of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The aim
of the Commission is to promote international cooperation in the study
of all scientific, technical, and economic questions relating to
chestnut growing. The main problem facing all chestnut culture in Europe
is the rapid spread of the chestnut blight. France, Italy, Japan,
Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, United States and Yugoslavia are
members of the organization. A representative from the F.A.O. in Rome
serves as Secretary of the Commission. An international conference on
chestnut problems was held in France in 1950, the first meeting of the
Commission was held in Italy and Switzerland in 1951 and the second in
Spain and Portugal, June 18-30, 1953. The average attendance at the
meetings was 50 to 60 persons. I have attended all three conferences as
the representative from the U.S. Departments of State and Agriculture.
The International Chestnut Commission meetings differ from the meetings
of the Northern Nut Growers Association in many ways. Our Northern Nut
Growers Association meets annually for 2-1/2 days while the meetings of
the International Chestnut Commission last from 10 to 12 days but not
every year. In Europe the members travel mostly in a large tourist bus,
which carries the party for hundreds of miles, visiting nurseries,
orchards, chestnut utilization plants and not neglecting the scenic
parts of the route. All lodging and meals are carefully arranged for in
advance. The group in Europe is made up quite largely of Federal and
State professional workers, University professors, and representatives
from the chestnut utilization industries.
Among the places which the delegates visited in Spain in 1953 was the
Agricultural Experiment Station at La Coruna, where the Phytophthora ink
disease of the chestnut has been studied extensively. They also visited
the Experiment Station at Pontevedra, where new methods of propagating
chestnuts are being studied. At Bilboa and at Villa Presente Nursery,
Santander, we inspected plantings of Asiatic chestnuts; I found chestnut
blight present on several trees at both locations and recommended
immediate removal of the diseased trees. Fortunately, the Asiatic
chestnuts are some distance from any native European chestnuts at each
place and, according to the local foresters, the blight has not spread
to the distant stands of native chestnut. Some years ago the Spanish
authorities imported seed from Asia; chestnut blight probably was
brought in on these nuts. All infected trees that are found are being
destroyed, but a thorough inspection and eradication program is needed
to control the disease before it spreads into the native European
chestnut stands, from which the disease probably would spread into
Portugal and southwestern France.
In Portugal we inspected many very fine chestnut orchards. These
orchards are composed of grafted varieties, with only 3 or 4 varieties
in each locality or region. Because of this there is a more standard nut
product in most of Portugal than in the other European countries where
mixtures of local varieties are frequently grown. A very large portion
of the European chestnut orchards in Portugal are made up of seedling
trees, topworked with local selections. In Portugal most of the orchards
are located on the lower slopes and various crops are grown among the
trees. In most other European countries the orchards are on rougher
mountain land which is grazed.
In Portugal the State Road Department has established a number of
roadside plantings of chestnut. These plantings are very productive. The
State Road Department sells the nut crop to the highest bidder and uses
the funds for additional roadside tree plantings.
In northern Portugal authorities have conducted a large-scale program to
control the Phytophthora ink disease of chestnut by the following
treatment: The soil is removed from the base of the tree and larger
roots. The base and roots are sprayed with a sticker compound and then
dusted with copper oxide and copper sulfate before the soil is replaced.
Treatment is repeated every 5 to 7 years. Government officials secured
the cooperation of owners of chestnut stands in treating practically all
trees over large areas. Although this treatment for the Phytophthora ink
disease was originally worked out by the Spanish pathologists at La
Coruna, it has not been used extensively in Spain. The Phytophthora root
disease is damaging chestnut orchards throughout southern Europe. In
1950 I noted that this disease was causing severe damage even in Asia
Minor. In the southern part of the United States this same disease (here
called Phytophthora root rot) caused heavy losses at lower elevations.
The 1953 Chestnut Commission meeting terminated on June 30 at the famous
Palace Hotel at Bussaco, Portugal, where the Under Secretary of
Agriculture gave the delegates an official farewell dinner. No definite
plans were made for the next meeting of the Commission. It was the
general opinion that a meeting in the United States would be poorly
attended because of the expense of sending the delegates from Europe.
After the conclusion of the meeting, the U. S. Foreign Agriculture
Services sponsored my trip to France, Italy, Switzerland, and
Yugoslavia, to consult with Federal and local authorities on their
chestnut blight problems. This disease was found in Genoa, Italy, in
1938; later it was determined that the disease was present at that time
in other localities in Italy. The blight is spreading rapidly and is
almost completely destroying the orchard and larger forest trees of
European chestnut in Italy in localities where the disease has been
present for some time. The blight occurs in many areas in northern Italy
and as far south as Naples. The young chestnut coppice is not so
seriously affected, but the losses caused by the blight will make
growing coppice on a 10- to 20-year rotation basis less profitable than
formerly.
The chestnut blight is abundantly present on the east slopes of the
mountains along the French-Italian border; although it has not yet been
found in France, its distribution in adjoining Italy makes it highly
probable that advance spot infections are already present in France. The
blight has spread into Tessin Province in southeastern Switzerland where
it is destroying many of the orchards and forest trees. A large chestnut
extract plant in this Province uses wood in making tannin for leather
manufacturers. However, this plant, as well as some of the extract
plants in northern Italy, is unable to utilize the chestnut wood as fast
as the blight is killing chestnut trees.
In Yugoslavia, chestnut blight is spreading rapidly in the orchards and
native growth along the Italian border. Authorities are actively cutting
out all advance spot infections, to delay or possibly stop its spread
across their country. In Yugoslavia, chestnut stands frequently are
widely separated, a natural advantage in delaying the spread of the
blight.
Chestnut blight has been controlled in western North America, where
chestnut orchards and plantings are not numerous. Scattered infections
have been found during the last 30 years in California, Oregon,
Washington, and British Columbia; infected trees have been removed.
Strict State Quarantine regulations have been enforced, to prevent
chestnut blight from spreading to the West Coast.
The chestnut blight fungus is attacking three of the important oaks of
Europe. The typical fanlike mycelial growth can be observed in the bark
of infected oaks. In 1953 in Yugoslavia I observed vigorous young
durmast oak (_Quercus petraea_) being killed by the blight. In Italy I
found the disease killing pubescent oaks (_Q. pubescens_) and causing
minor injury to the holly oak (_Q. ilex_). Before we can estimate the
probable damage to these European oaks, we need more information on the
effects of this disease on oaks of various ages and under various
environmental conditions. In the United States the post oak (_Quercus
stellata_) is the only oak species that has been seriously damaged by
the blight.
Thus, the blight is threatening not only the native chestnut forest
growth and orchards of Europe, but also the oaks. A steady extension of
the blight throughout Italy can be expected. Advance infections in
Yugoslavia are being cut out but how long the disease can be held back
depends on future efforts along this line. Delay work in Yugoslavia also
delays the time of loss of the chestnut and damage to the oak growth of
Greece and Turkey. The inspection and eradication work being carried out
in Spain may result in the elimination of this threat to the chestnuts
and oaks in Spain, Portugal and southwest France. However, there is the
possibility of the blight occurring anywhere in Europe. People working
with chestnut should be on the alert to find and eradicate the first
infections.
The film entitled "It Bringeth Forth Much Fruit", shown here today, was
prepared at my suggestion by the U. S. Foreign Agricultural Services at
Rome. It is being used to aid local authorities in Italy in attempts to
delay the spread of the chestnut blight.
The Italian authorities, with assistance from the United States Foreign
Agricultural Service, have purchased blight-resistant chestnuts in this
country for planting in Italy. These resistant chestnuts are doing very
well in Italy so far. However, the development of a new orchard industry
with the Chinese chestnut and its hybrids in Italy will be a slow
process. It is expected that shipments of chestnuts from Italy to this
country, which is now going on at a rate of 15 to 18 million pounds per
year, will gradually decrease.
DR. GRAVATT: I will talk on while they are fixing this next film.
Much of the trouble in Italy is that so many of the chestnut orchards
are overgrazed, sadly overgrazed, and as these chestnut orchards are
killed by the blight, the land is going back into this overgrazed
condition, which leads to serious erosions. Italy needs all the water
that can be saved. The mountains are eroded down to the rock in many
areas and when you get to the rock, you can never bring the soil back.
It's a serious problem to meet because of the tremendous
over-population. Every little twig of wood is used. As these chestnut
orchards are killed it's going to be a very difficult problem to plant
them again because the land is overgrazed. Protecting the plantings
against sheep and the goats is quite a problem.
(The film, "The Filbert Valleys," was shown.)
MR. STOKE: I noticed them grafting chestnut trees several feet from the
ground. Why are they doing that?
DR. GRAVATT: They are doing it in order to develop a quick supply of
scion wood. But the procedure is bad. It is much better to graft close
to the ground, and mound it up with dirt. The blight gets in below the
graft if the graft is high on the trunk. They have had success grafting
below the ground level and find they may get a shoot six feet high the
first year.
DR. MACDANIEL: How about the incompatibility in the graft? Does that
show up much?
DR. GRAVATT: We don't know yet, because they always get a certain number
of failures. I looked over quite a lot of grafting of Chinese chestnuts
on Japanese-European hybrids, and they are thriving. After four years
they are already regular trees with big crops on them.
TUESDAY MORNING SESSION
PRESIDENT BEST: Our first paper is "Rooting Chestnuts from Softwood
Cuttings" by Roger W. Pease.
Rooting Chestnuts from Softwood Cuttings
ROGER W. PEASE, _West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,
Morgantown, W. Va._
Some 15 or 20 years ago the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment
Station undertook to develop, if possible, blight resistant chestnuts
from American chestnut stock. With the passage of time the approach to
the problem has changed. During the early days little thought was given
to procedures for propagation, but recently the emphasis has shifted
toward methods for propagation when and if there are found hardy,
timber-type, blight-immune chestnuts of any species.
The practicability of budding or grafting chestnuts is debatable. We are
leaving budding and grafting to experienced workers throughout the
country and are endeavoring to develop a method for rooting chestnuts
from softwood cuttings. Results so far are encouraging, but the work is
still in the experimental stage. We do not advise anyone to start
rooting chestnuts on a commercial basis, but we hope that further
experimental work will be done by interested agencies.
To give complete details of several years' work would take more time
than is feasible here. Circular 87, _Growing American Holly from
Cuttings--Cold Frame Method_, obtainable from the Mailing Room, West
Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, West Virginia,
gives construction details of a suitable bottom-heated cold frame.
However, with chestnuts, natural shade was not used and half of the
sunlight was excluded. An article in the October issue of _The National
Horticultural Magazine_--"Rooting Chestnuts from Cuttings"--outlines
procedure and results through 1952.
In this paper I will present a resume of our experiences and
observations. Our facilities were limited so that the number of cuttings
set in each case was very small. Percentages of failure or success
should be taken as indicative only.
In the propagation experiments, preliminary observations were made by
placing softwood cuttings in a bottom-heated cold frame at intervals
during the growing season. The soil medium was two thirds washed sand
and one third peat moss. Daily watering was by a hand hose. The
root-inducing substance was indole-butyric acid crystals in a talc based
mixture, one to one hundred. The results were completely negative.
The next season a small cold room was constructed in which conditions
thought to be desirable could be maintained. Air temperature was kept at
approximately 65 deg. F., fog nozzles were operated continuously except for
an occasional airing of the cold room, and about 200 foot candles of
white fluorescent light were delivered upon the rooting surface. The
rooting medium was white, washed, building sand placed over one half
inch of sphagnum moss. The moss, in turn, had been laid in a rooting
bench with a hardware cloth bottom exposed to the air. The interior air
circulation was maintained by an electric fan operating day and night.
The soil temperature was held at 70 deg. F.
Cuttings were taken at intervals throughout the season and their basal
sections soaked in a water-based solution of indole-butyric acid
crystals at concentrations varying around 60 parts per million. During a
70-day period roots were formed on cuttings taken in June, July, and
August. Among the successful cases the poorest result was 66-2/3%, and
the best was 100%.
The young plants were fed nutrient solution and later transplanted to a
light, sandy soil within a bottom-heated cold frame. Some roots were
dead at the time of transplanting, burned, perhaps, by the nutrient
solution. The soil temperature within the cold frame was maintained at
70 deg. F. until late in the fall, and then the plants were hardened by
reducing the water content of the soil medium and lowering the
temperature. All of the plants were dead when they were inspected in
March.
The next year a bottom-heated cold frame was equipped with fog nozzles.
The soil medium was white, washed, building sand. Softwood cuttings,
treated the same as the previous year, were inserted on August 20.
Cuttings from juvenile American chestnut seedling trees, juvenile
Chinese trees, and mature Chinese trees were used. Within a 70 day
period heavy root systems were formed on 54-6/11% of the cuttings from
the juvenile Chinese trees, 50% from mature Chinese trees, and 20% from
juvenile American trees. No nutrient solution was applied, the young
plants were transplanted to a sandy soil in another cold frame, were
hardened as during the previous year, but the soil medium was not
allowed to freeze during the winter. In April the plants showed
well-formed terminal buds starting to swell and turn green. Some were
transplanted into pots and placed in the greenhouse; others were
transplanted into a light soil in a lath house. All died subsequent to
transplanting. Inspection of the roots showed severe breakage. It was
concluded that repeated transplanting had been fatal, and that in the
future cuttings would be rooted in plant bands or pots and transplanted
only once.
It is too early in the current season for accurate results to be
recorded. However, modifications have been tried and observations made.
These are presented here in outline.
_Type of cutting:_
a. Cuttings with soft, growing tips will apparently root more
quickly than hardened shoots, but the leaves tend to turn brown and
the plant dies. Conversely, cuttings from short, lateral growth,
well-hardened, will retain their leaves better and eventually show
a higher percentage of success.
b. Cuttings made from the basal and intermediary sections of long
shoots show a greater death incidence than do well-hardened,
terminal sections. Both types root satisfactorily.
c. Apparently sucker shoots and water sprouts are useless.
_Time of taking cuttings:_
a. Cuttings taken in late May, with soft growing tips, rooted
quickly--some within two weeks. On the other hand, their foliage
darkened quickly, and death followed. Short, lateral shoots,
well-hardened, were not available in May.
b. As the season progressed, the percentage of rooted cuttings with
healthy foliage apparently rose, at least through July, but roots
were formed more slowly by the late season cuttings.
_Condition of parent tree:_
Apparently tree vigor as indicated by healthy, dark green foliage, is
more important than vigor as indicated by the length of current season's
growth. In Morgantown this has been one of the driest seasons on record.
Cuttings from trees with pale or brown foliage, or with foliage tending
to be brittle from lack of water soon lost their leaves. Whether this
was caused by the condition of the parent tree or of the individual
cutting is not apparent. It is too early to determine whether or not the
drought will cause a general lowering of rooting percentages this year.
_Root formation:_
Cuttings may or may not callus. Roots seldom if ever spring from the
extreme base of a cutting. Well above the base the stem enlarges, turns
white, cracks, and sends out roots. Often the bottom inch of the cutting
is black and dead, with a healthy and vigorous root system above the
blackened portion.
_Plant bands and pots:_
Plant bands are apparently preferable to small pots. The slope of the
pots tends to pack the soil medium and interfere with aeration. Bands or
pots less than three inches in diameter tends to cramp the rapidly
growing roots.
_Cold room vs. cold frame:_
Last year higher percentages of success were obtained in the cold room
than in the bottom-heated cold frame. This year the cold frame was
definitely superior. Because construction and operation of a suitable
cold room is expensive, we do not plan to continue its use in chestnut
work.
_Fog nozzles:_
In the cold frame, fog nozzles operating during eight hours each day are
apparently more effective than nozzles operating continuously.
_Auxin:_
No success has been attained with indole-butyric acid crystals in a
talc-based powder or with untreated cuttings.
_Formula for preparing auxin:_
The auxin solution is prepared as recommended by G. H. Poesch in the
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bimonthly Bulletin, 191, April,
1938. One gram of indole-butyric acid crystals is dissolved in 125 cc.
of 95% alcohol. Then 125 cc. of distilled water is added. This makes a
stock solution of four thousand parts to a million in strength. The
stock may be cut to the desired strength with distilled water. For late
August cuttings, well-hardened, 80 parts per million is not too strong.
For early June cuttings, forty parts per million appears to be adequate.
The softer the cuttings, the weaker should be the solution.
_Algae:_
In both the cold frame and the cold room the growth of algae is a
problem. The sand medium becomes crusted, with subsequent interference
with aeration. The algae sometimes creeps up the stems of cuttings,
coats the leaves, and covers terminal buds. Starting each season with
completely clean sand and equipment will not prevent the appearance of
algae over a long season of continuous operation. On August 20 of this
year the interior of the cold frame, including all of the plants, was
well dusted with tri-basic copper sulphate, according to manufacturer's
directions. To date no effect is noticeable either on the algae or on
the plants.
The various observations reported here should be verified by further
tests. They are offered merely as aids to anyone planning to experiment
with rooting chestnuts. When sufficient data and experience have been
gained, a complete Station circular will be published.
PRESIDENT BEST: If you have any questions, please save them until later.
It's been suggested that we hear from Dr. Jesse D. Diller next, and that
will give our good work horse, Dr. Crane, a chance to build up again for
us, because we are going to work him mighty hard.
DR. DILLER: I'd like to have the title of my paper changed to,
"Evaluating Chestnuts Grown Under Forest Conditions."
Evaluating Chestnuts Grown under Forest Conditions
JESSE D. DILLER, _Pathologist, Division of Forest Pathology, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland_
During the 49-year period since chestnut blight was first reported from
New York City, the U. S. Department of Agriculture has made more than
500 importations of chestnut seeds and scions, including nearly every
species of chestnut in the world, as well as some closely related
chinkapins and Castanopsis species. As early as 1909 the Department
initiated chestnut breeding work. It was known that few, if any, of the
chestnut, or related species, possess the timber-type characteristics of
our American chestnut. It was also known that, in general, the Asiatic
species show great natural resistance to the blight. But little, or
nothing, was known about their site requirements.
In 1927 the U. S. Division of Forest Pathology began breeding chestnuts
to produce timber-type trees. The chestnut breeding work was expanded
and has been carried on actively to date. From 1927 to 1930, the
Division conducted an extensive exploration in search of orchard and
timber-type chestnut in China, Korea, and Japan, and imported over 250
bushels of chestnut seed, representing four species.
During the early 1930's the Division of Forest Pathology distributed
thousands of chestnut seedlings, grown from the imported chestnut seed.
The planting stock was made available to interested Federal and State
agencies, as well as to owners of farm woodlands, located in 32 Eastern
States. The cooperators were asked to establish small experimental
forest plantings with the trees furnished them. It was believed that
such wide distribution of the many kinds would readily demonstrate which
ones possess the desired timber-tree form, or possessed the ability to
bear large crops of nuts suitable to wildlife; and would furnish
valuable information on their site requirements.
As we now know, most of these early cooperative experimental forest
plantings were doomed to failure because often the chestnut trees were
planted on dry, grassy areas having infertile, shallow soil. Another
serious contributing factor in poor establishment was the severe general
droughts that occurred over most of the eastern half of the United
States in the early thirties. But despite these heavy losses, a few
plantations succeeded, in part, and from these limited areas, and from a
few earlier plantations that succeeded, valuable information on their
general site requirements was obtained; however, we still lacked
information on specific differences in behavior between the progeny, as
fast-growing forest trees or nut producers in the forest.
From these early plantings we learned that (1) Asiatic chestnuts and
hybrids are more likely to develop into forest trees when planted on
cool, moist, fertile situations; (2) in their silvicultural
characteristics they are more nearly like our native yellow-poplar,
northern red oak, and white ash, than like our American chestnut and
native chinkapins; (3) with respect to tolerance of shade, they are much
like our northern red oak; and (4) neither the Chinese nor the Japanese
chestnut has quite the same forest-type growth as that of our native
American chestnut.
With this background of experience, the U. S. Division of Forest
Pathology from 1936 to 1939 established a series of 21 climatic test
plots on above-average sites on Federal- and State-owned forest land in
eight Eastern States. Fortunately, we still had available suitable
planting stock of the many kinds of chestnut, chinkapins, and hybrids
for conducting such an extensive test. At this point we should also
mention that from 1947 to date, the Division of Forest Pathology, in
cooperation with the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, also
established 11 hybrid test plots in Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois,
Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and West
Virginia. In 1930 the Brooklyn Botanic Garden also began breeding
blight-resistant chestnuts of timber type, and in 1947 transferred this
project to the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
The 21 climatic test plots ranged from one to two acres each, and were
planted with more than 20 progenies represented, as well as forest-tree
chinkapin and some hybrids. Nearly all of the 21 climatic test plots
were fenced against deer and domestic livestock. The 11 hybrid test
plots, approximately 1/4 acre each, were planted with 100 hybrids (50
furnished by each of the two agencies), and 50 Chinese chestnuts--P.I.
58602, the most outstanding Chinese chestnut from the forestry
standpoint, thus far discovered. The climatic test plots were
established on freshly cleared forest sites, with trees randomized, and
planted 8 feet apart. In the hybrid test plots, the seedlings were
planted under forest growth and the overstory trees were girdled; the
seedlings were randomized in these plots, with spacing of 10 by 10 feet.
The 1- to 6-year period of testing for the hybrid chestnut, and the 14-
to 17-year period of testing of the chestnuts planted in the climatic
test plots are too short for final judgment of performance; however,
certain characteristics are appearing with reference to blight
resistance, winter hardiness, timber-tree form, early fruiting, and rate
of growth. The present paper does not attempt to summarize all of the
data obtained from all these climatic plots but rather to point out some
striking results obtained from several widely separated climatic plots.
Results from the hybrid test plots are not included in this discussion.
Discussion
A performance rating of 28 chestnuts, chestnut hybrids, and forest-tree
chinkapins, tested in forest plantings for 12 to 13 years in Indiana,
Iowa, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania showed that certain kinds always
produce better trees than others. P.I. 58602 is the best Chinese
chestnut tested thus far, as determined by performance in the
above-mentioned test plots and in several plantations established in
1926. In the Middle Western States, all Japanese chestnuts, Henry
(forest-tree) chinkapins, and the "ever-blooming" Sequin chestnuts have
shown poor growth or have died. They do not appear to be winter hardy.
On the basis of these findings, the Division of Forest Pathology since
1946, has made available to Federal and State agencies only one
introduction of Chinese chestnut--P.I. 58602--for planting as forest
trees. They were distributed in lots of 50 trees, and used to establish
1/4-acre demonstration forest plots. All are located on public-owned
land on favorable forest sites where Asiatic chestnuts would be expected
to do well. The underplanting-and-girdling method was recommended in the
establishment of all the plots.
Chinese chestnut P.I. 58602, because of its superiority in performance
as a forest tree, is now also being used extensively at Beltsville,
Maryland, in hybridizing work. Nearly all of the Japanese chestnut,
Henry chinkapin, and Sequin chestnuts, as well as inferior hybrids in
the climatic test plots during the past several years have died a
natural death or have been destroyed. They have been replaced with
Chinese chestnut (P.I. 58602) replants--thus gradually converting the
climatic test plots into future Chinese chestnut "seed" plots of the
very best Chinese chestnuts.
During the spring of 1953 several nurserymen members of the Northern Nut
Growers' Association furnished the Division of Forest Pathology a total
of 2,600 Chinese chestnut seedlings for tests to determine their
suitability for forest planting. These and 600 seedlings of Chinese
chestnut P.I. 58602 are now being tested for performance, in randomized
plots, on favorable forest sites in North Carolina, Ohio, and Illinois.
Conclusions
Of 28 Asiatic chestnuts, forest-tree chinkapins, and hybrids grown in 21
climatic test plots in the eastern United States under forest
conditions, only certain Chinese and hybrid chestnuts show promise of
becoming satisfactory timber-type trees. The best Chinese chestnut
discovered thus far is P.I. 58602--a seed importation made by the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in 1924, from Nanking, China. Foresters, as
well as farm woodland owners, interested in growing Asiatic chestnuts as
timber trees, should accept only planting stock that, through
performance under forest conditions, is known to develop into straight,
single-stemmed trees.
PRESIDENT BEST: I think that Dr. Crane has his panel ready.
DR. CRANE: Mr. President, before I start, I have a few slides here to
illustrate a couple of points before we call the panel to the rostrum.
(Several slides were shown illustrating sunscald injury to the Southwest
side of high headed Chinese chestnut tree trunks.)
DR. CRANE: On this panel, I want to get representatives from the various
states. Mr. Wilson, from Georgia. Mr. Stoke from Virginia. Mr. Silvis
from Ohio. Mr. Allaman from Pennsylvania. There is another good man down
there who grows a lot of chestnuts, by the name of Gibbs.
Now, there seems to be a lot of disagreement in regard to the Chinese
chestnut in two or three respects. One is the problem of named varieties
versus seedlings. Another big problem is hardiness, how hardy they are,
these Chinese chestnuts. Where can we grow them and where are they going
to fail? A third question is the ability of the Chinese chestnut to
compete with other vegetation as Dr. Diller has discussed. I think we
ought to settle some of these questions for once and maybe for all, or
at least for this meeting, through a discussion. Nurserymen and others
have emphasized that chestnuts, to be successful in the United States
and hardy, should come from North China, at the Great Wall or beyond.
Others don't agree, claiming that chestnuts in China are grown from the
extreme south to the extreme north and that we ought to do the same in
this country also.
MR. STOKE: I haven't enough knowledge on it to express an opinion. I
planted a good many seeds I got from the Yokahama Nursery Company, and
the nuts were rather inferior as to size. They were healthy and hardy,
but I don't know where they came from. I presume they came from Korea,
but I am not sure. The size and productivity wasn't too high of that
seedling stock I secured there.
DR. CRANE: What do you folks think? Anyone in the audience that has an
idea?
MR. PATAKY: At our fall meeting in the Ohio group we had two bushels of
chestnuts from Sterling Smith. As far as I know the seed is Korean
chestnut, which is obviously a Chinese variety. He had three bushels
last fall and they looked identically like the American chestnut. Mr.
Stoke said the quality wasn't so good in what he had. That might be
true, but I tested a lot of these chestnuts from Sterling Smith, and
compared them with American chestnuts. They were just as good or better
than the American.
MR. CALDWELL: I spent about a year in China travelling pretty well
throughout the country. I believe you will find the better seed sources
in the southern part. China is like Southern Florida or warmer for part
of the year and yet in the other six months it would be colder than it
is right here in Rochester.
They have timber trees, some as big as 50 or 60 feet high and two or
three feet in diameter. In the warmer area you find better seed by far.
What Dr. Diller describes as No. 58602 is not just one tree, but a whole
collection of trees from a certain area where the trees have proven
their resistance not only to cold but to frost injury in the spring or
in the fall, which is even more important than the straight cold
hardiness. Some people have mistaken ideas about the value of seed from
trees in the northern part of China above the Great Wall. This area may
have intense cold in the wintertime, but not in the spring or fall.
DR. GRAVES: Dr. Caldwell is right about No. 58602 being a mixture. Dr.
Gravatt could tell you about that. It is a strain coming from several
trees. It's evidently a very fine type, and I think we ought to know for
the record just what 58602 is.
DR. GRAVATT: Professor Reisner's 58602 that Dr. Diller has been testing
so widely is made up from a collection of seed from a number of isolated
valleys of the Nanking area. It is rather southern in its native home,
but Dr. Diller's tests and other tests have shown that it's hardy up
north and it's hardy down south. As some of you have noticed, the nuts
are very variable, with a number of different types mixed in together.
Dr. Diller and I have been discussing the question of hybrid vigor. It
may be involved that each of these seedlings is a cross between
different local strains. We must remember that the foresters have gone
into this question of hardiness in great detail. You will find that you
can't plant trees in Germany in a certain area unless the parent trees
grew in a certain area, with comparable altitude and latitude. Minimum
and maximum temperatures and other factors are also taken into
consideration.
Pennsylvania started a program along the same line. They have divided
their state into about five areas, and in each of those areas they are
locating sources of seed that are going to be suited to those areas.
They have evidence that many of these Chinese introductions coming from
way down south are going to be hardy way up north, but in this matter of
hardiness you sometimes have to wait for 50 or 100 years before you are
sure of your conclusions.
DR. CRANE: That's right.
The next question I was going to ask these growers in the areas growing
chestnuts is how much trouble they have had with hardiness or cold
injury to chestnut trees that they have had. Has there been any?
MR. STOKE: I have had none.
MR. SILVIS: We have had none in Massillon.
DR. CRANE: Wilson, how about Georgia?
MR. WILSON: None.
MR. KEPLINGER: Dr. Meader sent me some stock from seed that he brought
from near Seoul, Korea in 1947. They are very productive up there at
Durham, New Hampshire. I have two trees from seed from these trees. They
have much more narrow leaves, than any Chinese chestnuts I have seen so
far.
DR. CRANE: Are you sure they are pure Chinese?
DR. MACDANIEL: I am sure they are not. I have seen pictures and had some
correspondence with Dr. Meader on them. They seem to be the Japanese
species, C. crenata type, or possibly hybrid, not strictly Japanese.
MR. PEASE: I want to throw in something a little bit aside. I think we
kid ourselves and the public in assuming, tacitly, that Chinese
chestnuts, no matter how narrow the strain, are going to breed true or
anywhere near true. Any one lot of seedlings are likely to show great
variation in hardiness, disease resistance and other characters. There
is a great difference between resistance and immunity. I speak this way
because I have seen plenty of people selling Chinese chestnuts who
actually believe they are immune, and I have seen customers mad enough
to shoot them when they have seen half of them die of blight.
MR. MILLER: When considering hardiness, climate is one thing and air
drainage is another. In any climatic zone the exact location or site,
particularly air drainage is important. I have my orchard on a southwest
slope with perfect air drainage. I have 250-some trees that are six or
seven years old growing very nicely, and I have not had any loss, even
with English walnut, the Carpathian or any of the other trees. I think
that many of us are overlooking the fact that air drainage and location
of the orchard is one of the main things. I don't think this has
anything to do with the particular seed or the varieties, but I think
that is one thing that we must consider.
DR. CRANE: No question about that. Chinese chestnuts are like peaches,
and they start pretty early in the spring.
MR. GIBBS: Chinese chestnuts are hardy from Maine to Florida. I think
they winter kill because of unhealthy condition of the tree. The place
that I did live, at McLean, Virginia, was low in a frosty place, and the
first spring they killed back three times before they took off. Where I
live now in the Blue Ridge Mountains, which is orchard country, the
Chinese chestnut killed back in the spring, but there is nothing the
matter with their winter hardiness. They stand winter cold as good as a
walnut tree.
DR. GRAVES: I want to make the point that it is in part a question of
age, to my mind, as to whether these trees get winter killed. I know we
had some trees from the Department of Agriculture, Division of Forest
Pathology, back in 1925, and in the very cold winter, 1933-34, they
killed back almost to the ground. Again in the severe winter of 1943
Chinese chestnuts were killed. But I feel that when a tree is of good
size with its roots down in the ground, it's not so liable to winter
kill as are the small seedlings.
DR. CRANE: We have spent enough time on this matter. The question of
growing seedlings as compared to grafted trees is up for discussion. Mr.
Wilson is a big operator growing chestnuts in Georgia. I would like to
have him tell what he thinks of this matter of seedlings versus
varieties for nut production.
MR. WILSON: Dr. Crane, I am fully convinced if we ever make an industry
out of this chestnut business it's going to have to be based on grafted
trees of good varieties. I have one block of approximately 200 grafted
trees of Meiling and Kuling. Those trees have a nice crop on this year.
They have different age tops, but we have a nice crop of nuts on them.
I have another block of some 260 seedlings that were planted in 1948.
The crop on these trees, with the same fertilization and cultivation
ranges from no nuts to a heavy crop of nuts. You can't have an industry
on that kind of yield. There are probably only 30 trees out of 260 that
have a paying crop of nuts. That won't go as a paying proposition. You
have got to have nuts on all the trees, and I am fully convinced if we
ever make an industry out of it, the grower has got to produce nuts.
Trees are not enough, he can't sell the tree; he wants to keep his tree.
He wants nuts to sell, and you can't get them on the seedling trees. I
am fully convinced you can't do it.
DR. MACDANIEL: Have any of your grafts gone bad?
MR. WILSON: I have had no incompatibility, except on one tree. My oldest
grafts are four and five years old, top grafted in place on two and
three year old seedlings.
DR. CRANE: Mr. Stoke, what is your experience?
MR. STOKE: I have two trees in my yard at home. Dr. Reed gave me credit
for doing the first grafting of Mollissima in this country. I don't know
whether it's true or not. Those were grafted in '31. They made perfect
union, and they are perfect today, and they will be perfect when I am
dead and gone. I find no incompatibility between Mollissima and
Mollissima. One acre of good, select varieties, grafted, will produce as
many nuts as three or four acres of seedlings.
DR. CRANE: Mr. Bernath, how about the situation up in the Hudson Valley?
MR. BERNATH: My trees are of small size. We have some in bearing, but as
far as having any difficulty with them or freezing back, we have none.
DR. CRANE: Mr. Snyder, how about the situation out in Iowa?
MR. SNYDER: I am not trying to grow Chinese chestnuts anymore. We have
had two different lots from U.S.D.A. and both of them have gone out in
the winters sooner or later. We have had nice seedling rows, and Dr.
Colby sent over a collection of scions, enough to graft each one. Every
one grew. This winter they are all gone. We can grow American chestnuts,
but we can't grow the Chinese.
DR. CRANE: Joe, you have had a lot of experience, made a lot of
observations of this matter of seedlings versus grafted varieties. What
do you think of the situation?
DR. MACDANIEL: I will follow Mr. Stokes' opinion on that. I think grafted
trees, if you have a compatible graft, are worth several times as much
as average seedling trees. At the University of Illinois most of our
trees are seedling trees. We are just getting started with grafted
Chinese chestnuts.
DR. CRANE: That's the way it is with us. Anybody in the audience that
has an opinion that they think seedlings are better than grafted trees?
MR. CALDWELL: I was going to say seedlings are better, but I think this
is one thing everybody should realize: The emphasis has been based on
early production. In many cases we have found in forest trees that early
seed production doesn't necessarily mean heavy late seed production.
Some of those that didn't produce early went ahead and 40 or 50 years
later produced heavily. So be a little bit careful when you start
swinging too heavily on early production.
DR. CRANE: Yes, but, Dr. Caldwell, we in the United States haven't time
to wait. We haven't time to wait.
MR. CALDWELL: You are going to have to take it.
DR. CRANE: It's just like Mr. Wilson said. He planted seedlings in 1948,
and he is telling me that most of them haven't come into bearing, so he
is going to ply the axe or top work them. He hasn't time to wait. He's
got to make his bread and butter out of that, and when it comes to
growing nuts, we can't wait 40 or 50 years for a tree to come in. That
might be all right for posterity, but we have got to be sure of it, or
our posterity is not going to be able to pay the national debt.
DR. MACDANIELS: According to the experience I have had, the chestnut is
only a little more hardy than the peach, and behaves pretty much the
same as regards wood injury. At 30 deg. below zero the trees have been
killed outright or to the ground. At about 25 deg. below they will black
heart with killing of sapwood and serious injury to the bark. At 20 they
will survive. This experience involves perhaps 125 seedling trees from
various sources, but mostly from the U.S.D.A. It is quite likely that
there may be more hardier strains that will withstand these low
temperatures. The other point is the matter of grafted trees. It is my
opinion that the failure of the graft is a form of cold injury related
to delayed maturity of the tissues at the graft union. Certainly failure
of grafts is much more persistent in the north than in the south.
My experience has been that I haven't been able to keep grafted trees.
They appear to thrive for three or four years and then die. I have tried
it over and over again. It appears that the grafted tree in Georgia and
Virginia is one thing. In New York it's another.
MR. WALLICK: I have never bought a grafted chestnut tree that grew. They
all die. And seedlings mostly do not have the kind of nuts you want.
Also they may be susceptible to disease.
DR. MCKAY: I want to make one observation about our experience at
Beltsville on the question of seedlings versus varieties as regards
bearing. We topworked scions of some of our good varieties, like Nanking
and Meiling, onto large seedlings we have at Beltsville that are poor
bearers. These grafted portions in the top of these trees under poor
conditions--our soil is poor at Beltsville--set tremendously heavy
crops, but the nuts are smaller in size than normal, and therefore the
crop is not as desirable as it would be if it were grown under good
conditions. The point is that those varieties bear even under poor
conditions. Bearing is a variety characteristic, and wherever it grows
it will bear though it may not produce a good-sized nut.
MR. PEASE: I believe what's coming out in this discussion on bearing is
also true in hardiness, growth, and any characteristic we want. We may
select seeds from trees at an elevation of 6,000 feet, and still have
some which will be not hardy.
DR. CRANE: That's right.
MR. SILVIS: I'd like to make a point. If in your observation you find a
tree seedling in your locality that is producing good crops plant that.
Don't get one from Georgia. We can take a little bit of advice from the
fruit grower, and not plant too much from the south, even though it came
from China.
DR. GRAVATT: I'd like to Comment about conditions in Europe with
reference to seedlings and varieties. The general practice there is for
each little farmer to graft from the best variety in his section,
especially in Italy where you find hundreds of varieties.
In Portugal we were all very much impressed with one area where the
government has had an active program in persuading the chestnut owners
to topwork all their trees to three varieties. These varieties are very
good ones, and they are getting a very greatly increased price on
account of the high quality and uniformity of the nuts they export.
It seems to me that in the discussion on the Chinese chestnut in this
country we have done a little bit of injustice to the seedlings, so far
as the discussion has gone. I am in perfect agreement with what's been
said about the low production the first few years, but over on the
Eastern Shore Mr. Hemming's trees are producing just about as much in
the way of a crop as the tree can bear, and the grafted varieties there
don't produce any more than his 17 or 18 seedlings.
DR. MACDANIEL: I believe Hemming has some exceptional seedlings in that
lot.
DR. GRAVATT: Yes, they are very valuable, don't misunderstand me. After
the first ten years you may find a seedling orchard is going to produce
a very good crop, tree by tree. We have had a lot of experience, similar
to that reported in New York, with grafted trees dying. We get seedling
trees dying, too, but I agree that there is more damage from fall
freezes, spring freezes and perhaps from straight low temperature winter
injury with the grafted trees than with the seedling trees. Furthermore,
I am very critical of the tactics of some of the nurseries. They have
grafted on seedlings of absolutely unknown origin or mixed origin. They
will take a South Chinese variety and graft it on seedlings that for
hundreds of years have been grown in North China. That's just inviting
trouble. The nearer you can get to having seedling and scion from the
same climatic origin, the better off you are. In fact, we have advised
growers to get seedlings of the Nanking and graft Nanking on them.
Dr. McKay is doing a lot of good, basic research work on this problem,
and he will have more information for us in times to come. I am firmly
convinced that we are going to come some day to the grafted chestnuts,
especially in the South, because a lot of the southern producers right
now are giving a black eye to Chinese chestnuts, because they are
shipping lots of mixed nuts, and by the time they get to the consumer
half of them are rotten. This will ruin the market. We have been buying
some six or seven thousand pounds of nuts to ship to Italy, and we know
something about the conditions of nuts when they reach us. There is no
quicker way of killing a market than to be shipping in a whole lot of
nuts that are going to spoil or are in the process of spoiling when they
reach the consumer. Grafted varieties are one way of getting away from
this, especially in the South.
MR. WILSON: I am far enough south so that in peach production we often
have winters so warm that the trees don't wake up. This question of rest
period is quite important with us. We have a warm winter, and the
Mayflower peach just keeps on sleeping. Eventually bloom will break, and
a little peach will sit up there waiting for the leaf to come out. There
is apparently a rest period with the Chinese chestnut there also. The
time of breaking of the rest period in my seedling trees varies as much
as three to four weeks, and that would lead me to believe that, in the
long run, we will have to plant locally adapted varieties.
PRESIDENT BEST: I am sorry that we have to stop this very interesting
discussion.
At this time is there any item of general interest to the group that
anyone would like to bring up?
MR. MILLER: For sometime I have been considering the desirability of
changing the name of the Northern Nut Growers. I am inclined to think
that maybe some of our southern friends or from the Far West or
Southwest would be a little dubious of joining the Northern Nut Growers,
because they think we are perhaps exclusive for the north tier of states
and we didn't want them.
I thought perhaps the International Nut Growers, or the United States
Nut Growers Association were names worth considering. I think that would
have a desirable psychological effect on our membership. We are a big
organization, and I think a lot of people would think it was a whole lot
larger if the name would imply that. I think the "Northern Nut Growers"
just looks like we are concerned with the northern tier of states, and I
think we would do a whole lot better by changing the name. I would like
to have some suggestions. Possibly, it could be American Nut Growers.
MR. KERR: Mr. Chairman, I am a charter member of the American Farm
Bureau, and that goes over big. It's a real success as an organization,
and I think the American Nut Growers--take in South America and North
America--would hit our proposition about right.
PRESIDENT BEST: All right, is there another suggestion? We mustn't take
so much time on this, but it is mighty important.
MR. BECKER: My final opinion is that it's best to leave it as it was.
MR. STOKE: It seems to me that this matter was well decided some time
ago. We have certain definite problems to work out. I think we had
better stay on those problems and work them out before we spread over
the whole universe. We will have too many other problems coming in our
lap.
MR. DAVIDSON: That matter was taken up some five or six years ago, and
for the reason that Mr. Stoke mentioned, the fact that we have special
problems and the very difficult problems that don't concern southerners
was the reason for voting that proposition down before. I think it would
be better, at least, for us to consider the matter rather thoroughly
before we vote on it, maybe postpone it until another year.
DR. MACDANIELS: It just occurs to me that the Northern Nut Growers
Association was formed to tackle problems that weren't being covered
anywhere else. There are other local organizations which are concerned
with the Persian walnut and the Northwest Filbert and the Southern
Pecan. The Northern Nut Growers Association was organized to save
America's nut heritage, as somebody said, in a rather restricted area.
Possibly the time has come to get into a larger organization with a
greater scope, but I will say with Mr. Davidson that we want to
consider very carefully what the gain or loss might be for the change in
emphasis.
PRESIDENT BEST: Would someone make the suggestion here that we keep this
thing in mind for a year and maybe at our next meeting take a little
time to discuss it thoroughly.
DR. CRANE: I'd like to make a few remarks and offer a motion. I believe
I am correct as to the history of the organization when I state that the
oldest nut growers' organization was the old National Nut Growers
Association, and that covered the nut interests of the country of all
kinds. Then out of that came the National Pecan Growers Association, and
almost at the same time, the Northern Nut Growers Association. The old
National Nut Growers Association folded up, as did the National Pecan
Growers Association. They were victims of the depression. I think we
could discuss this at great length and not get anywhere, and therefore I
make the motion that the president appoint a committee of three members
to study the possibilities, both advantages and disadvantages of a
change in the name of the association and report back to the association
their recommendations at the next meeting.
(Motion seconded.)
PRESIDENT BEST: The motion has been made and seconded that we appoint a
committee to handle this thing and report back to us. Is there any
discussion?
DR. GRAVATT: I'd like to point out that research work is being started
in Europe that is going to be very valuable to us. They are now working
on the Chinese chestnuts on a very large scale, starting in Yugoslavia,
France, Switzerland, and they are already doing quite a bit of breeding
work in Spain and Portugal along these lines. The things that they
develop, will be Chinese chestnut hybrids so they are going to have the
same problems in Europe working with the chestnuts that we have here. In
the past they have been working entirely with the European chestnut. I
think we are now on a basis whereby the European growers can feel that
they can profit by taking our publication, and, that both continents
will benefit.
DR. GRAVES: Do you put that as an argument for changing our name to
American Nut Growers?
DR. GRAVATT: I don't think "American" would help at all. And,
furthermore, when you talk about "American", a lot of people think of
South America.
MR. SLATE: It's what the members get out of the proceedings and meetings
that brings them in and keeps them, it's not the name of the
organization.
DR. MACDANIEL: Mr. President, as former state vice-president in Alabama,
Florida and Tennessee, I don't believe the change of name would result
in any great immediate increase in membership in the Southeast.
PRESIDENT BEST: Now, are you ready for the question?
(The question was called for, and carried unanimously.)
Development of the Nut Industry in the Midwest
J. F. WILKINSON, _Rockport, Ind._
The development of the northern nut tree industry in the midwest really
began about 1910. Prior to that time W. C. Reed and son of Vincennes,
Indiana had done some experimental work with the Indiana and Busseron
varieties of pecan, as they had located these two parent trees. E. A.
Riehl of Godfrey, Illinois had been experimenting with the walnut and
chestnut, and it was at this time that T. P. Littlepage, R. L. McCoy and
established our nurseries here in southern Indiana.
We then began the search for the best parent trees for propagation in
the midwest.
We located Warrick, Hoosier, Major, Greenriver, Posey, Kentucky,
Butterick and several other varieties most of which have since been
discarded.
A number of varieties have since been introduced, by Messrs. Gerardi,
Whitford, Snyder, Burkhart, Bolten, and others who are either nurserymen
or propagators, of pecan, walnut, hickory and chestnut.
The Littlepage and McCoy nurseries were discontinued about thirty years
ago though I have continued the search for new and better varieties, and
several years ago located, named, and introduced the Giles pecan, in
southeast Kansas which is proving very satisfactory. I have recently
located, named, and am now introducing a new variety, CHIEF, from
Illinois. This is the largest northern pecan that I have ever seen and
it promises to be an outstanding variety.
In the territory from southern Indiana to eastern Kansas are countless
thousands of native pecan trees in the valleys of the Ohio, Mississippi
and Missouri rivers and their tributaries.
On the uplands in this same territory, the black walnut is found almost
everywhere. Thousands of pecan and walnut are of suitable size for
top-working and could be made valuable by being grafted over to these
fine varieties. These may be found in any quantity from a single tree to
a native grove (especially pecan) of thousands of trees.
One of the largest pecan groves is in Gallatin county, Illinois along
the Wabash river where it has been estimated there are as many as twenty
thousand pecan trees of bearing size in one locality.
Other sections where large native groves may be found are in Henderson
county, Kentucky near the mouth of Green River, along the Mississippi
river in western Kentucky, across the river in southern Illinois, along
the Illinois river in central Illinois, along the Missouri river in
central Missouri, in eastern Kansas, along the Neosho and Spring rivers,
and in Bates county Missouri along the Osage river, in southwestern
Missouri.
It has been my pleasure to visit one or more times each of the above
places as well as every other section of note where the northern pecan
grows naturally.
One of the most interesting places that I have seen is in Bates county,
Missouri. I was there in May to top-work trees for Mr. Wesley Heuser,
where he has a tract of land along the Osage river on which there is a
large native pecan grove making it a profitable possession. Mr. Heuser
is increasing its value by planting budded, or grafted trees in the open
land and top-working the small native seedlings.
Adjoining this place is one owned by Mr. Fred Marquardt who recently
bought it from the estate of the late J. F. Tiedke who had spent years
of work there cleaning up the native grove, and top-working the small
seedlings to the better varieties. Mr. Marquardt told me there was an
estimated four thousand bearing size native trees, and two thousand
top-worked trees most of which are of bearing size and many of them
top-worked as long as twenty years ago. Mr. Marquardt is taking splendid
care of this place making it a profitable as well as a most beautiful
nut orchard.
Mr. Tiedke in topworking these small trees, selected those as nearly as
possible in rows giving it the appearance in places of a planted
orchard.
Along the Illinois river in central Illinois is a great pecan section.
It is there that Mr. R. B. Best is located, and he probably has more
grafted and top-worked trees than any other person in the midwest. The
late Charles Stephens of Columbus, Kansas, had topworked several hundred
trees in southeastern Kansas and Stanley Walberts planted a 35 acre
pecan orchard there at Columbus that at the last time I visited it was a
beautiful and well kept orchard.
Mr. W. F. Thielenhaus of Buffalo, Kansas is doing a lot of work there
both in planting and top-working trees.
In western Kentucky, Professors W. W. Magill, and W. D. Armstrong of the
University of Kentucky with county agent John B. Watts of Hickman,
Kentucky cooperating, interested Mr. Roscoe Stone, who had a large
acreage of land in developing the young seedling pecan trees by
top-working them to better varieties. Mr. Sly and I went there the first
time in the spring of 1948 and each spring since then we have worked
trees on this land, and for others around Hickman to the number of
possibly 500 trees.
Last year a number of the trees that were worked in the spring of 1948
produced quite a few nuts. I was there in May at which time there was a
splendid crop of nuts on these trees. On August 3, I had a letter from
Mr. Watts stating "I feel that many of these trees will bear a good crop
of nuts this year, and although we are having a drought here, the trees
on the Stone farm are not suffering much.
The largest planting of nut trees that I know in the midwest is that
planted by the late Harry R. Weber near Rockport which consists of about
70 acres mostly walnuts, with some pecans, hybrids, hickories, and
filberts.
Many smaller plantings of nut trees have been made throughout the
midwest and thousands of seedling trees having been top-worked.
Most of the native walnut trees through this section have been cut for
timber and the native chestnut has been killed by the blight, making a
shortage that should be replaced with the better varieties of walnut and
the Chinese chestnut.
The earlier plantings of the Persian walnut from France and England were
not hardy in the midwest but the Carpathian walnut from Poland seems to
be doing well.
Some parts of this territory are suitable for almost any kind of nut
trees. There is a vast field in the Midwest awaiting development in nut
culture.
Some Aspects of the Problem of Producing Curly-Grained Walnut
L. H. MACDANIELS, _Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y._
About 15 years ago a tree of the Lamb Curly Walnut was planted at
Ithaca, N. Y. After the tree had grown to a height of about 12 feet, it
was topworked about 8 feet from the ground to scions of the Cornell
variety of Black Walnut with the idea that it would be possible to grow
a trunk of curly walnut and a top of a named variety. The tree grew
rapidly and in the fall of 1952 had a trunk 10 inches in diameter at the
base. Sometime in 1952 the tree became infected with bunchy-top disease
and was cut in an attempt to eliminate this disease from the premises.
It was expected that the trunk would show figured curly grain and plans
were made to have at least a part of the log cut into veneer. On cutting
the tree, however, and examining the wood, there was no evidence of
curly grain detectable either by casual personal observation or from
samples sent to the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin.
This, of course, was a disappointment because J. F. Wilkinson had shown
samples of walnut grown from scions of the Lamb Walnut obtained from the
late W. B. Bixby which showed evidence of curly grain. A photograph of
the wood secured from Mr. Wilkinson is shown in figure 1. Wood samples
from a tree growing at Beltsville, Maryland, which was also secured from
Mr. Bixby by C. A. Reed, does not show evidence of curly grain.
The simplest explanation of the failure of the tree in Ithaca to show
curly grain would be that somehow the tree was not properly labelled or
that scions were mixed in propagation and that the trunk was not derived
from the original Lamb Curly Walnut. However, the fact that only a few
trees were concerned makes it improbable that trees were mislabelled in
the Ithaca planting and there is no good reason to believe that the tree
planted at Beltsville was not authentic.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Radial face of wood of grafted Lamb black walnut
grown by J. F. Wilkinson. Wavy or curly grain is apparent on right side
which is the outer part of the log (about natural size).]
Another possibility is that the original Lamb Walnut was a chimera. Such
a tree would have mixed tissues in its growing points, some having the
curly grain character and others not. In such a tree some scions would
produce curliness and others straight grain. It may be that these were
mixed in the original collection.
A third possibility is that curliness is produced by the interaction of
several factors, one a tendency to curliness inherent in the Lamb tree
and the others environmental such as growth rate, nutrient supply, the
nature of the soil or other such conditions.
Theoretically curly grain in walnut or any other tree is related to the
nature of the growth of the cambium layer. In normal growth the cells of
this layer are much elongated as seen in tangential section and are
relatively straight. The nature of these cambium cells is shown in
figure 2.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. The cambium of a straight-grained black walnut
tree as seen in tangential section. The nature and regularity of these
cells determines the nature and regularity of the cells of adjacent wood
and bark (x 150).]
It is well known from studies of cambial growth that irregularities in
the growth of the cambium are reflected in the irregularities in the
shape and position of the wood fibers and vessels, which it forms.
Ordinarily, if the cambium is wounded, the first cells formed are
irregular in shape and orientation but after a wound is healed over the
cambium cells resume their normal position. In parts of trees in which
the grain is irregular or confused such as in the inner angle of
crotches the shape of the cambium cells determines the nature of the
grain beneath as shown in figure 3 (Ref. 1). This has been established
also in the study of the nature of spiral-grained Douglas Fir and in
various experimental work where it has been possible to change the
direction or extent of the cambium cells through various experimental
means. (Ref. 2)
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Section through cambium and underlying wood in a
crotch of an apple tree where the grain of the wood is not straight. The
shape and direction of the wood fibers or grain of the wood, and bark is
determined by the shape and direction of the cambium cells that form
them (X 100).]
There seems to be no doubt, therefore, that curly grain in walnut is
directly related to the curly condition to be found in the cambium,
which produces such curly grain. The basic question to be resolved is
what makes the cambium of a curly-grain tree assume the curly or wavy
character. As indicated above, one hypothesis is that several factors
may be operating. For example, a tree might have the inherent capacity
to produce wavy grain but would only do so under special environmental
conditions. These environmental conditions might be related to rapidity
of growth, water and nutrient supply, or various other habitat
characteristics, which affect the nature of growth. The fact that the
tree in question at Ithaca was growing rapidly might have been
responsible for the failure of the curly grain to develop. There is
evidence that trees with figured grain grow slowly. (Ref. 3, 4) On the
other hand the specimens from the tree at Beltsville, Maryland, were
from a slowly growing plant and did not show curly grain.
Another hypothesis is that development of the curly grain is dependent
upon the foliage of the tree. This has been demonstrated to be true in
instances where the foliage of fruit plants determines the
characteristics of the growth of the trunk and roots and of the fruit
itself. (Ref. 5, 6) It might be, therefore, that the failure of this
particular trunk to show curly grain is related to the fact that the top
of the tree at Ithaca was of another variety than the original Lamb.
Possibly the foliage of the original variety producing the curly
character is necessary to produce the curly grain. An argument against
this interpretation is that the tree at Beltsville, Maryland, is not
topworked.
It would be valuable at the present time to survey all the trees of the
Lamb walnut, which are growing in various parts of the country, to see
under what circumstances they may be showing the curly characteristic of
the original tree. Dr. M. Y. Pillow of the Forest Products Laboratory at
Madison, Wisconsin, in an unpublished report, has pointed out that it is
possible to determine the curly nature of the grain by shaving off the
outer bark, exposing the inner bark just outside of the cambium.
Inasmuch as the same cambium cells form fiber cells both on the inside
to make the wood and towards the outside to make the bark, the direction
and nature of the fibers in the bark are a direct indication of the
direction of the fibers underneath the cambium in the wood.
The appearance of the normal straight grained wood and bark and wood and
bark of a curly grained tree are shown in figures 4 and 5. Shaving off
the outer bark in this manner will not harm the trees, if it is done
carefully so it would be possible to make this survey without injury to
the trees. Examining a number of trees of the Lamb walnut in this way
and finding that some were curly, might give evidence as to the
conditions under which the Lamb walnut will produce curly grain.
Dr. Pillow of the Forest Products Laboratory, kindly furnished me with
his file on curly and birdseye grained wood. In this file is a very
interesting group of manuscripts and letters including a report from Mr.
Willard G. Bixby reporting a trip to New Hampshire to study the
occurrence of birdseye maple and also his early experiments with the
Lamb walnut. The Lamb walnut trees at that time were too young to give
any indication of curly grain. Other letters of interest on the subject
were from Mr. J. F. Wilkinson, A. S. Colby and C. A. Reed. These letters
mention the desirability of propagating figured walnut but aside from
indicating that trees of the Lamb had been propagated there was no
indication that curliness had developed. The first definite indication
that curliness would develop in a grafted tree was reported by Mr.
Wilkinson (Ref. 7) at the Norris meeting of the Northern Nut Growers
Association. At that time the wood photographed in figure 1 was shown.
In the literature somewhat conflicting reports are found as to whether
or not curliness will show up early in the growth of a tree or late.
Apparently it was possible to trace curly grain into the twigs a few
years old in the original Lamb walnut (unpublished letters). Various
statements, however, indicate that curliness may not develop until the
trees are 20 years old or more. It would seem that with the propagation
and introduction of the Lamb walnut in 1926-27 and distribution soon
thereafter it ought to be possible to locate and examine these trees
which are now more than 20 years old.
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Slightly enlarged photograph of black walnut with
straight grain in the wood (light-colored area) and also in the bark
(dark-colored area). U. S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory
Photo.]
In the various literature and other material available on the subject of
birdseye and curliness, it appears that the birdseye grain is different
in its origin from curliness although both may be related to the
functioning of the cambium and definitely seem to be related to slow
growth. (Ref. 8)
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Slightly enlarged photograph of black walnut with
curly grain in the wood (light-colored area, upper left) and also in the
bark (dark-colored area). U. S. Forest Service Forest Products
Laboratory Photo.]
Curliness is reported in other kinds of trees. Curly grained white
poplar has been propagated from hybrid trees by growing cuttings of
shoots from the roots of the curly trees (Ref. 9). In Sweden it has been
possible to grow figured birch, much of which has the curly type grain.
In birch, seedling strains producing curly grain have been developed and
are being grown. It is of interest to note that with these birches, the
trees with curly grain grow only about half as fast as the normal trees
and have to be staked during their early growth years in order to make
straight trunks or to stand erect (Ref. 4).
The original Lamb walnut tree was curly throughout. Other trees,
particularly maples and birches may be curly only in part of their
trunks and sometimes only in restricted segments. Trees frequently have
curly grain at the base where the trunk joins the roots but not
elsewhere. Such curliness may be related to the shortening of the curve
where the root joins the trunk, thus causing distortion. W. G. Bixby
states (Ref. 3) that a birdseye maple tree 170 years old was only about
a quarter as large in diameter as normal trees of the same age. I know
of no comparison of curly walnut with other types of walnut. The
original Lamb walnut tree was apparently a very large one.
In conclusion, it is obvious that our knowledge of the possibility of
producing curly grained walnut logs by grafting is as yet incomplete.
Much more information is needed and at the present time undoubtedly much
can be gained by examining the Lamb walnut trees, which are growing in
various parts of the country. This can be done without seriously
injuring the trees as described earlier in this paper. Those in the
Northern Nut Grower's Association, who have Lamb trees are urged to
examine them to find out if we can gain further useful information
regarding this rather important subject. Obviously, if it is possible to
grow curly walnut through vegetative propagation, we should know under
what conditions a grower can expect to successfully produce a curly
grained log.
References
1. MacDaniels, L. H. The apple tree crotch, histological studies and
practical considerations. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 419:
1-22. 1923.
2. ---- and Otis F. Curtis. The effect of spiral ringing on solute
translocation on the structure of the regenerated tissue of the
apple. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir 133:1-32. 1930.
3. Bixby, W. G. Field work at Warren, New Hampshire. Unpublished
Report. 1932. (On file with U. S. Forest Products Laboratory,
Madison, Wisconsin.)
4. Heinkinheimo, O. Om odling ar masurbjork (The cultivation of
figured birch). Skogen 27:165-167. 1940. (Translation in U. S.
Forest Products Laboratory.)
5. Heinicke, A. J. Influence of scion leaves on the quality of apples
borne by the stock. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 24:143-146. 1927.
6. Swarbrick, Thomas and R. H. Roberts. The relation of scion variety
to character of root growth in apple trees. Wisconsin Univ. Agr.
Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. 78:1-24. 1927.
7. Wilkinson, J. F. The grafted curly walnut as a timber tree. Northern
Nut Growers Ass'n. Proc. 39:139-142. 1948.
8. Pillow, M. Y. Dormant buds are not the cause of bird's eyes in
maple. Wood Working Industries 5:26-27. Sept. 1929.
9. Grober, Samuel. Science shows the way. Chemurgic Digest 5:152.
1946.
DR. CRANE: Dr. MacDaniels, the idea prevails on the part of some I know
that this curliness would show up more at the base or crown of the tree
than it would be likely to show on the trunk, and at the base of large
limbs we tend to have curliness. Of course, the Lamb walnut was supposed
to be curly throughout, but in the case of other trees I wonder if
that's true. You have emphasized the change in the direction of the
grain at the crown between the root and trunk and in the crotches. I
wonder just where would be the best place to scrape this bark or pare it
down in examination to determine whether it was curly or not. Would that
be, in your opinion, more likely to show up on the trunk of the tree or
base of some limb or near down to the crown?
DR. MACDANIELS: I'd be inclined to take it where you can work at it most
easily; down towards the base. If the grain is curly only in restricted
areas the log is not very valuable.
A MEMBER: I have been told by a sawmill man that he could tell by the
convolutions of the bark. Instead of being straight, they would be
fluted.
DR. MACDANIELS: That might be. I was told during the First World War
when they wanted straight-grained spruce for airplanes they found they
could tell a straight-grained spruce from a spiral, so they wouldn't
waste their time getting logs with spiral grain.
TUESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION
PRESIDENT BEST: The first item on the program is the life story of the
Late Reverend Crath and the Crath Carpathian walnut in Ontario. We are
going to have Mr. L. K. Devitt of Toronto, Canada, get into this subject
for us. Mr. Devitt did know Reverend Crath since 1934. Mr. Devitt
supported his expedition to the Ukraine in 1934. He has a few slides for
us and then he is going to talk to us about a number of features.
Mr. Devitt is in the school system in Toronto, and he is a graduate of
the University of Toronto, and so without further introduction, take
over and give us your story.
MR. DEVITT: Thank you. Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, when I wrote
a letter to the secretary of the Association about Reverend Crath, I
thought it was also fitting that at the next meeting I should come here
and say a little more about the life and work of the Reverend Crath and
the Crath Carpathian walnut in Ontario and the progress for the last 20
years.
Late Rev. Paul C. Crath
L. K. DEVITT, _Toronto, Ontario_
Rev. Crath was born near Kiev in Greater Ukraine, Poland, in 1883. He
was the son of an Agricultural College Professor. It is assumed that he
enjoyed the life of the upper class, being a graduate of two
universities; and speaking fluently at least six languages of Central
and Western Europe, and having travelled almost everywhere in Europe. He
possessed a wide knowledge of the peoples, the history and the culture
of all the Central European Countries.
He migrated to Canada in 1908 and settled in Western Canada. He was
employed at various, clerical occupations before entering the
Theological College of the University of Manitoba from where he
graduated as a Presbyterian minister in 1922.
He was the minister of a Ukranian Presbyterian Church in Toronto for two
years. From 1924 to 1936 he served as a Presbyterian missionary in
Poland, organizing some thirty missions in Galicia and Volynia. For some
years before the war, he spent considerable time on a farm near Welcome,
Ontario, building up a European Nursery and in the winters he served
with the Home Missions mostly in Western Canada. During the last ten
years of his life he had to curtail his activities more and more, owing
to poor health and a heart condition.
I met Rev. Crath when he was on furlough in 1934.
I went to the National Exhibition and among the various exhibits I came
across a rather unique exhibit of nuts, grown by the late Geo. H.
Corsan, Echo Valley, Islington.
In the course of our conversation along came the late Prof. Jas. Neilson
and we continued to talk about nut-growing. Prof. Neilson was
interesting indeed. I could see he was a sincere man and most
enthusiastic about the subject. He told me there was a Presbyterian
Ukranian missionary in town who had brought out some hardy English
walnuts from the Carpathian Mountains--a variety which he was sure would
survive in Ontario and the Northern States and that it had great
possibilities. The missionary was returning to Europe to bring out a
shipment but needed, backing for the expedition. I met Prof. Neilson the
following day. The sum required was $400.00 and he agreed to guarantee
the sale of $400.00 worth in the U.S. at least. The next day I met Rev.
Crath at the Exhibition display. We met off and on for two or three
days. I could see no flaw in the project, so I raised the $400.00 by a
bank-note. The banker thought I was crazy--and the missionary was on his
way by the end of the week.
He arrived by mid-September and having had so many charges in the
Ukraine, he knew where to go and just when the crop was being harvested.
The walnuts were selected, dried, boxed and shipped by the middle of
October. The shipment arrived in Toronto the first week of
November--nearly two tons of them. I received with them, a bill of
lading with port charges, export duties and freight. I was out another
$100.00.
In two weeks, the Winter Fair opened and Mr. Corsan was invited to put
on his nut exhibit as an attraction. In the meantime he was on the
radio once a week to talk on health, food and various subjects, always
getting around to nuts as a food--and this new discovery, the Carpathian
walnut. The radio broadcasts brought interested people right to his
exhibit. He gave an hourly talk on nuts and a pamphlet was given out.
The Winter Fair sales grossed $300.00 and there was another $100.00 on
follow-up sales by Christmas. The situation was at least easier.
Prof. Neilson before Christmas had taken ill and passed away in
February. However into the picture came another man, H. J. Rahmlow,
secretary of the Wisconsin Horticultural Association with about 600
affiliated societies. He wrote an article in the Country Gentleman and
circularized the expedition of Rev. Crath to the Carpathian Mountains.
We sent four shipments to Mr. Rahmlow in 25 and 50 lb. lots. Sales came
in from all over Canada and the United States until spring. By spring we
had cleared all expenses and had about $200.00 on hand, but the next
problem was, what to do with the rest of the walnut seeds?
On Mr. Corsan's Echo Valley, there were two fields, one in the valley
and one over the road. We broke up out of sod an acre in each field and
planted about 40,000 seeds. Rev. Crath took to a farm near Welcome, Ont.
about another 20,000. Our plantation required a good deal of attention,
work and expense during the growing season. However 90% of the walnuts
germinated and grew to trees about 6 inches high. Over 30,000 trees
survived the next cold winter.
The following year we could scuffle them between the rows. Our nursery
required less care and expense. During the summer they grew about a foot
higher (15 in. average) but developed a very thick carrot-like tap root
with numerous root hairs. By autumn 1936 it was evident we had to
transplant. The seeds were planted originally 8 inches apart. So we
divided up the lot by each taking one out of every three trees, thus
leaving the trees in Echo Valley now 2 ft. apart. Rev. Crath took his
trees to the farm at Welcome, 80 miles east of Toronto. They were
planted on a slope below a thick woods from where melting snow and
spring rains kept the field cold and wet until mid-summer. Rev. Crath's
trees were practically a failure; in fact the area seemed to be
unsuitable for walnut seedlings. Mr. Corsan's trees continued to grow,
but even here the soil did not seem to be the most suitable.
I took mine to a sandy garden soil that had been under sod for 20 years.
The sod was broken and thoroughly disced. The spring was wet and very
favourable for transplanting. The trees on this soil grew very well
without any fertilizer at all; nor did they require any spraying. The
trees continued to grow deep and do better each succeeding year.
In the spring of 1939 I started to sell trees wholesale to the Dominion
Nursery, Georgetown, Ont. Mr. Bradley, the president, carried more
novelty items in his catalogue than any other nurseryman in Canada. I
continued to plant more seeds until 1939.--The war stopped further
importations, and I sold out all the trees by the spring of 1943.
So from my nursery probably went out some 10,000 trees; the weaker
seedling always perished during the winter. From Mr. Corsan's nursery,
another 10,000 trees--about half of these went to his son, Hebden Corsan
in Michigan. Rev. Crath's nursery yielded not more than 5000. He
imported a number of cherries, plums, grapes and others fruits, all of
which did not do too well either.
During the period before the war, orders came in from everywhere--from
British Columbia to Nova Scotia, even Newfoundland, besides nurseries in
the United States. Orders from the prairie provinces were dissuaded but
some customers insisted on a trial basis. Walnut seed, the first two
years went mostly to Western Ontario, British Columbia and Nova Scotia.
By 1939 the seedling nursery business that I had apparently fallen into,
looked good. Rev. Crath and I talked the situation over. We decided to
go to the country, lease some land. I would select
the land and continue to grow seedlings and besides, import selected
grafts to develop in Canada a hardy high quality grafted walnut tree.
In September we prepared to make another expedition. My banker was most
agreeable this time. Rev. Crath got as far as New York where, awaiting
the S. S. Batory to sail, the war broke out. The S. S. Pilsudski was
sunk just out of Gdynia the next day. The S. S. Batory never did sail
back to Poland. When he arrived home we went to the bank on a Saturday
morning. The travellers' cheques were cancelled.
Rev. Crath in the 1936 expedition brought out a shipment of walnuts
selected from the most northerly port of the Ukraine for Mr. Weschcke,
St. Paul, Minn. I am not familiar with this part of his work.
Rev. Crath was a cheerful soul, an interesting and pleasant individual
to talk to. He loved people and, especially, meeting people. He
possessed a great love for humanity; he bore malice toward no one and
charity to all except the Bolsheviks. He was a restless man--"always on
the go". One could see he preferred to be missionary rather than a
resident minister. Although he was away a good part of the time he was
dearly loved by his family.
Shortly after his death, as an appreciation of his services as a
minister among Ukranian families, special memorial services were held in
Toronto, Oshawa and Detroit. I was invited to attend the Toronto
service.
On a visit one day last August, 1952, to places where his Carpathian
walnut trees were coming into bearing, he examined them and gazed at
them with a look of joy and sadness. On the way home he was somewhat
upset, he looked at me and said "Mr. Devitt, my good friend, at last our
experiment is a success. Promise me two things; continue our work and go
to the convention and tell our American friends to continue the work."
* * * * *
This is the story of the introduction of hardy Carpathian walnuts
(_Juglans regia_) into Canada and the United States by the late Rev.
Crath.
Looking back on the whole adventure (now twenty years ago) it would be
only fair that I mention the names of three other men for the work they
did to make the expedition a success. The late Professor James Neilson
whose research in nut growing in Ontario and the United States was
already well known should be mentioned. It was he who really "sparked"
the expedition. To the late George H. Corsan whose nut growing
experiment at Echo Valley was something unique in Ontario, credit is due
for his enthusiasm and support of the late Reverend Crath. The American
nut growers who were fortunate to obtain walnut seeds at the time
through Wisconsin Horticultural Society can thank Mr. H. J. Rhamlow,
then secretary. He took over the task of distributing the walnut seeds
through the affiliated societies. He insisted that the seeds be tested
for germination, kept in proper storage, and did everything possible to
ensure success. However none of these men as I knew them then, and
including myself, would want any credit, but we give full recognition to
Reverend Crath for his work.
During the years spent in Poland Reverend Crath must have given the idea
of growing hardy walnuts in Ontario and the Northern States considerable
thought. He examined trees and nuts wherever he went; and continued
gathering information each year. When I first met him I could see he had
given walnut growing a great deal of study. He had great faith in his
idea, and when leaving on his expedition 1934 he felt he was on a great
mission. It should be remembered he made this arduous trip without pay
and that he made very little money from the sale of walnut seeds or
trees. No one did for that matter. It is also significant that in
bringing these Carpathian walnuts out of Poland at that time, 1934, he
did something that could never be done again. The trees he saw then
probably went into rifle butts for use in World War II. The introduction
of these walnuts into Ontario, met with varied success. Many bought them
on a trial basis and were eventually rewarded; some looked on with
skepticism and ridicule and a few thought that the growing of walnuts in
Ontario was impossible. The intervening years, however, have brought
forth a different picture. These seedling walnut trees are now bearing
in Ontario and as late Reverend Crath predicted more than half of them
are producing fair to good quality nuts. This is also true in the United
States. In Ontario they grow well in the commercial apple districts and
with variations mature nuts fully in 90 to 120 days (between Sept. 15 to
October 15.) All of the best varieties should now be propagated by
grafting to produce hundreds of hardy Crath Carpathian walnut trees.
This project should always be one of the foremost with the members of
the Northern Nut Growers Association. Twenty years from now and later,
the number of hardy walnut trees producing nuts (Crath strain) should
make a living monument to this obscure missionary--Rev. Paul C. Crath.
PRESIDENT BEST: Thank you very much, Mr. Devitt, for this very
intriguing story. Truth is sometimes stranger than fiction. And we want
to keep in touch with you, and we want to keep hearing from you, because
you have got a big job to do yet.
MR. DEVITT: There is only one thing, ladies and gentlemen: I don't want
to run into 5,000 letters to answer. Keep my name out of this. That is
my walking-out request now. That's the story. I am going to continue to
keep collecting samples. I hope some day to have a number myself of the
best, and I might come back again sometime. I can't say every year;
circumstances may be that I can't come. However, it's been a great
pleasure for me to be here. I have wanted to come for 20 years, and I
thought this year that I should come, because I am on this special
mission of Reverend Crath's. Now you know what's going on in Ontario.
MR. SLATE: Mr. Chairman, I think the Association will answer the 5,000
letters, if he will ask.
MR. DEVITT: I didn't ask. Are there any questions?
DR. MCKAY: I'd like to ask a question. Was any scion wood ever brought
over?
MR. DEVITT: There was some scion wood brought over by the Reverend Crath
in the spring of 1935, and it was brought over on the boat. I remember
in those years only one that grew on a tree belonging to Mr. Corsan. I
don't think the other scion wood proved any good at all.
MR. STOKE: I got a little of that scion wood, and it had been waxed. The
bark was nice and green, but the buds were dead.
MR. CALDWELL: Do you have a plantation of young, producing trees?
MR. DEVITT: No. My place, where I had those trees is now $3 million
worth of buildings on 15 acres. You'd be looking down a street. They
moved in in 1944, and built up 15 acres where I had one acre in the 15.
The Eastern Black Walnut as a Farm Timber Tree
JOHN DAVIDSON, _Xenia, Ohio_
Most people instinctively love trees. Perhaps this is an inherited
result of arboreal ancestry. Even so, very few of us realize what an
astonishingly close tie exists between the survival of trees and the
well-being of the human race. Probably even fewer realize the very great
importance, in the economy of animal life, of trees which bear nuts. Not
alone for the sake of their nuts are they important, valuable as nuts
are, but also for the sake of the unmatched timber which some of them
produce, as well as for the sake of their service as soil conservers and
builders, as beautifiers, and as silent, persistent builders of capital
values.
In view of these outstanding qualities, it is strange that nut trees are
today unfortunately and shamefully neglected in the north. Especially, I
claim, is this true of the Eastern Black walnut. Here is a mystery. Why
do not northern planters of trees plant more Eastern Black walnuts for
their exceedingly valuable timber?
"Backward" Burma could give us lessons in intelligent forestry. It is
said that the Burmese are permitted to clear their thickets and tropical
woodlands for agricultural use only after they agree to plant a definite
amount of that land in teak, perhaps the most valuable of all woods. It
is said that, due to the effectiveness of this system, some 35,000 acres
have now been stocked with this valuable timber.
There are two or three main reasons why the planting of Eastern Black
walnut for timber is thus far not very common in America. (1). The
native and favorable area of this tree is limited to a comparatively
small section. (2), The tree grows well only in deep, fertile soil where
quick-money crops have had the first call. Strip-mine planting is better
than none at all, but such soil as is left after a strip-mine operation
is hardly the best. (3) We are in too great a hurry. (4) Most farmers
must have annual incomes, or they must quit farming.
What, then, are the offsetting reasons why this kind of planting should
have an appeal to far-seeing people who are favorably located? In the
first place, the Eastern Black walnut yields wood of unique quality.
Pattern makers, who must work within tolerances of thousandths of an
inch, prefer it. Walter Page, a well known sports writer has this to
say: "Few woods come as close as walnut to fulfilling all the demands of
a good gunstock: beauty of grain, workableness with cutting tools,
resistance to warpage, weight or density in proportion to strength."
Another example of the many-sided versatility of this wood can be found
in those timbered regions of America where termites are a problem for
home owners. Termites seem to leave black walnut wood very much alone.
It probably has a taste which termites cannot stomach. This is one
reason why so many of the old rail fences of our ancestors in the walnut
area were made of black walnut. The "ground-chunks," in particular,
which were laid upon the ground under the corners of the worm-fences
were often either of rock, or of walnut.
Just this year I watched the demolition of part of an old log cabin
which was being riddled by termites. Many of the ordinary logs were in
ruins but the walnut boards which had served as weather-boarding over
the ends of some of the termite-infested logs were as sound and as
beautifully preserved as they had been when they were placed there.
Is it any wonder that so many of the pioneers who had lived long enough
in the termite area to see what could happen to other lumber, chose
walnut, whenever they could get it, for structural work and for
weatherboard protection?
Safety of operation is still another matter for consideration. If I wish
to create an estate for my family or for my last years, how can I go
about it with the best chance for success? Shall I go prospecting for
precious metals? Thousands have failed at that job where but few have
succeeded. Shall it be manufacturing? Count up the failures. For each
success, at least ten go broke. Wall Street? The Wall Street journals
themselves give the statistics. More than 90 percent of all persistent
Wall Street gamblers lose money in the end. Farming? Much safer, but
most farmers who have made much money in the past have accomplished it
by way of an increase in the value of their land rather than through
their farming operations. This is the result of fluctuating prices. Bad
years often eat up the savings of good years. Then, too, the good farmer
is a busy man. The better the year the busier he is. Very little time
remains for side issues, such as the planting of trees.
As a matter of fact, as erosion of the soil progresses, as good,
productive land becomes more scarce, and as farm labor becomes more and
more difficult to employ, the attention of informed farm owners and
operators has been turning more and more to soil-building, perennial,
permanent and labor-saving crops. Of these, grass and tree crops are,
far and away, the most promising today.
In view of what I have found out during the last 20 years, I am quite
sure that, if I were starting now, I should expect to make farming a
major element in my estate building, but it would be mostly tree and
grass farming, not grain farming. I should need livestock, of course, to
make use of the grass. And I like livestock.
This is what I ask of life: First of all, I must enjoy my work. I do not
care to spend all my days in getting ready to live. My job must lie
along the road I like to travel. I do not care to work at a task so
burdensome, so time-consuming that I have no heart for the enjoyment of
living. At the same time, a big part of the plan must be to find a good,
safe way to build an estate. It must be feasible, practical, enjoyable.
I believe, in the light of my own recent experience, that if one is
properly situated, there is much to be said for the idea of undertaking
the practice of forestry upon a rather liberal scale using Eastern Black
walnut trees as a foundation.
In the first place, I ask, what living thing upon one's farm will cause
less labor than a forest tree? I know of none. This fulfills the first
requirement. A forest tree calls for a minimum of attention as
compared with other crops. This is especially true if one permits
livestock to keep down weeds and brush. And here I am likely to be
called a heretic. The authorities say, "No grazing in a forest".
However, in this field of forestry there are some traditional maxims
which, to say the least, are not capable of universal application. The
authorities, too, have been known to rely upon what other authorities
tell them--without investigating the facts for themselves. It is not
well to rely too implicitly or trustfully upon the "authorities", either
ecclesiastical or scientific. "No grazing" is a valid enough rule to
follow in the ordinary forest, but I have found that after the trees are
well grown we can graze the land under a deep-rooted walnut tree which
is planted in deep, rich soil as we would graze any meadow land--in
reason and in moderation. The practice is profitable for annual income
and it keeps down the fire hazard. One bad fire in an ungrazed or unmown
piece of brush-covered undergrowth can destroy in an hour 50 years of
timber growth. If we plant deep-rooted nut trees in deep, rich soil, and
if we fertilize that soil as any valuable permanent pasture land is
fertilized, we can graze that land without injury to the trees or the
land.
One other reason which is given for the prohibition of grazing is the
desire to save young tree growth. This is justified in ordinary forestry
practice by the need to get annual income through successive cuttings.
The young growth must be encouraged to come on. Even so, it must be
thinned as it comes. However, a forest of black walnut trees yields its
annual income in another way--through its nuts and its livestock.
Trees in such a forest should be planted close enough together to cause
them to reach straight up as they grow. They will not all reach straight
up, of course, but enough will do so to produce as many saw-logs as will
normally grow in a forest; that is, if they have been properly planted
in the first place.
In my own modified forest-type planting, the black walnut trees stand 8
feet apart in rows 20 feet apart. The 20-foot spacing between rows was
planned to provide more sunlight for nut production during the early
years. No one ever planted a forest in that way, so far as I know. The
trees are now 17 years old, about 3250 of them in all. In the best soil
of this 20 acres I can count about 1000 forest-type, straight,
well-grown trees. There are about 1500 lesser trees, low-limbed trees
which will eventually be used, perhaps, for posts or some such purpose.
There are, I regret to say, about 750 trees that will never be worth
anything. An eroded slope and a hidden clay bed explain these
misbegotten dwarfs.
The variable growth of these trees proves that the first care in making
a planting of walnut for timber should be to plant in good soil, deep
and well drained. Bottom land, even some that is occasionally
overflown with flood-water, and therefore not the best wheat land,
should be excellent for Eastern Black walnuts if the drainage is good.
Rule two:--Select your seed or seedlings from large, straight-growing,
healthy parents. This rule needs explanation.
In last October's NUTSHELL, an organ of the Northern Nut Growers'
Association, Spencer Chase, its editor, called attention to a showing of
Carpathian Persian walnuts by Mr. H. F. Stoke which illustrated what was
called "the variability of seedling trees." The progenitor
of these seedlings was a Lancaster Carpathian Persian walnut tree.
Differences in size, appearance and quality of nuts from these seedlings
were said to have been remarkable. Such differences, we know, are
greater with some species than with others. A variable ancestry often
results in a variable progeny. On the other hand, I know that my Eastern
American black walnuts do tend to reproduce the characteristics of their
parents. I have long rows of seedling trees, all from one parent tree,
standing alongside long rows of seedlings from another parent. The
similarity of the tree growth and nut production of the trees in their
own rows, and their contrast in growth of trees and nuts to those in
adjoining rows is striking and to me conclusive. A photograph taken by
Dr. O. D. Diller, of Ohio State University, in 1946, shows trees in a
right-hand row grown from seed of a tree on the Kinsey farm, while on
the left are seedlings of a tree on the McCoy farm. The circumference of
trunks of Kinsey seedlings averages more than twice that of McCoy trees.
Same soil, same age (11 years), same treatment.
Those same trees, now 17 years old, still show these striking
characteristics. It is true that each tree in a row of seedlings is an
individual in its own right. No others are exactly like it.
Nevertheless, the family resemblances in that row are very like those in
human families. They are especially noticeable in the nuts--with, for
example, rough shells in one row and smooth shells in another; mainly
large nuts in one and mainly small nuts in an adjoining family. Also,
some rows have mostly straight-growing trees, others are predominantly
branchy, like the Thomas.
It should be said in this connection that practically all of the parent
trees of these seedlings stood in isolated positions and little subject
to pollination from other trees.
So much for the Eastern Black walnut's evidence of hereditary influence.
So, let us take inventory.
Today, I figure that the thousand well-grown trees in this planting are
each adding a dollar per year to the value of the 20 acres upon which
they stand. $1000 per year in all. This estimate, which of course seems
optimistic, is based upon the statement of a walnut tree buyer--a
sawmill man--who tells me that a well grown, deep-soil, 50-year-old
Eastern Black walnut tree should average about $50 in value. Thus far,
my 17-year-old youngsters, some of them nearly 3 feet in girth (9-1/2 to
11 or more inches in diameter at breast height) look promising.
In addition to the potential added value of $1000 per year, this 20
acres has produced about two tons of in-hull nuts from selected trees
only, in each of the past two years, (with more than that in prospect
this year), while the land beneath the trees grows good pasture and
helps to support a small herd of cattle and calves.
Once the trees were thoroughly established, the labor investment has
been very small. Nature, for the most part, has done her own pruning,
and has done it better than I deserve. Since the first half-dozen years,
there has been no cultivation. The trees have been practically
trouble-free. Winds have damaged a few and one wet spot has killed three
trees. There are a few black locust trees among the walnuts. I can see
no evidence that the walnuts have made either better or poorer growth
because of the proximity of these nitrogen storers. Perhaps the evidence
will show up later. We shall see.
The last item in this inventory, added value to the estate, is still
potential, but the potential is surprising. If my walnut timber buyer's
estimate is trustworthy, in 17 years the best 1000 trees have added
17,000 potential dollars to the value of that 20 acres. And they have
done it with safety, with little labor on my part and, lately, with
annual dividends of excellent nuts and good pasture. No other kind of
forestry that I know of can do that.
It would, of course, be foolish to claim that the kind of management
here described would be wise or workable with other forest species. Wise
forest management requires, first of all, that the choice of species
shall be adapted to the soil and climate favored by that species. It
requires a proper density of stand. Finally, good management demands
that a choice be made of the most valuable type of timber that can be
produced upon your land. If you can grow walnut successfully, it would
be foolish to grow Willow or Box Elder.
One necessary thing I must do, a thing that I should advise others
similarly situated to do, namely, place a tight legal fence around this
twenty acres in order to assure the trees' survival until 50 years have
proved or disproved my faith. For, after all, these trees are guinea
pigs--pioneering. They break some traditional rules. The land they stand
on is grazed. They are not set the traditional 80 feet apart. Their nut
crops may dwindle away. One never sees walnut trees growing in pure
stands--always with other species which scatter their seeds and push in.
They are not monopolists--like the pines.
Very well, we shall see. My own small experiment in unorthodox ways has
the temerity to suggest a new treatment for a species of timber tree
which I personally regard as America's very best gift of its kind to the
world. For 17 years my modified forest-type planting of black walnut
trees has not disappointed me. That is why I now believe that the farmer
in the Eastern black walnut's native habitat who fails to set out these
nut trees wherever he can is losing a good opportunity.
The McKinster Persian Walnut
P. E. MACHOVINA, _Columbus, Ohio_
The McKinster Persian walnut first attracted public attention when it
received first place in the preliminary Persian walnut contest conducted
by the Northern Nut Growers Association in 1949. In the follow-up
contest of 1950, the variety was granted third place. The McKinster tree
resulted from Crath Carpathian seed secured through the Wisconsin
Horticultural Society by Mr. Ray McKinster of Columbus, Ohio. The seed
was obtained and planted in the spring of 1938, hence the tree is now 15
years of age. Probably this seed was secured by Rev. Crath during his
last trip when, presumably, he made some of his most careful selections.
Altogether, Mr. McKinster planted eleven Crath nuts in the back yard of
his small city lot, nine of which germinated. All but two of the
resulting seedlings were distributed to friends and relatives living in
the countryside. Many of these trees have disappeared due to accidents
and lack of care; a few, however, have produced nuts which apparently
are not exceptional. One such nut examined was of medium size with a
fairly thick shell; the kernel was of good flavor but somewhat bitter.
Of the two trees retained by Mr. McKinster, both were permitted to grow
where the seed was planted, however one died of an unknown cause when
five years of age. Nuts produced by this tree were inferior to those
produced by the survivor which later became known as the McKinster
variety.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The McKinster tree may be viewed in the accompanying illustrations which
show it without foliage and with foliage. The pictures were taken in
March and August, respectively, 1953. Since it is a very beautiful and
relatively clean tree, the McKinster would be desirable in any yard.
From the pictures, it will be noted that the site is unfortunate being
restricted by two garages, an alley, and with numerous overhead utility
wires. Some effort was made two years ago to keep the tree out of the
wires by cutting back top growth. The trimming stimulated the usual
vigorous, annual growth to produce terminals as great as 10 feet in one
year. Ordinarily, annual growths of 6 feet of husky wood are not
unusual. New wood and buds are hardy in appearance and assume a rich
brown color upon maturing. With such growth, cutting 1000 feet of scion
wood annually would be no problem. The tree is now about 35 feet in
height with a like spread.
The bearing record of the McKinster Persian has been excellent. Its
first crop of five or six nuts was borne at five years of age and large
crops have been consistently set each year since with but one exception.
Crop records have been impossible to maintain since the tree is located
in a section of the city where squirrels abound. Any nuts saved must be
protected by screen-wire cages. The hunger of the squirrels for the nuts
is amazing. For example, in 1951, they descended upon the tree during
the first week of July and destroyed all nuts of the large crop within
two weeks. These nuts could not possibly have been filled and,
consequently, could have been of little nutrient value. In their
voracity, the squirrels frequently work on the cages and sometimes
manage to break through. To facilitate this endeavor, limbs up to one
inch in diameter carrying cages are sometimes cut off so the squirrels
can attack more conveniently from the ground.
[Illustration]
It could be that nuts saved by caging are sometimes inferior. The cages
used are made by folding window screen into a doubled, 4 to 6 inch
square, producing an "envelope" with wire sewn edges. Crowding from one
to three nuts into a cage may result in inhibited development,
especially since considerable leaf surface must be removed when
installing a cage. Because Mr. McKinster has been ill for several
years, it has been difficult to accomplish the caging; consequently, but
few nuts are saved. For example, in 1950, there were insufficient nuts
to meet the 25 nut sample required by the contest judges. All available
nuts, some probably inferior, were entered, and it is a matter of
conjecture whether the nuts might have been judged higher under
different circumstances. Also conjectural are the questions of crop size
and regularity of bearing in the event the tree was permitted to mature
its nuts.
The McKinster nuts, which were the principal consideration in the
contests rather than the tree itself, are excellent in nearly all
aspects. They are of medium size, averaging around 35 to the pound, with
about 52 per cent kernel. The shell is moderately thin, light in color,
well sealed, of a satisfactory shape (see illustration), and with
excellent cracking qualities. The kernel is light, plump, of excellent
flavor, and in the words of one authority, "probably rank with the best
in freedom from bitterness." The nuts are matured by the middle of
September and, later, drop, free of the husk.
Blooming of the parent tree usually occurs during the first week of May.
In 1951, the staminate flowers were first observed April 29 and the
pistillate flowers May 2. The narrator visited the tree on May 4 at
which time some catkins had fallen; it was estimated that one-half to
two-thirds of the pollen had been shed. The pistillate flowers appeared
to be either receptive or slightly past at this stage. Mr. McKinster
commented that the blooming period of 1951 was from a few days to a week
earlier than usual. In 1952, the shedding of pollen started on April 29.
From the foregoing, it may be noted that the McKinster Persian is
entirely or largely self-pollinating. No other Persian walnut trees
which might assist in pollination occur in the vicinity and all known
seedlings raised from nuts of the parent McKinster tree have appeared to
be pure Persian. Leafing out starts about a week before the bloom
appears. In the fall, leaves are colored a beautiful bronze and are
brought down in a great shower by the first frost.
A sample of the soil in which the McKinster tree is growing, taken at a
depth of 6 inches, was tested in July 1950. The results specify that the
soil is mostly silt with an average amount of organic matter and that
evidence indicates it to contain ashes. The acidity is specified as
"neutral", potash "high", and phosphate "low". No mention is made of
available nitrogen; however, the dark green color of the leaves and
vigorousness of growth would indicate a satisfactory supply. Fertilizer
in small amount was applied once or twice during the early life of the
tree; also, during this period, Mr. McKinster "spaded in" garbage, etc.,
to increase the humus content of the soil. In 1951, the narrator checked
the pH of the soil near the surface and obtained a value of 6.5.
Only one instance of damage due to climatic conditions and none
whatsoever from insects and diseases has ever been observed with the
parent McKinster tree. Undoubtedly, the city location offers some
protection from frost, but may also be detrimental, on occasion, through
heat reflected from the many surrounding white-painted buildings. For
example, an unseasonable warm spell occurred in Columbus during the
latter part of the first week in April of the current year. The heat,
lasting for several days, reached a high of 80.4 degrees and, as a
result, the McKinster tree started vegetating. Leaf growths of from
one-half to one inch had been reached when normal conditions returned.
Two weeks later, a cold spell with snow and temperatures of 22 degrees
killed the new growth but did not injure the wood. Following this,
leafing re-occurred, but at a slower rate and somewhat later than
normal. The size ultimately attained by the leaves is about one-half
their usual size, and, consequently, the accompanying illustration,
taken this summer, does not exhibit the usual luxuriant appearance of
the tree. A large part of the bloom was damaged by the cold, hence the
tree set a lighter crop of nuts than usual.
In connection with early vegetating, it may be remarked that Mr.
McKinster, several years ago, presented two small grafted trees of his
variety to a relative living in eastern Kentucky. These trees were
planted on low ground and were killed the first year by late spring
frosts after leafing out twice. Thus it seems evident that the McKinster
tree has the fault, common in Carpathians, of leafing out too early and
being injured by late spring frosts, especially when planted too far
south. Three other trees, grafted by Mr. McKinster and now about four
years from the graft, are situated in the countryside several miles
south of Columbus, Ohio, where they are doing excellently, having never
been damaged.
The writer has several three year old McKinster grafts at his property
in southeastern Ohio which were deliberately set on stocks located in a
bad frost pocket. The grafts, which are adjacent to a woods, have made
fair growth each spring but are injured during the summer by an insect
laying eggs in the succulent growth. The portion of terminal above the
point of sting invariably dies the following winter and has the
appearance produced by winter killing. This damage has not been unique
with the McKinster, having also occurred with the McDermid, Watt,
Burtner, and other Persian varieties growing nearby; some of the latter
were killed outright the first winter after grafting.
A one-year McKinster grafted tree with three feet of growth above the
graft was cut back and transplanted by the writer to the yard of his
Columbus, Ohio, home during the winter of 1952. Growth the following
spring was about two feet and obtained in rather poor soil. After a long
absence during the summer which was attended by a prolonged drouth, the
tree was found in a dying condition, having lost all its leaves. Hurried
watering resulted in a complete new coat of leaves and a small amount of
additional terminal growth. The tree matured its growth and withstood
the winter nicely, but suffered, similar to the parent, from the April,
1953, unseasonable weather. Growth this summer from adventitious buds
has been poor.
Unfortunately, the McKinster variety saw but little testing in other
parts of the country prior to its recognition in 1949. So that this
report might be as complete as possible, requests were sent to several
dozen experimenters who are known to have grafted the McKinster, asking
for their experiences and opinions of the variety. The requests went to
people scattered generally throughout the northeastern portion of the
country, a very few of which had received scion wood in 1950, a larger
portion in 1951, and the bulk in 1952. For the most part, replies
indicate satisfaction and even enthusiasm; very few report failure.
Definite conclusions cannot be drawn because of the short time of
trial; however, a general description of experiences will provide
indications.
Few experimenters report failure in grafting, most stating the variety
to be "easy to graft." Any who mention the characteristic,
state that "grafts are vigorous," or that "it is a fairly rapid grower."
For the experimenters, the McKinster seems to be about "average" in its
time of leafing out. Many report a set of nuts the second year after
grafting. As to time of maturing new growth, the reply of Mr. Stephen
Bernath of New York, "New growth matures about the end of September," is
fairly typical, as is the reply of Dr. R. T. Dunstan of North Carolina,
"It appears to harden wood well ahead of frost." Most reports indicate
no winter injury but are tempered by cautious observations that
temperatures had not been low. Mr. H. F. Stoke of Virginia, who grafted
the McKinster in the spring of 1950, reports: "Pistillate buds developed
during the summer of 1951 were killed by a frost catching new growth in
the spring of 1952." Mr. John Howe of Missouri was the sole reporter of
catastrophe when he stated: "My McKinster graft was killed by the
November, 1951, cold while the Lake and McDermid varieties close by were
not hurt." Mr. Sylvester Shessler of northern Ohio reports: "The
McKinster withstood, without injury, the 1951 winter which killed 4
hybrids and a Crath, and injured several others." Mr. Harry P. Burgart
of Michigan reports the variety as doing extra well for him. The only
reply mentioning disease came from Dr. Dunstan who says: "It has been
fairly clean in foliage so far, less susceptible to leaf spot than
some." Mr. John Gerstenmaier of Massillon, Ohio, grafted the McKinster
in 1951 and reports excellent growth with a diameter of 2 inches at the
graft after two years. He reports temperatures of 16 degrees very early
in November which caused no harm, and pistillate bloom from May 8 to 16,
1952, which materialized into a crop of two nuts; pollen was supplied by
adjacent Carpathians. Leafing out ordinarily starts about a week prior
to the bloom for Mr. Gerstenmaier; but, in April, 1953, the unseasonable
weather conditions also occurring in his vicinity caused early
vegetating and killing, while at nearby Orrville, the variety was
undamaged.
Mr. Gilbert Becker of Michigan, who is enthusiastic about the McKinster
variety, believes the qualities of the nut to be superb and the
characteristics of the tree satisfactory. He is of the opinion that the
too-short dormancy of the variety is not a serious objection,
particularly with climatic conditions such as those experienced in
Michigan. Even in central Ohio, where peach and apple crops are
frequently lost due to spring frosts, the McKinster has not been injured
when located in the countryside and injured but once during its 15
years, with a resultant smaller than usual crop, when located in the
city.
In closing, it might be well to comment on the fact that nuts of the
McKinster, Hansen and Jacobs varieties alone placed high in both the
1949 and 1950 N.N.G.A. contests and that different panels of judges
served in the two events. Certainly the nuts of these varieties are of a
superior quality, and it would seem important to determine those parts
of the country where these varieties are sufficiently hardy to be of
commercial value. Certainly these varieties should be given every
opportunity to prove themselves.
Carpathian Walnuts in the Columbia River Basin
LYNN TUTTLE, _Clarkston, Wash_.
Mr. Chairman and friends of the nut culture, I regret that I cannot meet
with you at this time, but fate seems to have decreed otherwise. The
pleasant memory of the meeting at Guelph is still with me and I must
admit a feeling of humility as I prepare this paper for a group of
sincere and devoted people united in a common interest.
The Pacific Northwest extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. This area is divided by the Cascade Mountains which run north and
south. Between the Cascades and the Pacific we have a coastal area
wherein winters are generally mild, summers cool, and rainfall abundant.
Under these, conditions many plants do not attain a high degree of
dormancy. Zero weather in Seattle will damage walnuts as much as will
twenty-five degrees below zero in the more continental climate east of
the Cascades. Carpathian walnuts have proved their value under both
coastal and interior conditions. This hardiness is at least partially
due to their tendency to mature their buds and harden their growth
earlier in the fall than do other types of English walnuts.
Between the Cascades and the Rockies is a vast area part plateau and
part mountains. It is scarred with deep canyons and crossed by swift
streams fed from springs and mountain snows. Roughly the elevation of
farm lands varies from five hundred to over forty-five hundred feet.
Depending largely on slope and elevation, rainfall varies from about
eight to twenty-five inches. In general, summer days are bright, dry,
and fairly hot. Nights are clear and cool. Winters are unpredictable but
always vary much according to location and elevation. Infrequently
temperatures may drop to more than twenty below zero at Clarkston. Other
areas of similar elevation may be five to ten degrees colder.
For the sake of clarity and to reduce the territory covered, we will
confine ourselves largely to that part of the Columbia Basin irrigated
and to be irrigated in Central Washington. The application is general,
however.
Grand Coulee Dam has made feasible the irrigation of about 1-1/4 million
acres of sage brush, bunch grass, and marginal wheat lands. Irrigation
is already practised over other vast acreages. This land is level to
rolling, and is of sandy loam nature. It is deeply under-laid by layers
of lava rock--in places thousands of feet thick. As in most arid
climates the soil is rich in minerals but low in nitrogen and organic
matter. Under irrigation production is amazing. The growing season is
sufficiently long for Carpathian walnuts anywhere in the irrigated area.
Walnuts originally from Southern Europe have proved unsatisfactory
because they killed at 20 to 25 below zero. It was discouraging to have
a ten or fifteen year old tree killed outright by an unusual winter. But
it was just these conditions that led to the discovery of the Schafer
walnut. This tree survived the winters of 1936 and 1937 in a part of the
Yakima valley where all other varieties similarly located were killed.
So far as I know, none of these were Carpathians.
Many Carpathians are now being planted, mostly for yard trees, but
promise to eventually become one of the big commercial crops of the
area. However, skepticism on the part of the public and scarcity of
nursery stock has delayed commercial planting. A fair portion of good
growers are now convinced that commercial growing is profitable and
stock, our own and others, is becoming more plentiful.
Our experience has been confined largely to the Schafer walnut and it
is, aside from some promising seedlings, so far as we know, the only
proven Carpathian in this area. We do not wish to discredit
possibilities of any other variety, but must speak out of our own
observations. There are numerous small, commercial plantings now
producing, the nuts being sold locally. Accurate production figures are
not available and if available would vary greatly due to the care given
the trees. The Schafer, and this will undoubtedly hold true of some
other Carpathians, bears more at five years than a Franquette does at
ten. I have seen apple boxes (about one bushel) of nuts harvested from
five and six years old trees. Production increases rapidly with age.
As with fruit trees good air drainage and good soil drainage are
desirable for the walnut orchard. The Schafer starts fairly early in the
spring and new leaves are easily nipped by late frosts. A severe late
freeze might also injure new growth although I do not recall a crop
having been lost due to this cause. Although pollinizers have not been
used, we think that on young trees and in some years they might insure a
better crop. We are now propagating two pollinizing varieties the
catkins of which come out later than the Schafer.
Trees planted sixty feet apart permit inter-planting to row and other
crops for several years. Columbia Basin lands under irrigation produce
enormous crops of potatoes, beans, sugar beets, rutabagas, green peas,
clover or alfalfa seed, peppermint oil, and fruit. Average potato--20
tons, alfalfa hay--7 tons (three cuttings), alfalfa seed--800 pounds,
dry beans--2,500 pounds, wheat--70 to 100 bushels. In some areas peach
or apricot trees make good fillers.
Carpathians also fit into the picture as yard trees, for border
plantings,--either to utilize run-off water or to use water wasted along
ditches and pipe lines and for wind breaks. This open country is
naturally windy and trees greatly reduce the ground velocity of wind.
Nut production in this area appears to be much heavier than on the coast
or in California with varieties now being grown there. So far we are
pest-free. The potentials of good Carpathian walnuts in this area are
unlimited.
Walnuts and Filberts in Southern Wisconsin
C. F. LADWIG, _Beloit, Wisc._
My farm is located a few blocks north of the Illinois-Wisconsin line on
a rise overlooking the city of Beloit, whose western limits are almost
adjacent to my land. Temperature in this section ranges from 100 degrees
above to 30 degrees below zero; rarely reaching either extreme--with an
average frost free period of 173 days. Rainfall averages approximately
35 inches. Walnut, butternut, bitternut, hazel and hickory are native,
but just about non-existent in my vicinity except on my place in the
young state.
The land on my place has been tobaccoed and corned out for over 100
years and its once rich clay loam with sandy streaks was unable to grow
ragweed over 2 inches high when I bought it. Trying to grow nut trees in
this soil presents problems as you well know. My problem was not to get
them to grow vigorously but to get them to grow at all. However, by
using fertile spots, formerly barnyard and around the house, I got
several walnuts and filberts started.
I have an eight year old Crath #1, two Myers black walnuts, about the
same age, Cochrane and Thomas, 6 years, all obtained from Mr. Berhow,
and a fine assortment of Jones hybrid filberts from Mrs. Langdoc, a Rush
filbert from Mr. Burgart, two European filberts from the New York State
Fruit Testing Association, some hybrid seedlings, some native hazels
from seed, some bitternut seedlings from Mr. Weschcke, a few native
hickory seedlings, an American chestnut seedling from Scarff, 2
butternut seedlings, 2 nice Chinese tree hazels from Mr. Shessler,
several Jacobs walnut seedlings, and _regia_ & _hindsii_ hybrids from
seed of Mr. Pozzi, some Crath seedlings and a number of Thomas black
walnut seedlings--also native walnut seedlings.
Mr. Shessler and Prof. J. C. McDaniel have been a source of
help, advice, and inspiration to me and I am
deeply indebted to them, as well as to many other members of the
N.N.G.A. who have shared their experiences with me.
How have the trees done? The Crath #1 is bearing a few nuts this year.
It had no catkins, but the Cochrane was loaded with staminate bloom at
the right time. I got busy with the Cochrane pollen and a brush and went
to work on the Crath pistillate bloom. Very pleased with this cross I
looked the Crath over a few days later to check on progress. I picked
the little nutlets off the ground and inspected them carefully, then
threw them into the chickens to see if they would eat them. Back in my
mind was the feeling that Mother Nature thought I was getting too big
for my britches and decided to teach me a lesson. However she generously
allowed a few air pollinated nutlets to grow, and so there will be a
small crop of the round and plump smooth green balls.
The Crath #1 is not perfectly hardy as it freezes back an inch or two in
the cold winters. Two years ago the warm wet fall left it unprepared for
the sudden onslaught of winter and several whole branches died and the
trunk split open, the split sounding like a rifle shot one cold, crisp
evening. I happened to be standing by it at the time.
The Myers black walnuts are splendid trees and just about hardy. They
bore a few nuts and second and third year from planting, which sapped
their vitality. They then bore nothing for about three years, which
happened to be unfavorable years for walnuts anyway, and began to bear
again this year with a moderate crop. It looks like the plum curculio,
my arch insect enemy, is trying the nuts for size. I saved some Cochrane
pollen and went to work on the Myers, with you know what results.
However three of the nutlets stayed on the tree; so that I may have
effected a cross between Myers and Cochrane.
Thomas has acted peculiarly for me. It went thru the devastating
winters of 1950 and 1951 in fine shape, then froze back last winter when
the temperatures never went below 5 degrees below zero. The very dry
fall should have ripened all branches to perfection. My mule, Zombie,
took a liking to the branches and leaves of this tree, so it is now
trimmed up like an umbrella. The small nut crop must have also gone down
Zombie's gullet. He is more destructive to walnut and plum than the
curculio. (Tie him up. Ed.) Thomas does not seem to have a great future
up here.
Now Cochrane is different. If that little tree has as many nuts on it as
it had catkins this year, I'm going to have to move the corn out of the
crib and put the walnuts in there. It is not a fast growing tree, but
this may be the fault of the spot it is in, judging by the color of the
leaves. I never got around to fertilizing it.
Now that I told you about the Cochrane, I'll have to tell you about the
"Wayne" black walnut. It is eight years old, stands about eight feet
high and is hardy. My Black Walnut seedlings stand from six inches to
six feet high. They go back to six inches every other year when I cut
them down to graft them. Nobody in the nut tree field can call me a
grafter. I'll make him prove it!
The hickory, butternut, bitternut, and chestnut are step children and
fend for themselves on less desirable soil. All are small. The
regia-hindsii hybrids are small and young and are being given special
care, but may not be perfectly hardy. They grow well.