Voyage No.
+------------------------------------------------------------
| Coal, Indicated Horse-Power per Hour.
| +-----------------------------------------------------
| | Total Coal on Voyage.
| | +----------------------------------------------
| | | Coal for Boilers only.
| | | +---------------------------------------
| | | | Sea Miles on Voyage.
| | | | +------------------------------
| | | | | Cargo Carried.
| | | | | +---------------------
| | | | | | Average Speed.
| | | | | | +-------------
| | | | | | | Horse-Power
| | | | | | | On Voyage.
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
| lb. | tons | tons | miles | tons | knots | I.H.P.
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
15 | 1.60 | 918 | 822 | 3,447 | 10,298 | 10.85 | 3,713
| 1.58 | | | | | | 3,900
16 | 1.59 | 923 | 834 | 3,403 | 10,289 | 10.80 | 3,951
| 1.64 | | | | | | 3,775
| 1.63 | | | | | | 3,668
17 | 1.50 | 924 | 836 | 3,469 | 10,499 | 10.40 | 3,949
| 1.53 | | | | | | 3,796
18 | 1.50 | 847 | 775 | 3,441 | 10,563 | 11.10 | 3,937
| 1.50 | | | | | | 3,720
19 | 1.44 | 837 | 760 | 3,423 | 10,570 | 10.85 | 3,909
| 1.43 | | | | | | 3,813
20 | 1.50 | 780 | 707 | 3,312 | 10,641 | 11.50 | 4,107
| 1.32 | | | | | | 3,817
21 | 1.56 | 846 | 766 | 3,330 | 10,651 | 10.60 | 3,909
| 1.44 | | | | | | 3,870
| 1.46 | | | | | | 3,746
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
Totals | | 6075 | 5500 | 23,825 | 73,511 | |
Averages | 1.51 | 868 | 786 | 3,404 | 10,501 | 10.87 | 3,848
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
The China Navigation Company of London, for whom the Scotts began
building in 1875, have had in the thirty years sixty-four vessels,
which have been an important factor not only in the development of
trade in China, but also in the advancement of British interests in the
Far East.
In an earlier Chapter we referred to the extent of the service
conducted by these vessels, and also to the Company's continuous
progressive spirit, which, for instance, induced them, on the
suggestion of the Scotts, to adopt twin-screws. The launch of one of
these ships is illustrated on Plate XXXI., facing this page, while
the next Plate, XXXII., illustrates the _Fengtien_, which was built in
1905 in an exceptionally short period of time. The contract was made
in the closing week of 1904, the first keel-plate was laid on the 15th
January, 1905, the vessel was launched on the 20th April, and arrived
in Shanghai on the 14th July--less than twenty-six weeks from the
date when the building was commenced. This performance indicates not
only the satisfactory character of the organisation, but also of the
equipment of the shipyard and marine engineering works.
The _Fengtien_ has a length between perpendiculars of 267 ft., a
beam of 40 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 18 ft., with a deck-house
having accommodation for thirty-three European first-class passengers;
while on the top of this house there is, as shown in the engraving, a
promenade for passengers. The accommodation provided for first-class
passengers is exceptionally satisfactory, both in respect of
state-rooms and of public saloons. Fifty-six first-class Chinese
passengers are also carried, as well as seventy steerage native
passengers. In addition to this considerable source of revenue, the
ship carries 1720 tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of 14 ft.
The _Fengtien_ on her trial, when developing 2146 horse-power,
attained a speed of 13-1/4 knots, which was considered highly
satisfactory, in view of the unusual dimensions. The engines are of
the triple-expansion, three-cylinder type, fitted with every accessory
which experience has shown to ensure regularity of working, with the
minimum of expense in respect of upkeep and working cost. Steam at
190-lb. pressure is supplied by two boilers, 15 ft. in diameter and 11
ft. 6 in. long, having 5184 square feet of heating surface, and 121
square feet of grate area.
[Illustration: Plate XXXI. THE LAUNCH OF A CHINA STEAMER.]
[Illustration: Plate XXXII. THE CHINA NAVIGATION COMPANY'S T.-SS.
"FENGTIEN."]
We have referred generally to the passenger accommodation in the ships
built by the firm, and it may be interesting to refer here to the
character of the work done and illustrated on Plate XXVII., facing page
73. The first view shows the dining-room of one of four Portuguese
steamers. This room is designed in the Jacobean style. The walls are
framed and panelled in solid walnut, and all the mouldings, cornices,
architraves, pilasters, columns, pediments, and also the furniture, are
beautifully carved. The floor is laid in mosaic tiles, in geometrical
patterns, with Brussels carpet runners in the passage-ways. The ceiling
is of yellow pine, moulded, ribbed, and broken up with carved panels,
painted a flat white and relieved with gold. The dome skylight is in
teak, with richly-carved beams and mouldings; and glazed with embossed
plate glass, while the side windows are fitted with jalousie blinds,
stout double-line teak shutters, and glass bull's-eyes in brass frames.
The upholstery is in crimson Utrecht velvet, and seating accommodation
is provided for sixty-eight saloon passengers.
The other view on Plate XXVII. illustrates the drawing-room of the
steam yacht _Foros_, built for M. Kousenzoff, of Moscow. It is in the
Elizabethan style. The walls are framed in solid East Indian satinwood,
highly finished and French polished, with figured silk tapestry panels
of a shade that harmonises and blends with the wood-work. Neat and
delicate carving in low relief is introduced where most effective. The
ceiling, of yellow pine, has square panels of Tynecastle tapestry,
relieved with rich carving in cornices and beams. The room is lighted
and ventilated by eight large round lights in the ship's side, each
enclosed in a recess with a sliding screen of beautifully-stained and
leaded glass. The large circular skylight in the centre of the room,
finished to suit the ceiling, has large opening sashes, glazed with
stained glass. The floor is laid with oak parquetry, with a Parisian
mat in the centre. The room is heated by a slow-combustion grate
with rich brass mounts, tiled hearth, fire-brasses and fender. The
mantelpiece and overmantel, in satinwood, is a beautiful piece of
work--carved and relieved with colonnades and pilasters. This room is
fitted with a complete installation of electric bells and lights, with
two graceful electric candelabra, one on each side of the fireplace.
The stained glazing is illumined at nights by electric lights on the
outside. The drawing-room is completely and artistically furnished with
high mirrors, fitments, writing-tables, card and occasional tables, and
with a variety of beautifully upholstered chairs and sofas. All the
metal-work is of ormolu.
The British India Steam Navigation Company is another of the old
clients of the Scotts. This Company, originally formed in 1856, under
the title of the Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, which
was changed in 1862 to the title now known in all maritime countries,
had its first steamship built by the Scotts, and it is therefore
interesting to illustrate the one recently built at the same Works--the
_Bharata_. This vessel is of the intermediate type, carrying a large
number of British and native passengers, and nearly 4000 tons of cargo.
The length between perpendiculars is 373 ft., the beam 45 ft., and the
depth, moulded, 29 ft. 6 in. The cargo carried on a draught of 24 ft.
is 3940 tons, and this is handled by eight hydraulic cranes, some of
them of high power. The passenger accommodation, in the centre part of
the ship, includes state rooms and saloons for forty-two first-class
and thirty-six second-class European travellers, while in the 'tween
decks a large number of native passengers are accommodated.
The machinery of the _Bharata_ gives a speed of 16 knots, when the
displacement is 5560 tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion
type, and develop 6000 indicated horse-power. Five single-ended boilers
supply steam at 180 lb. pressure. This vessel in service carries her
cargo of about 4000 tons and her passengers at a speed of 16 knots, for
a consumption of ordinary coal of about 50 tons per day.
[Illustration: Plate XXXIII. THE BRITISH INDIA COMPANY'S STEAMSHIP
"BHARATA."]
In our historical Chapters it has been clearly shown that the Scotts
took a prominent part in the evolution of Channel steamers, and
reference may be made to the latest vessels of this class now being
built at the Company's works--two steamers for the old and successful
firm of G. and J. Burns, Limited. These vessels, the dimensions of
which are:--Length 233 ft., breadth 33 ft., depth 24 ft., are to have
a speed of 13 knots. They are to be employed on the service between
Glasgow and Manchester, and are fitted for steerage passengers, and
also for conveying cattle, horses and sheep. The machinery consists of
three-cylinder triple-expansion engines of 1750 indicated horse-power,
having cylinders 23 in., 36 in., and 58 in. in diameter respectively,
with a stroke of 42 in. The boilers, of which there are two in each
ship, are 14 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. 6 in. in length, with a heating
surface of 4000 square feet, and a grate area of 120 square feet. They
work under natural draught at a pressure of 175 lb. per square inch.
We might continue almost indefinitely describing different types of
ships, but will content ourselves with a reference to the fleet of
Thames passenger steamers built in 1905 for the London County Council.
Of the thirty vessels constructed for the Council, twenty had their
boilers and engines from the Scotts' Works. Ten of the steamers, in
which this machinery was fitted, were built on the Clyde by Messrs.
Napier and Miller; six at Southampton, by Messrs. John I. Thornycroft
and Company; and four at Greenwich, by Messrs. G. Rennie and Company.
These vessels are 130 ft. long, and of very light draught--2 ft. 10 in.
when loaded. An idea of their proportions is given by the engraving on
Plate XXXIV., facing this page, showing one of the Clyde-built vessels
ready to steam from Greenock to London.
The engines for all of these vessels are of the compound, diagonal,
surface-condensing type, the two cylinders being 16 in. and 31 in. in
diameter, with a stroke of 3 ft.
One set of engines is illustrated on Plate XXXV., adjoining page 85.
They have forged steel guide columns, to bind the cylinders to the
three entablature frames. The crank-shaft is a solid steel forging,
6-5/8 in. in diameter, coupled to the steel paddle-shafts by flexible
couplings. The surface-condenser, cylindrical in form and constructed
of light brass sheets, is placed below the guide bars close to the
cylinders. The water-ends are of cast brass, arranged for double
circulation of the water. The air-pump, of the trunk type, is driven by
bell-crank levers off the low-pressure connecting-rod. Two independent
feed-pumps are driven off the same crosshead.
The auxiliary machinery includes a circulating pump with auxiliary
air-pump attached, a direct-acting feed and bilge pump, a fan and
engine for the forced draught, and an electric engine and dynamo.
Each steamer has one cylindrical steam boiler, 9 ft. in diameter by 9
ft. 3 in. long. The working steam pressure is 110 lb. The boilers are
also illustrated on Plate XXXV. The twenty sets of engines and boilers
were completed in a remarkably short space of time.
These steamers were designed for a service speed of 12 statute miles
per hour, and a trial speed of 13 miles per hour, or 11.285 knots.
The best trial performances were attained by the _FitzAilwin_ and the
_Turner_, both built on the Clyde; they attained a speed of 14.1 miles
per hour, or 12-1/4 knots, with the engines making 69.8 revolutions per
minute, and indicating 360 horse-power. This is nearly 1 sea mile per
hour more than was required by the contract.
[Illustration: Plate XXXIV. ONE OF TWENTY THAMES STEAMERS ENGINED BY THE
SCOTTS.]
[Illustration: Plate XXXV. ENGINES OF LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.]
[Illustration: BOILERS FOR LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.]
We illustrate on Plate XXXVI., facing page 86, a typical set of
triple-expansion engines. The practice in respect of the design of
engines and boilers is necessarily very varied. From the designs for
a small steam launch to those for a first-class cruiser or battleship
there is a wide range, and all classes of work, with not a few of
special interest, come between those extremes. In connection with the
three-crank triple-expansion engine, now generally adopted for merchant
work, an arrangement well favoured for sizes up to about 1000 indicated
horse-power is that in which the high-pressure cylinder is in the
centre with a piston valve, the intermediate-pressure cylinder being
forward, and the low-pressure cylinder aft, each with a slide valve
at the extreme ends. This has been found to give a handy arrangement
of gear, and to be easily accessible. With twin-screw engines of this
power it is customary, and has been found very convenient, to lead all
the hand-gear for both engines to a pedestal placed midway between the
engines and ahead of the forward cylinders.
A description of the types of engines built by the Scotts for the China
Navigation Company during the past thirty years would be practically
a history of the progress of marine engineering during that period.
The customary sequence of cylinders has in the main been adhered to
in the design of these engines--viz., high-pressure cylinder forward
and low-pressure cylinder aft in the case of compound engines: the
intermediate-pressure cylinder, in the case of triple-expansion
machinery, is placed between the high- and low-pressure cylinders.
Indeed, this latter is the arrangement invariably adopted by the firm
in the design of all large-size ordinary cargo steamer engines. The
valve gear is forward of its cylinder in each case. This has also been
the design adopted in the case of recent high-class passenger and mail
steamers with three cylinders, and in the case also of steamers for
special trades. Twin-screw engines present little deviation from the
above, and such as there is mainly affects pipe connections.
All engines of whatever type up to about 1000 indicated horse-power
are usually arranged with forged columns in front. The condenser is
ordinarily designed to form part of the engine structure, having the
columns cast on, and supporting the cylinders; but not infrequently it
is entirely separate from the main engines, and is carried either on
the back of the columns, or fitted in the wing of the ship.
Of engines for the Navy nothing need be said beyond stating that they
form quite a class by themselves, and all present the special features
of design so characteristic of Admiralty work referred to in an earlier
Chapter. The latest types of large-size engines for the Admiralty are
being fitted with a system of forced lubrication to main bearings and
crank-pins.
The Scotts' practice with respect to paddle engines has been no less
varied than that in the case of screw machinery, ranging as it does
from the ponderous side-lever engine of past years to the stern-wheel
engine of the shallow-draught steamers of the present day. Oscillating
and diagonal engines, both compound and triple-expansion, are also
within the experience of the Company, the three-stage expansion being
the type now usually adopted.
With respect to auxiliary machinery, the Scotts invariably fit a
separate centrifugal pump for circulating the water through the
condenser for all classes of engines, excepting only those for the
ordinary tramp steamer. The air, bilge, and sanitary pumps are usually
worked from the main engine by levers. The feed pumps are generally
independent. Frequently, especially in yachts, all the pumps are
entirely independent of the main engines. The Scotts in some cases
make all auxiliary machinery for their own engines: such as centrifugal
pumps, fans, feed-heaters, auxiliary condensers, duplex feed and
ballast pumps, etc.
[Illustration: Plate XXXVI. TYPICAL PROPELLING ENGINES.]
Many varieties and types of boilers have been made. The old practice
of having two or three rings in the length of the shell in ordinary
cylindrical boilers has long since given place to one plate in the
length. The boiler ends are seldom made in more than two plates; up
to diameters of 11 ft. only one plate is used. The number of riveted
seams is thereby reduced to a minimum, and the liability of the boiler
to leak is minimised. The Scotts also have a system of forced draught
for supplying either cold or heated air to the furnaces, which is
fitted largely to their ships, and gives every satisfaction. Large
installations of Belleville and Yarrow water-tube boilers for working
under forced draught have also been made and fitted in H.M. ships, but
they need no description here. A large installation for burning oil
fuel has recently been completed and applied by the firm to the Babcock
and Wilcox water-tube, and the cylindrical, boilers of H.M.S. _Argyll_.
FOOTNOTES:
[68] From _Lloyds' Register_ we classify, according to speed, the
numbers of British and Foreign, and of Oversea and Channel, Steamers,
of over 16 knots.
---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------
Speed. | British. | Foreign. || Oversea. | Channel.
---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------
Over 20 knots | 42 | 26 || 17 | 51
19 to 20 knots | 23 | 11 || 7 | 27
18 " 19 " | 38 | 14 || 15 | 37
17 " 18 " | 53 | 49 || 67 | 35
16 " 17 " | 70 | 56 || 77 | 49
+----------+----------++----------+----------
| 226 | 156 || 183 | 199
---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------
[Illustration: decoration]
Efficiency: Design: Administration.
[Illustration: decoration]
Having reviewed the history of the firm, and dealt briefly with the
results obtained by some of the modern steamers constructed by them,
we propose now to describe the Works in order to indicate the measures
adopted to secure efficiency in design and construction of all types of
ships and machinery. Organisation and administration are as important
factors towards this end as the mechanical methods and appliances
adopted, and it may be well, therefore, to deal first with these.
The firm have been responsible for the design of almost every merchant
ship constructed by them. Success has been rendered more certain
by the possession of carefully-collated records, the product of an
organised system of working up all data, of tackling new problems, of
making calculations regarding any scientific question, and of studying
contemporaneous work as described in the technical press and in papers
read at technical institutions. This continuous investigation produces
a wealth of suggestion, which enables the chiefs of the respective
departments to determine how far practice may be improved; and thus
there is steady progress not only in design but in constructional
methods. A well-selected technical library, from which the staff can
borrow books, also contributes to the same end.
[Illustration: Plate XXXVII. SHIPBUILDING. (_See page 100._)]
Admiralty and merchant work is initiated in separate drawing-offices.
The "Printed Instructions to Draughtsmen" throws light on the general
principles which influence design, and one or two quotations may be
made:--"Every machine or structure is designed with a certain object in
view; therefore, in designing, keep that object always to the front. Go
straight to the point, and let the object be attained in as simple a
manner as possible. Avoid all curves and indirect lines, except those
conceived to give uniform strength or stiffness, or required for some
definite purpose. There should be a reason for the contour and shape
of every detail. It should be remembered that designs made in this
way, requiring least material for the work to be done, usually look
best. Besides keeping the object clearly to the front, it is necessary
in designing to remember that certain facilities must be attended
to for moulding, machining, and erecting. It is also necessary to
keep in view the circumstances in which the structure or machine is
to be used. Every little detail should be definitely attended to on
the drawings, and not left to the judgment of the men in the shops;
remember that it is usually the unexpected which happens, and that
even the want of a split pin may cause a breakdown. In making drawings
or sketches for ordering material or for the shops, assume that those
who have to interpret the instructions have no knowledge of, or
information concerning, the work in question, except what is contained
in the drawing or order you are making out. This will ensure that all
information issuing from the drawing-office is complete, and that no
work is done in the shops without drawing-office instructions."
The draughtsman, in designing work, must so arrange details as to fully
utilise, as far as is compatible with progress, the special machine
tools available, the system of gauges, templates, and jigs extensively
applied in the shops, and existing patterns. Bonuses are paid for
improvements in design whereby economy may be effected in machine
operations, etc.
There is a large estimating department, where records of costs, rates,
wages, etc., are of the most complete description. The card system
adopted is admirably suited for enabling references to be made at any
time as to the cost of units in any contract. Here also it is possible,
by the simple process of comparison, to effectually check the economy
of design and manufacture, without which a high premium is placed
against efficiency.
The staff in these departments is largely recruited from the shops,
and thus there is an incentive to the willing apprentice to excel. The
great majority of the vacancies in the technical staff are filled by
apprentices who have spent three and a-half years in the shops, and who
are chosen as a result of examination and of a satisfactory record in
the shops. Financial facilities are afforded to boys and to progressive
workmen to attend special classes, not only in Greenock but in Glasgow.
Competitions are instituted at intervals to encourage expertness in
some branch of work--for instance, in the use of the slide-rule,
etc. Thus in many ways the growth of an active _esprit de corps_ is
encouraged, apart altogether from the influence which the historical
and present-day success of the firm engenders.
The same broad policy is pursued in the shops. Payment by merit to the
tradesman is adopted as far as possible. In the engine works the bonus
system--first adopted in 1902--is extensively applied. The arrangement
is satisfactory from the point of view of tradesman, employer, and
client.
[Illustration: Plate XXXVIII. THE LAUNCH OF H.M.S. "ARGYLL."
(_See page_ 101.)]
Long experience has enabled the firm to set equitable standard times
for many operations, and there was from the beginning the guarantee
that this standard would not be altered unless entirely new machines
were introduced to greatly influence the rate of production. Now if a
workman requires the full time, or more than the time set as a standard
for a job, he is still paid his full-time wage as under the old
conditions: but should he complete the work in less than the standard
time, his rate of wage per hour is increased in direct proportion to
the saving in time; the shorter the time taken, the greater the rate
of bonus. The bonuses earned range as a rule from 20 to 30 per cent.
over the time-rate wage. To quote actual cases, a workman who saves 26
hours on a job for which the standard time is 134 hours, increases his
wage for the fortnight by 14s., while the money saved to the employer
is only 2s. 9d. He who saves 30 per cent. on the time adds 21s. to his
fortnight's wage.