of about three acres in extent. The overhead
travelling cranes range up to 5 tons capacity, and the rails on which
they run are extended on columns across the yard. The saw-mill is the
largest and best-equipped in the district, and does the sawing and
planing of timber for three of the largest shipbuilding yards, as
well as the general work for two other firms.
[Illustration: Plate XLVI. THE SAW MILL.]
[Illustration: Plate XLVII. TWO VIEWS IN THE JOINER SHOPS.]
The joiners' and cabinet-makers' shop, as we have already indicated,
occupies two floors of a building 240 ft. long and 52 ft. wide; while
the fourth floor is utilised for the French polishing work, as well
as for storing the completed wood-work until the vessel is ready
to receive it. Provision is also made in the same building for the
model-making department, in which replicas of nearly all ships are
produced, and, being works of art, because of their completeness,
accuracy, and beauty, have earned high awards at many Exhibitions.
In the joiners' shops, illustrated by two engravings on Plate XLVII.,
adjoining this page, there is a complete equipment of wood-working
machines for sawing, turning, planing, moulding, sand-papering,
mortising, boring, tenoning, dovetailing, dowelling and joining.
These are electrically driven, and are grouped at three places in the
length of the shop on each floor, with benches around them, so that
the joiners do not require to carry their jobs any distance in order
to have them machined. There is also in use in connection with the
department a portable electric circular saw, which is specially useful
for carpenters and joiners, etc., on board the ship in the dock. An
electric deck-planer, of the lawnmower form, has proved serviceable in
reducing enormously the most laborious task experienced by carpenters
and joiners.
There are two large smithies convenient to the shipbuilding berths,
and in both cases the finishing department adjoins. In one case there
are fifty-four fires and eight hammers; in the other, forty fires,
with five hammers, ranging up to 15 cwt. The fires are operated by
mechanical blowers, and the smoke and waste gases are carried off
by overhead ventilating pipes. Extensive work is carried out by the
smiths. Die-stamping is largely adopted in connection with the making
of eye-plates, cleats, stanchions, clips, etc. In each finishing shop
there are band saws, radial and other drills, screwing machines, and
grindstones. Smiths' stores are arranged above the finishing shops.
The plumbers' shop is fitted with a special machine for bending pipes
when cold, as well as screwing and tapping machines, drills, saws,
grinders, and fires.
The sheet-iron department is equally well equipped, having
straightening rolls, shearing, punching, chipping, drilling, and other
tools, with various hammers; and here work is done in connection with
ventilating and other light ironwork.
In view of the warship contracts undertaken, the mechanics' shop, for
work peculiar to the ship as distinct from the propeller machinery,
etc., is extensive. The four lathes here range up to 27 ft. in length
over all, with a 14-in. headstock and a 22-ft. bed. There is a useful
shaping machine, a fair-sized planer, and several drills, all adequate
for the work required, which is remarkable more, perhaps, for its great
variety than for size.