New England. THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH (Vol. 1, p.

536).

JULIA WARD HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 836).

WILLIAM WETMORE STORY (Vol. 25, p.

970).

New York. EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN (Vol. 25,

p. 861).

RICHARD HENRY STODDARD (Vol. 25, p.

939).

RICHARD WATSON GILDER (Vol. 12, p.

12).

Pennsylvania. CHARLES GODFREY LELAND (Vol. 16, p.

405).

SILAS WEIR MITCHELL (Vol. 18, p.

618).

The South. SIDNEY LANIER (Vol. 16, p. 181), by

Prof. W. P. Trent, Columbia.

The Middle West (especially JOHN HAY (Vol. 13, p. 105).

humorous, light and character

verse).

EUGENE FIELD (Vol. 10, p. 321).

JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY (Vol. 23, p.

343).

The Far West. FRANCIS BRET HARTE (Vol. 13, p.

31).

JOAQUIN MILLER (Vol. 18, p. 464).

EDWARD ROWLAND SILL (Vol. 25, p.

107).

_Later Fiction._

The American Realist. W. D. HOWELLS (Vol. 13, p. 839).

The American Cosmopolite. HENRY JAMES (Vol. 15, p. 143).

Stories of Italy. F. MARION CRAWFORD (Vol. 7, p.

386).

Historical Romance. LEWIS WALLACE (Vol. 28, p. 276).

Humorous Short Story. FRANCIS R. STOCKTON (Vol. 25, p.

938).

Pietistic Novel. E. P. ROE (Vol. 23, p. 449).

J. G. HOLLAND (Vol. 13, p. 587).

The Provincial Types—

Maine. SARAH ORNE JEWETT (Vol. 15, p.

371).

New England. MARY E. WILKINS (Vol. 28, p. 646).

West. EDWARD EGGLESTON (Vol. 9, p. 17).

MARY HALLOCK FOOTE (Vol. 10, p.

625).

FRANCIS BRET HARTE (Vol. 13, p.

31).

South: Tennessee. “CHARLES EGBERT CRADDOCK” (Vol. 7,

p. 360).

Kentucky. JAMES LANE ALLEN (Vol. 1, p. 691).

Virginia. THOMAS NELSON PAGE (Vol. 20, p.

450).

New Orleans. GEORGE W. CABLE (Vol. 4, p. 920).

_Essayists._ THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON (Vol.

13, p. 455).

EDWARD EVERETT HALE (Vol. 12, p.

832).

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER (Vol. 28, p.

326).

GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS (Vol. 7, p.

652), by Charles Eliot Norton.

_Humor._

HENRY WHEELER SHAW, “Josh Billings”

(Vol. 24, p. 813).

The American “Hood.” JOHN GODFREY SAXE (Vol. 24, p.

258).

“Bill Nye.” EDGAR WILSON NYE (Vol. 19, p. 929).

America’s Great Humorist. MARK TWAIN (Vol. 27, p. 490), by

Prof. Brander Matthews, Columbia.

“Uncle Remus.” JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS (Vol. 13, p.

20).

Puck. H. C. BUNNER (Vol. 4, p. 799).

“Mr. Dooley.” FINLEY PETER DUNNE (Vol. 8, p.

682).

_History._ FRANCIS PARKMAN (Vol. 20, p. 832),

by John Fiske.

HERMANN EDUARD VON HOLST (Vol. 28,

p. 210).

FRANCIS LIEBER (Vol. 16, p. 590).

C. E. A. GAYARRÉ (Vol. 11, p. 542).

HENRY CHARLES LEA (Vol. 16, p.

314).

Historians. HENRY MARTYN BAIRD (Vol. 3, p.

224).

JOHN FISKE (Vol. 10, p. 437), by

Prof. C. F. Richardson,

Dartmouth.

JAMES FORD RHODES (Vol. 23, p.

257).

HENRY CABOT LODGE (Vol. 16, p.

860).

JAMES B. MCMASTER (Vol. 17, p.

264).

JAMES SCHOULER (Vol. 24, p. 377).

THEODORE A. DODGE (Vol. 8, p. 369).

JOHN CODMAN ROPES (Vol. 23, p.

718).

ALFRED T. MAHAN (Vol. 17, p. 394).

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART (Vol. 13, p.

30).

HUBERT H. BANCROFT (Vol. 3, p.

309).

THEODORE ROOSEVELT (Vol. 23, p.

711), by Lawrence F. Abbott, New

York _Outlook_.

Newspaper Men. NEWSPAPERS, _American_ (Vol. 19,

pp. 566–572).

PERIODICALS, _United States_ (Vol.

21, pp. 154–155).

_New York Tribune._ HORACE GREELEY (Vol. 12, p. 531),

by Whitelaw Reid.

WHITELAW REID (Vol. 23, p. 52).

_New York Herald._ JAMES GORDON BENNETT (Vol. 3, p.

740).

_Springfield Republican._ SAMUEL BOWLES (Vol. 4, p. 344).

_New York Times._ H. J. RAYMOND (Vol. 22, p. 933).

_New York Sun._ C. A. DANA (Vol. 7, p. 791).

_New York Evening Post._ EDWIN LAWRENCE GODKIN (Vol. 12, p.

174).

_Louisville Courier-Journal._ HENRY WATTERSON (Vol. 28, p. 418).

CHAPTER XXXVIII

ENGLISH LITERATURE

On English literature, with its vastly longer history and greater

volume, there is much more matter in the Britannica than on American

literature—or of course any other national literature. The key article

is ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 607; equivalent to 120 pages of this

Guide), and an excellent outline for the study of this subject may be

based on this article which should be supplemented by the sections on

_Literature_ in the articles SCOTLAND, CANADA, etc. A combination of

these with special articles may be arranged as follows:

[Sidenote: Anglo-Saxon]

On the period before Chaucer—the first part of the article ENGLISH

LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 607), by Henry Bradley, joint-editor of _The New

English Dictionary_, etc.; the same author’s BEOWULF (Vol. 3, p. 758),

CÆDMON (Vol. 4, p. 934) and CYNEWULF (Vol. 7, p. 690), ANGLO-SAXON

CHRONICLE (Vol. 2, p. 34), and ALFRED THE GREAT (Vol. 1, p. 582), both

by the Rev. Charles Plummer, author of _Life and Times of Alfred the

Great_, etc.; DAN MICHEL OF NORTHGATE (Vol. 18, p. 371); ANGLO-NORMAN

LITERATURE (Vol. 2, p. 31), by Prof. L. M. Brandin, University of

London; ANCREN RIWLE (Vol. 1, p. 952); ORM (Vol. 20, p. 293), by Henry

Bradley; LAYAMON (Vol. 16, p. 311), by the late Prof. W. W. Skeat of

Cambridge; HAVELOK THE DANE (Vol. 13, p. 80); ROMANCE, ARTHURIAN

ROMANCE, etc.

[Sidenote: Chaucer]

On the period from Chaucer to the Renaissance, see the second part of

the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 611), by Prof. J. M. Manly,

University of Chicago, author of _The Language of Chaucer’s Legend of

Good Women_; THE PEARL (Vol. 21, p. 27), by Prof. Israel Gollancz,

King’s College, London, editor of the Temple _Shakespeare_, etc.;

LANGLAND (Vol. 16, p. 174); JOHN GOWER (Vol. 12, p. 298), by G. C.

Macaulay, editor of Gower’s works; GEOFFREY CHAUCER (Vol. 6, p. 13), by

A. W. Pollard, chief-editor of the “Globe” _Chaucer_; JOHN LYDGATE,

(Vol. 17, p. 156), by Frederick J. Snell, author of _The Age of

Chaucer_; THOMAS OCCLEVE (Vol. 19, p. 966), by W. S. McCormick, formerly

professor of English, University College, Dundee; STEPHEN HAWES (Vol.

13, p. 93); JOHN SKELTON (Vol. 25, p. 184); JULIANA BERNERS (Vol. 3, p.

801); THOMAS OF ERCELDOUNE (Vol. 26, p. 865); JOHN BARBOUR (Vol. 3, p.

389), by Professor George Gregory Smith, Queen’s University, Belfast;

ANDREW OF WYNTOUN (Vol. 28, p. 873); HARRY THE MINSTREL (Vol. 13, p.

29); JOHN WYCLIFFE (Vol. 28, p. 866), by Reginald Lane Poole, author of

_Wycliffe and Movements for Reform_, and W. Alison Phillips; REGINALD

PECOCK (Vol. 21, p. 33); SIR JOHN FORTESCUE (Vol. 10, p. 678), by P. C.

Yorke; WILLIAM CAXTON (Vol. 5, p. 587).

The English versions of the Bible are dealt with in the chapter of this

Guide on _Bible Study_; but the article BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894),

by Canon Henson of Westminster Abbey and Anna C. Paues, lecturer in

Germanic philology at Newnham College, should be read in connection with

the study of this and earlier periods of English literature.

[Sidenote: Elizabethan Literature]

[Sidenote: Spenser]

On English literature in the Elizabethan age read part 3 of the article

ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 616), by Prof. Oliver Elton, University

of Liverpool; also SIR THOMAS MORE (Vol. 18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison,

the essayist and student of the Renaissance; WILLIAM TYNDALE (Vol. 27,

p. 498); ROGER ASCHAM (Vol. 2, p. 720), by A. F. Leach, author of

_English Schools at the Reformation_, etc.; WILLIAM DUNBAR (Vol. 8, p.

668), by Prof. G. Gregory Smith; SIR THOMAS HOBY (Vol. 13, p. 553);

RAPHAEL HOLINSHED (Vol. 13, p. 584); JOHN FOXE (Vol. 10, p. 770); SIR

THOMAS NORTH (Vol. 19, p. 759); SIR THOMAS WYAT (Vol. 28, p. 861); EARL

OF SURREY (Vol. 26, p. 138); GEORGE GASCOIGNE (Vol. 11, p. 493);

NICHOLAS UDAL (Vol. 27, p. 554), by A. F. Leach; EDMUND SPENSER (Vol.

25, p. 639,) by the late Professor William Minto of Aberdeen, and F. J.

Snell, author of _The Age of Chaucer_, etc.; SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (Vol. 25,

p. 43); JOHN LYLY (Vol. 17, p. 159), by Mrs. Humphry Ward; EUPHUISM

(Vol. 9, p. 898); MICHAEL DRAYTON (Vol. 8, p. 557), and SAMUEL DANIEL

(Vol. 7, p. 808), all by Edmund Gosse; WILLIAM WARNER (Vol. 28, p. 327);

EDWARD FAIRFAX (Vol. 10, p. 130); SIR JOHN HARINGTON (Vol. 12, p. 952);

GILES and PHINEAS FLETCHER (Vol. 10, p. 498); THOMAS WATSON (Vol. 28, p.

413), by E. Gosse; THOMAS LODGE (Vol. 16, p. 860), by Prof. A. W. Ward,

Cambridge; THOMAS CAMPION (Vol. 5, p. 137), by P. Vivian, editor of

Campion; NICHOLAS BRETON (Vol. 4, p. 501); ROBERT SOUTHWELL (Vol. 25, p.

517); the metaphysical poets, JOHN DONNE (Vol. 8, p. 417), GEORGE

HERBERT (Vol. 13, p. 339), RICHARD CRASHAW (Vol. 7, p. 379), ABRAHAM

COWLEY (Vol. 7, p. 347), THOMAS TRAHERNE (Vol. 27, p. 155), and HENRY

VAUGHAN (Vol. 27, p. 955); WILLIAM BROWNE (Vol. 4, p. 667); GEORGE

WITHER (Vol. 28, p. 758); WILLIAM DRUMMOND of Hawthornden (Vol. 8, p.

600); ROBERT HERRICK (Vol. 13, p. 389), by E. Gosse; RICHARD LOVELACE

(Vol. 17, p. 71); SIR JOHN SUCKLING (Vol. 26, p. 7); ANDREW MARVELL

(Vol. 17, p. 805); EDMUND WALLER (Vol. 28, p. 282), by E. Gosse; and

JOHN MILTON (Vol. 18, p. 480), in great part by David Masson, late

professor at Edinburgh University.

[Sidenote: The Drama]

[Sidenote: Shakespeare]

Elizabethan drama—particularly Shakespeare—deserves a separate

paragraph, especially as its treatment in the Britannica is so full.

Read in the article ENGLISH LITERATURE, pp. 622–626; in the article

DRAMA, by Prof. A. W. Ward, Cambridge, pp. 520–524 of Volume 8; and the

articles: JOHN LYLY (Vol. 17, p. 159), by Mrs. Humphry Ward; THOMAS KYD

(Vol. 15, p. 958), by E. Gosse; GEORGE PEELE (Vol. 21, p. 44); ROBERT

GREENE (Vol. 12, p. 539), by A. W. Ward; CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (Vol. 17,

p. 741), by A. C. Swinburne and Thomas Seccombe, author of _The Age of

Johnson_, etc.; and above all SHAKESPEARE (Vol. 24, p. 772; equivalent

to 80 pages of this Guide), containing a biography and sketches of the

different works by E. K. Chambers, editor of the “Red Letter

Shakespeare” and author of _The Medieval Stage_, with a discussion of

the portraits of Shakespeare (20 of which are reproduced), by M. H.

Spielmann, formerly editor of the _Magazine of Art_, and of the

Shakespeare-Bacon controversy by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in chief of the

Encyclopaedia Britannica, and an elaborate, classified bibliography by

H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. In his discussion

of the Baconian theory of the authorship of the plays Mr. Chisholm says:

“No such idea seems to have occurred to anybody till the middle of the

19th century.... The most competent special students of Shakespeare,

however they may differ as to details, and also the most authoritative

special students of Bacon, are unanimous in upholding the traditional

view.” And he adds that as regards the effort to account for the

positive contemporary evidence in favour of the identification of the

man Shakespeare with the author of Shakespeare’s works, “it is highly

significant that it was not attempted or thought of for centuries.” See

also: HAMLET (Vol. 12, p. 894) for earlier treatment of the legend, and

MACBETH (Vol. 17, p. 197) for the historical basis of the play.

For the other dramatists of the time see the articles BEN JONSON (Vol.

15, p. 502), by A. W. Ward; GEORGE CHAPMAN (Vol. 5, p. 852), JOHN

WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 462), CYRIL TOURNEUR (Vol. 27, p. 106), and

BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER (Vol. 3, p. 592), all by A. C. Swinburne; THOMAS

DEKKER (Vol. 7, p. 939), by William Minto and R. B. McKerrow; THOMAS

HEYWOOD (Vol. 13, p. 439); THOMAS MIDDLETON (Vol. 18, p. 416); JOHN

MARSTON (Vol. 17, p. 776); PHILIP MASSINGER (Vol. 17, p. 868); JOHN FORD

(Vol. 10, p. 641), by A. W. Ward; JAMES SHIRLEY (Vol. 24, p. 990).

[Sidenote: 16th and 17th Century Prose]

For Elizabethan prose writers not already mentioned, see: the

translators, JOHN BOURCHIER, LORD BARON BERNERS (Vol. 3, p. 800),

PHILEMON HOLLAND (Vol. 13, p. 587) and GIOVANNI FLORIO (Vol. 10, p.

546); and the philosophers and essayists, RICHARD HOOKER (Vol. 13, p.

672), by T. F. Henderson, FRANCIS BACON, (Vol. 3, p. 135; equivalent to

55 pages of this Guide), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell, THOMAS

HOBBES (Vol. 13, p. 545), by G. Croom Robertson, biographer of Hobbes,

SIR THOMAS BROWNE (Vol. 4, p. 666), IZAAK WALTON (Vol. 28, p. 300),

ROBERT BURTON (Vol. 4, p. 865), JEREMY TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 469), THOMAS

FULLER (Vol. 11, p. 296), WILLIAM CHILLINGWORTH (Vol. 6, p. 162), JOHN

HALES (Vol. 12, p. 834), RALPH CUDWORTH (Vol. 7, p. 612), by Henry

Sturt, author of _Personal Idealism_, etc.; the historian CLARENDON

(Vol. 6, p. 428), by P. C. Yorke; and the letter-writer JAMES HOWELL

(Vol. 13, p. 838).

[Sidenote: Dryden]

[Sidenote: Pepys]

On the Restoration period—from 1660 to 1700—see Professor Elton’s

chapter (Vol. 9, pp. 628–631) in the article ENGLISH LITERATURE; and the

articles: JOHN DRYDEN (Vol. 8, p. 609), by William Minto and Margaret

Bryant; SAMUEL BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 885), SIR ISAAC NEWTON (Vol. 19, p.

583), by H. M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; ISAAC

BARROW (Vol. 3, p. 440), JOHN RAY (Vol. 22, p. 931), by Prof. D.

Wentworth Thompson, University College, Dundee; JOSEPH GLANVILL (Vol.

12, p. 77), THOMAS BURNET (Vol. 4, p. 853), JOHN TILLOTSON (Vol. 26, p.

976), SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE (Vol. 26, p. 602), by G. W. Prothero, editor

_The Quarterly Review_ and joint-editor _Cambridge Modern History_,

MARQUESS HALIFAX (Vol. 12, p. 839), by P. C. Yorke; ROBERT SOUTH (Vol.

25, p. 463), WILLIAM SHERLOCK (Vol. 24, p. 850), RICHARD BAXTER (Vol. 3,

p. 551), JOHN HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 835), GEORGE FOX (Vol. 10, p. 765), JOHN

BUNYAN (Vol. 4, p. 803), by Lord Macaulay; 2ND EARL OF ROCHESTER (Vol.

23, p. 427), SIR WILLIAM DAVENANT (Vol. 7, p. 851), NAHUM TATE (Vol. 26,

p. 449), THOMAS OTWAY (Vol. 20, p. 376), NATHANIEL LEE (Vol. 16, p.

361), Watts-Dunton’s article WILLIAM WYCHERLEY (Vol. 28, p. 863), and

the two great diarists JOHN EVELYN (Vol. 10, p. 5) and SAMUEL PEPYS

(Vol. 21, p. 130), by D. Hannay.

[Sidenote: Addison, Steele and Swift]

[Sidenote: Pope]

[Sidenote: Burns]

[Sidenote: The Novel]

On the 18th century literature see the chapter in the article ENGLISH

LITERATURE (Vol. 9, pp. 631–636), by Thomas Seccombe, author of _The Age

of Johnson_, etc.; and the articles: JOHN LOCKE (Vol. 16, p. 844), by

Prof. Alexander Campbell Fraser, Edinburgh; JOSEPH ADDISON (Vol. 1, p.

184), by William Spalding and Austin Dobson; SIR RICHARD STEELE (Vol.

25, p. 865), by William Minto and Austin Dobson; JONATHAN SWIFT (Vol.

26, p. 224), by Richard Garnett and Thomas Seccombe; JOHN ARBUTHNOT

(Vol. 2, p. 339), BERNARD DE MANDEVILLE (Vol. 17, p. 559), by J. M.

Mitchell; BOLINGBROKE (Vol. 4, p. 161), by P. C. Yorke; ALEXANDER POPE

(Vol. 22, p. 82), by William Minto and Margaret Bryant; MATTHEW PRIOR

(Vol. 22, p. 359), by Austin Dobson; JOHN GAY (Vol. 11, p. 540), THOMAS

PARNELL (Vol. 20, p. 859), MARK AKENSIDE (Vol. 1, p. 454), JAMES THOMSON

(Vol. 26, p. 871) and THOMAS GRAY (Vol. 12, p. 392), both by D. C.

Tovey, editor of Gray’s Letters; WILLIAM COLLINS (Vol. 6, p. 692), by

Edmund Gosse; CHRISTOPHER SMART (Vol. 25, p. 249), WILLIAM COWPER (Vol.

7, p. 349) and GEORGE CRABBE (Vol. 7, p. 358), by Clement K. Shorter,

editor of _The Sphere_, WILLIAM BLAKE (Vol. 4, p. 36), by J. W.

Comyns-Carr, author of _Essays on Art_; WILLIAM SHENSTONE (Vol. 24, p.

839), THOMAS CHATTERTON (Vol. 6, p. 10), THOMAS PERCY (Vol. 21, p. 136),

THOMAS WARTON (Vol. 28, p. 337), ROBERT BURNS (Vol. 4, p. 856), by John

Nichol, the biographer of Burns, Byron and Carlyle; among the prose

writers, forerunners of the novel, DANIEL DEFOE (Vol. 7, p. 927), SAMUEL

RICHARDSON (Vol. 23, p. 300) and HENRY FIELDING (Vol. 10, p. 324), both

by Austin Dobson, TOBIAS SMOLLETT (Vol. 25, p. 278), by Thomas Seccombe,

and LAURENCE STERNE (Vol. 25, p. 901), by William Minto and Austin

Dobson; the other great prose writers of the age, [Sidenote: Johnson]

SAMUEL JOHNSON (Vol. 15, p. 463), by Lord Macaulay and Thomas Seccombe,

[Sidenote: Goldsmith] OLIVER GOLDSMITH (Vol. 12, p. 214), by Lord

Macaulay and Austin Dobson, LORD CHESTERFIELD (Vol. 6, p. 109), by

Austin Dobson, and HORATIO WALPOLE (Vol. 28, p. 288), by W. P. Courtney;

in a lesser group, JAMES BOSWELL (Vol. 4, p. 297), by Thomas Seccombe,

FRANCES D’ARBLAY, “Fanny Burney” (Vol. 7, p. 826), HESTER LYNCH PIOZZI

(Vol. 21, p. 632), GILBERT WHITE (Vol. 28, p. 599); [Sidenote: History]

the historians DAVID HUME (Vol. 13, p. 876), by Robert Adamson and J. M.

Mitchell, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (Vol. 23, p. 406) and EDWARD GIBBON (Vol.

11, p. 927), by Prof. J. B. Bury, editor of _The Decline and Fall_; and

the philosophers, JOSEPH BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 882), by Robert Adamson and

A. J. Grieve, Yorkshire United Independent College, [Sidenote:

Philosophy] WILLIAM PALEY (Vol. 20, p. 628), BERKELEY (Vol. 3, p. 779),

by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell, THOMAS REID (Vol. 23, p. 51), by

Prof. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, Edinburgh, DAVID HARTLEY (Vol. 13, p.

35), ABRAHAM TUCKER (Vol. 27, p. 361), THOMAS PAINE (Vol. 20, p. 456),

JOSEPH PRIESTLY (Vol. 22, p. 322), RICHARD PRICE (Vol. 22, p. 314), by

J. M. Mitchell; WILLIAM GODWIN (Vol. 12, p. 177), [Sidenote: Politics]

SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH (Vol. 17, p. 259), EDMUND BURKE (Vol. 4, p. 824),

by John Morley, and “JUNIUS” (Vol. 15, p. 557),—see also SIR PHILIP

FRANCIS (Vol. 10, p. 941).

[Sidenote: Lake Poets]

[Sidenote: Byron]

[Sidenote: Criticism]

[Sidenote: History]

For the 19th century see the last section of the article ENGLISH

LITERATURE (Vol. 9, pp. 636–645), by Thomas Seccombe; and the articles:

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (Vol. 28, p. 826), by William Minto and Hugh

Chisholm; S. T. COLERIDGE (Vol. 6, p. 678), by J. Mackinnon Robertson,

author of _Modern Humanists_, etc., Hugh Chisholm, and the Very Rev.

George David Boyle; CHARLES LAMB (Vol. 16, p. 104), by E. V. Lucas,

editor of Lamb; WILLIAM HAZLITT (Vol. 13, p. 119), LEIGH HUNT (Vol. 13,

p. 934); DE QUINCEY (Vol. 8, p. 61), by J. Ritchie Findlay, author of

_Personal Recollections of De Quincey_; KEATS (Vol. 15, p. 708), by A.

C. Swinburne and Margaret Bryant; THOMAS LOVELL BEDDOES (Vol. 3, p.

614), THOMAS HOOD (Vol. 13, p. 666), LANDOR (Vol. 16, p. 161), by A. C.

Swinburne; SHELLEY (Vol. 24, p. 827), by W. M. Rossetti; SOUTHEY (Vol.

25, p. 511), CAMPBELL (Vol. 5, p. 130), THOMAS MOORE (Vol. 18, p. 810),

LORD BYRON (Vol. 4, p. 897), by E. Hartley Coleridge, editor of _Byron’s

Poems_; FRANCIS JEFFREY (Vol. 15, p. 307), SYDNEY SMITH (Vol. 25, p.

268), J. G. LOCKHART (Vol. 16, p. 853), WILLIAM GIFFORD (Vol. 12, p. 5),

BENTHAM (Vol. 3, p. 747), by Dr. T. E. Holland, formerly professor of

international law, Oxford, MALTHUS (Vol. 17, p. 515), HENRY HALLAM (Vol.

12, p. 851), by Lord Lochee of Gowrie; WILLIAM ROSCOE (Vol. 23, p. 726),

by W. E. A. Axon, Manchester Libraries; LINGARD (Vol. 16, p. 728), HENRY

HART MILMAN (Vol. 18, p. 476), MACAULAY (Vol. 17, p. 193), by Mark

Pattison; THIRLWALL (Vol. 26, p. 851), WILLIAM MITFORD (Vol. 18, p.

620), GROTE (Vol. 12, p. 619), by J. M. Mitchell, edition of Grote’s

_Greece_, JAMES MILL (Vol. 18, p. 453), SIR WILLIAM NAPIER (Vol. 19, p.

175), WILLIAM COBBETT (Vol. 6, p. 606), SIR WALTER SCOTT (Vol. 24, p.

469), by William Minto; [Sidenote: Fiction] LEVER (Vol. 16, pp.

508–510), MARRYAT (Vol. 17, p. 759), BULWER LYTTON (Vol. 17, p. 185), by

Arthur Waugh; BEACONSFIELD (Vol. 3, p. 563), by Frederick Greenwood;

JANE AUSTEN (Vol. 2, p. 936), by E. V. Lucas; MARIA EDGEWORTH (Vol. 8,

p. 934), HARRIET MARTINEAU (Vol. 17, p. 796), MARY RUSSELL MITFORD (Vol.

18, p. 619), ELIZABETH CLEGHORN GASKELL (Vol. 11, p. 501) and the

BRONTËS (Vol. 4, p. 637), by C. K. Shorter; THOMAS LOVE PEACOCK (Vol.

21, p. 21), by Richard Garnett; GEORGE MEREDITH (Vol. 18, p. 160), by

Hugh Chisholm; [Sidenote: Tennyson, Browning and Carlyle] TENNYSON (Vol.

26, p. 630), by E. Gosse; ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING (Vol. 4, p. 668),

by Alice Meynell; ROBERT BROWNING (Vol. 4, p. 670) and CARLYLE (Vol. 5,

p. 349), both by Sir Leslie Stephen; CHARLES READ (Vol. 22, p. 938),

DICKENS (Vol. 8, p. 178), by Thomas Seccombe; [Sidenote: Victorian

Novelists] THACKERAY (Vol. 26, p. 716), by W. H. Pollock; GEORGE ELIOT

(Vol. 9, p. 275), by Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”); ANTHONY

TROLLOPE (Vol. 27, p. 301), WILKIE COLLINS (Vol. 6, p. 693), CHARLES and

HENRY KINGSLEY (Vol. 15, p. 817); HERBERT SPENCER (Vol. 25, p. 634), by

F. C. S. Schiller, author of _Studies in Humanism_, etc.; [Sidenote:

Natural Science] JOHN STUART MILL (Vol. 18, p. 454), by William Minto

and J. M. Mitchell; CHARLES DARWIN (Vol. 7, p. 840), by Prof. E. B.

Poulton, Oxford; HUXLEY (Vol. 14, p. 17), by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer;

J. R. GREEN (Vol. 12, p. 534), [Sidenote: History] WILLIAM STUBBS (Vol.

25, p. 1048), E. A. FREEMAN (Vol. 11, p. 79) and J. A. FROUDE (Vol. 11,

p. 252), all by William Hunt, formerly president Royal Historical

Society; LECKY (Vol. 16, p. 354), BUCKLE (Vol. 4, p. 732), MAINE (Vol.

17, p. 432), by Sir Frederick Pollock; GEORGE BORROW (Vol. 4, p. 275),

by Theodore Watts-Dunton; [Sidenote: Arnold] EDWARD FITZGERALD (Vol. 10,

p. 443), by E. Gosse; MATTHEW ARNOLD (Vol. 2, p. 635), by Theodore

Watts-Dunton and Sir Joshua Girling Fitch; [Sidenote: Ruskin] JOHN

RUSKIN (Vol. 23, p. 858), by Frederic Harrison; DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI

(Vol. 23, p. 747), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and F. G. Stephens, formerly

art-critic of the _Athenaeum_; SWINBURNE (Vol. 26, p. 234), by E. Gosse;

WILLIAM MORRIS (Vol. 18, p. 871), JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS (Vol. 26, p.

286) and WALTER PATER (Vol. 20, p. 910) all by Arthur Waugh; [Sidenote:

Oxford Movement] NEWMAN (Vol. 19, p. 517), by Arthur Wollaston Hutton,

biographer of Manning; JOHN KEBLE (Vol. 15, p. 710), EDWARD BOUVERIE

PUSEY (Vol. 22, p. 667), RICHARD JEFFERIES (Vol. 15, p. 300), by Sir

Walter Besant, biographer of Jeffries; THOMAS HARDY (Vol. 12, p. 946),

by Arthur Symons; ROBERT STEVENSON (Vol. 25, p. 907), by E. Gosse; and

among later names—the historians LORD ACTON (Vol. 1, p. 159), by Hugh

Chisholm, [Sidenote: History] MANDELL CREIGHTON (Vol. 7, p. 401), MORLEY

(Vol. 18, p. 841), BRYCE (Vol. 4, p. 699) and BURY (Vol. 4, p. 867); the

novelists WILLIAM BLACK (Vol. 4, p. 19), BLACKMORE (Vol. 4, p. 24), M.

E. BRADDON (Vol. 4, p. 369), MRS. HUMPHRY WARD (Vol. 28, p. 320), MARIE

CORELLI (Vol. 7, p. 143), HALL CAINE (Vol. 4, p. 949), GEORGE GISSING

(Vol. 12, p. 52), GEORGE MOORE (Vol. 18, p. 808), H. G. WELLS (Vol. 28,

p. 514), WILLIAM DE MORGAN (Vol. 8, p. 10), [Sidenote: Fiction] RUDYARD

KIPLING (Vol. 15, p. 825), by W. Price James, author of _Romantic

Professions_, etc.; the critics and essayists WALTER BAGEHOT (Vol. 3, p.

198), by Richard Garnett, STOPFORD A. BROOK (Vol. 4, p. 645), MARK

PATTISON (Vol. 20, p. 937), [Sidenote: Essays and Criticism] LESLIE

STEPHEN (Vol. 25, p. 885), by Thomas Seccombe, H. D. TRAILL (Vol. 27, p.

155), GEORGE SAINTSBURY (Vol. 24, p. 45), SIDNEY COLVIN (Vol. 6, p.

748), WATTS-DUNTON (Vol. 28, p. 422), R. C. JEBB (Vol. 15, p. 299), F.

W. H. MYERS (Vol. 19, p. 111), EDWARD DOWDEN (Vol. 8, p. 456), WILLIAM

ARCHER (Vol. 2, p. 362), RICHARD GARNETT (Vol. 11, p. 471), EDMUND GOSSE

(Vol. 12, p. 268), ANDREW LANG (Vol. 16, p. 171), G. K. CHESTERTON (Vol.

6, p. 111), ARTHUR SYMONS (Vol. 26, p. 287),—a list in which it is

interesting to note how many are contributors to the Encyclopaedia

Britannica; of poets, [Sidenote: Recent Poetry] ROBERT BRIDGES (Vol. 4,

p. 532), so recently named poet-laureate, his predecessor ALFRED AUSTIN

(Vol. 2, p. 938), WILLIAM WATSON (Vol. 28, p. 414), by W. Price James,

W. B. YEATS (Vol. 28, p. 909), WILLIAM SHARP, “Fiona Macleod” (Vol. 24,

p. 811), FRANCIS THOMPSON (Vol. 26, p. 869), JOHN DAVIDSON (Vol. 7, p.

863), SIR W. S. GILBERT (Vol. 12, p. 9), by Thomas Seccombe; OWEN SEAMAN

(Vol. 24, p. 543), LAURENCE BINYON (Vol. 3, p. 952), H. J. NEWBOLT (Vol.

19, p. 463), STEPHEN PHILLIPS (Vol. 21, p. 407), ALICE MEYNELL (Vol. 18,

p. 350); and of the younger dramatists, [Sidenote: Modern Drama] OSCAR

WILDE (Vol. 28, p. 632), by Hugh Chisholm, SIR A. W. PINERO (Vol. 21, p.

625), A. H. JONES (Vol. 15, p. 498), J. M. BARRIE (Vol. 3, p. 435), by

W. Price James; G. BERNARD SHAW (Vol. 24, p. 812),—and see also under

DRAMA (Vol. 8, especially pp. 534–538).

CHAPTER XXXIX

GERMAN LITERATURE

The article in the Britannica on German Literature (Vol. 11, p. 783;

equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide) is by Professor John George

Robertson, University of London, author of _History of German

Literature_. This article is divided into six sections, and following

this scheme the course of reading below is divided into six parts, in

connection with each of which the reader should first peruse the

correspondingly numbered section in the article GERMAN LITERATURE.

[Sidenote: Old High German]

I. _The Old High German Period, 750–1050_:—the articles ULFILAS (Vol.

27, p. 565), by Charles Anderson Scott, author of _Ulfilas, Apostle of

the Goths_; HELIAND (Vol. 13, p. 221), by Henry Bradley, author of _The

Story of the Goths_; EINHARD (Vol. 9, p. 134), by A. W. Holland; NOTKER

(Vol. 19, p. 824) and HROSVITHA (Vol. 13, p. 842), by A. W. Ward—and see

Prof. Ward on the medieval drama in the article DRAMA (Vol. 8,

especially p. 497).

[Sidenote: Middle Period]

II. _The Middle High German Period, 1050–1350_:—the articles ROMANCE

(Vol. 23, p. 500), by George Saintsbury; WALTHARIUS (Vol. 28, p. 298),

NIBELUNGENLIED (Vol. 19, pp. 637–640), GUDRUN (Vol. 12, p. 668),

DIETRICH OF BERN (Vol. 8, p. 221), ORTNIT (Vol. 20, p. 341),

WOLFDIETRICH (Vol. 28, p. 772), HELDENBUCH (Vol. 13, p. 218), LAY OF

HILDEBRAND (Vol. 13, p. 460), by J. G. Robertson; RUODLIEB (Vol. 23, p.

854), ARTHURIAN LEGEND (Vol. 2, p. 684), PERCEVAL (Vol. 21, p. 132), and

TRISTAN (Vol. 27, pp. 292–294), by J. L. Weston, author of _Legends of

the Wagner Drama_; HARTMANN VON AUE (Vol. 13, p. 37), GOTTFRIED VON

STRASSBURG (Vol. 12, p. 277), WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH (Vol. 28, p. 775),

by J. L. Weston; WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE (Vol. 28, p. 299),

MINNESINGERS (Vol. 18, p. 547), FREIDANK (Vol. 11, p. 94), CONRAD OF

WÜRZBURG (Vol. 6, p. 968).

[Sidenote: 14th and 15th Centuries]

III. _The Transition Period, 1350–1600_:—the articles FRAUENLOB (Vol.

11, p. 42), REYNARD THE FOX (Vol. 23, p. 226), SEBASTIAN BRANT (Vol. 4,

p. 431), MAXIMILIAN I. (Vol. 17, p. 922), by A. W. Holland;

MEISTERSINGER (Vol. 18, p. 86) and EULENSPIEGEL (Vol. 9, p. 887), by J.

G. Robertson; HANS SACHS (Vol. 23, p. 972), TAULER (Vol. 26, p. 452),

GEILER VON KAISERBERG (Vol. 11, p. 553), ERASMUS (Vol. 9, p. 727), by

Mark Pattison and P. S. Allen, editor of the Oxford Erasmus; REUCHLIN

(Vol. 23, p. 204), by W. Robertson Smith; ULRICH VON HUTTEN (Vol. 14, p.

14), by the Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, Dean of Durham; MARTIN LUTHER (Vol.

17, p. 133), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author of _A History of the

Reformation_; ERASMUS ALBERUS (Vol. 1, p. 504), THOMAS MURNER (Vol. 19,

p. 37), JOHANN FISCHART (Vol. 10, p. 425), PHILIPP NIKODEMUS FRISCHLIN

(Vol. 11, p. 232), JÖRG WICKRAM (Vol. 28, p. 619), AYRER (Vol. 3, p.

74), FAUST (Vol. 10, p. 210).

[Sidenote: Renaissance]

IV. _The Renaissance, 1600–1740_:—the articles PAUL GERHARDT (Vol. 11,

p. 768), JAKOB BOEHME (Vol. 4, p. 113), GEORG RUDOLF WECKHERLIN (Vol.

28, p. 464), MARTIN OPITZ (Vol. 20, p. 129), GEORG PHILIPP HARSDÖRFFER

(Vol. 13, p. 29), SIMON DACH (Vol. 7, p. 726), PAUL FLEMING (Vol. 10, p.

494), von LOGAU (Vol. 16, p. 877), ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (Vol. 1, p.

72), JOHANN VON RIST (Vol. 23, p. 366), ANDREAS GRYPHIUS (Vol. 12, p.

642), MOSCHEROSCH (Vol. 18, p. 890), GRIMMELSHAUSEN (Vol. 12, p. 603),

PUFENDORF (Vol. 22, p. 634), THOMASIUS (Vol. 26, p. 868), CHRISTIAN

WOLFF (Vol. 28, p. 774), by Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison; LEIBNITZ (Vol.

16, p. 385), by Prof. W. R. Sorley, Cambridge; SPENER (Vol. 25, p. 638),

von CANITZ (Vol. 5, p. 183), JOHANN CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER (Vol. 12, p. 730),

B. H. BROCKES (Vol. 4, p. 624), and, the dictator of the pseudo-classic

age, GOTTSCHED (Vol. 12, p. 279).

[Sidenote: Classical Period]

V. _The Classical Period of Modern German Literature, 1740–1832_:—the

articles J. J. BODMER (Vol. 4, p. 111), GELLERT (Vol. 11, p. 558),

RABENER (Vol. 22, p. 773), J. ELIAS SCHLEGEL (Vol. 24, p. 329),

KLOPSTOCK (Vol. 15, p. 848), LAVATER (Vol. 16, p. 291), GERSTENBERG

(Vol. 11, p. 907), GLEIM (Vol. 12, p. 118), GÖTZ (Vol. 12, p. 289), _Uz_

(Vol. 27, p. 828), RAMLER (Vol. 22, p. 876), HAGEDORN (Vol. 12, p. 813),

ALBRECHT VON HALLER (Vol. 12, p. 855), E. C. VON KLEIST (Vol. 15, p.

846), LESSING (Vol. 16, pp. 496–499), by James Sime, author of _A

History of Germany_, and J. G. Robertson, and Lessing’s

associates—WINCKELMANN (Vol. 28, p. 707), by James Sime and J. M.

Mitchell, MOSES MENDELSSOHN (Vol. 18, p. 120), by Israel Abrahams,

author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_, and C. F. NICOLAI

(Vol. 19, p. 662)—; WIELAND (Vol. 28, p. 621), by J. G. Robertson; M. A.

VON THÜMMEL (Vol. 26, p. 898), A. VON KNIGGE (Vol. 15, p. 850), MUSÄUS

(Vol. 19, p. 43), BASEDOW (Vol. 3, p. 461), PESTALOZZI (Vol. 21, p.

284), HAMANN (Vol. 12, p. 869).

[Sidenote: Sturm und Drang]

On the _Sturm und Drang_ period, the articles HERDER (Vol. 13, p. 347),

the STOLBERGS (Vol. 25, p. 953), J. H. VOSS (Vol. 28, p. 215), HÖLTY

(Vol. 13, p. 620), BÜRGER (Vol. 4, p. 812), M. CLAUDIUS (Vol. 6, p.

466),—all of the Göttingen school; GOETHE (Vol. 12, p. 182), by J. G.

Robertson; his imitators and followers, J. M. R. LENZ (Vol. 16, p. 431),

KLINGER (Vol. 15, p. 846), FRIEDRICH (“Maler”) MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 961),

HEINSE (Vol. 13, p. 216), K. P. MORITZ (Vol. 18, p. 838); the great

dramatist of the late _Sturm und Drang_, SCHILLER (Vol. 24, p. 324), by

J. G. Robertson; A. W. IFFLAND (Vol. 14, p. 291), F. JACOBI (Vol. 15, p.

115).

On the classical period proper, the latter part of the article on Goethe

and Schiller, IMMANUEL KANT (Vol. 15, p. 662), and J. G. FICHTE (Vol.

10, p. 313), both by Robert Adamson; the historians SCHLOSSER (Vol. 24,

p. 342), MÖSER (Vol. 18, p. 895), and JOHANNES VON MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p.

962), by W. A. B. Coolidge; the scientists J. G. A. FORSTER (Vol. 10, p.

674), ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT (Vol. 13, p. 873), by Agnes Mary Clerke,

and KARL WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (Vol. 13, p. 875), by Archibald Henry

Sayce; the dramatist KOTZEBUE (Vol. 15, p. 919); the novelist RICHTER,

“Jean Paul” (Vol. 23, p. 313); and the poet MATTHISSON (Vol. 17, p.

901).

[Sidenote: Romanticism]

On the romantic school: the articles on the founders, AUGUST WILHELM

SCHLEGEL and FRIEDRICH SCHLEGEL (Vol. 24, p. 328 and 329), TIECK (Vol.

26, p. 962), HÖLDERLIN (Vol. 13, p. 583), and NOVALIS (Vol. 19, p. 829);

in the second Romantic school, the more realistic Heidelbergers KLEMENS

BRENTANO (Vol. 4, p. 496), L. A. VON ARNIM (Vol. 2, p. 630), J. J. VON

GÖRRES (Vol. 12, p. 260), and, owing much to the interest in

folk-literature of the Heidelbergers, the brothers GRIMM (Vol. 12, pp.

600–602), by Dr. Henry Sweet of the University of Oxford, CHAMISSO (Vol.

5, p. 825); the patriot poets KÖRNER (Vol. 15, p. 913) and ARNDT (Vol.

2, p. 627); the North Germans KLEIST (Vol. 15, p. 846), ZACHARIAS WERNER

(Vol. 28, p. 523), FOUQUÉ (Vol. 10, p. 749), E. T. W. HOFFMAN (Vol. 13,

p. 561), EICHENDORFF (Vol. 9, p. 131), and RÜCKERT (Vol. 23, p. 813) and

WILHELM MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 963), who, like Byron, found romance, one in

the Orient and the other in Greek struggles for liberty; and, of the

Swabian school, UHLAND (Vol. 27, p. 563), KERNER (Vol. 15, p. 757),

HAUFF (Vol. 13, p. 65), and MÖRIKE (Vol. 18, p. 837); and the

philosopher SCHELLING (Vol. 24, p. 316).

[Sidenote: 1832–1870]

VI. _Literature since Goethe, 1832 onwards_:—Read G. W. F. HEGEL (Vol.

13, p. 200, by the late Prof. William Wallace of Oxford and Prof. J. H.

Muirhead, University of Birmingham), Schelling’s successor as a

philosophic force in Germany; the articles on the “Young Germans” HEINE

(Vol. 13, p. 213), by J. Walter Ferrier and J. G. Robertson; BÖRNE (Vol.

4, p. 255), GUTZKOW (Vol. 12, p. 744) and LAUBE (Vol. 16, p. 276); and

the historians and philosophers D. F. STRAUSS (Vol. 25, p. 1002),

GERVINUS (Vol. 11, p. 908), W. MENZEL (Vol. 18, p. 147) and FEUERBACH

(Vol. 10, p. 303); the dramatists—some more closely connected with the

preceding period,—GRABBE (Vol. 12, p. 306) and GRILLPARZER (Vol. 12, p.

596), IMMERMANN (Vol. 14, p. 335) and PLATEN-HALLERMUND (Vol. 21, p.

804), HOLTEI (Vol. 13, p. 619), RAUPACH (Vol. 22, p. 921) and MÜLLNER

(Vol. 18, p. 965), and, in Austria, besides Grillparzer, COLLIN (Vol. 6,

p. 690), MÜNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, “Friedrich Halm” (Vol. 19, p. 2),

BAUERNFELD (Vol. 3, p. 538) and RAIMUND (Vol. 22, p. 861); the novelists

WILLIBALD ALEXIS (Vol. 1, p. 576), HAUFF (Vol. 13, p. 65) and ZSCHOKKE

(Vol. 28, p. 1046); and such poets of the ’30 and the ’48 as HERWEGH

(Vol. 13, p. 405), FREILIGRATH (Vol. 11, p. 94), DINGELSTEDT (Vol. 8, p.

275), HOFFMANN VON FALLERSLEBEN (Vol. 13, p. 561), and, in Austria, a

little earlier, AUERSPERG, “Anastasius Grün” (Vol. 2, p. 900); and the

possibly greater poets who were less interested in politics, GEIBEL

(Vol. 11, p. 550), LENAU (Vol. 16, p. 417), STRACHWITZ (Vol. 25, p.

976), and DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF (Vol. 8, p. 591).

On the mid-century period:—the articles on SCHOPENHAUER (Vol. 24, p.

372, by Prof. Wallace),—the philosopher of the new age; the natural

scientists VOGT (Vol. 28, p. 172), and BÜCHNER (Vol. 4, p. 719); the

fiction writers SPIELHAGEN (Vol. 25, p. 667), GUSTAV FREYTAG (Vol. 11,

p. 212), EBERS (Vol. 8, p. 841), DAHN (Vol. 7, p. 734), “CHARLES

SEALSFIELD” (Vol. 24, p. 543), GERSTÄCKER (Vol. 11, p. 906), STORM (Vol.

25, p. 968), GOTTFRIED KELLER (Vol. 15, p. 718); and, among those who

portrayed peasant and provincial life, BITZIUS, “Jeremias Gotthelf”

(Vol. 4, p. 15), AUERBACH (Vol. 2, p. 899), STIFTER (Vol. 25, p. 915),

FRITZ REUTER (Vol. 23, p. 210); the dramatists HEBBEL (Vol. 13, p. 165)

and OTTO LUDWIG (Vol. 17, p. 114); in the Munich School, BODENSTEDT

(Vol. 4, p. 109), SCHEFFEL (Vol. 24, p. 315), BAUMBACH (Vol. 3, p. 539),

HAMERLING (Vol. 12, p. 876), HEYSE (Vol. 13, p. 438); and the

Platt-Deutsch poet KLAUS GROTH (Vol. 12, p. 621).

[Sidenote: Since 1870]

On the period since 1870, see the articles LASSALLE (Vol. 16, p. 235, by

Thomas Kirkup, author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_) and MARX (Vol. 17,

p. 807, by Eduard Bernstein, Socialist deputy on the Reichstag) for new

economic views; and LOTZE (Vol. 17, p. 23), by J. T. Merz, author of

_European Thought in the XIXth Century_, and Henry Sturt, author of

_Personal Idealism_, and EDUARD VON HARTMANN (Vol. 13, p. 36) for

philosophical compromises between science and metaphysics and between

pessimism and idealism; the dramatists ANZENGRUBER (Vol. 2, p. 158),

PAUL LINDAU (Vol. 16, p. 717), and, composer and dramatist, RICHARD

WAGNER (Vol. 28, p. 236), by W. S. Rockstro, author of _A Great History

of Music_, and D. F. Tovey, author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_; the

historians SYBEL (Vol. 26, p. 275), TREITSCHKE (Vol. 27, p. 238), RANKE

(Vol. 22, p. 893), MOMMSEN (Vol. 18, p. 683) and BURCKHARDT (Vol. 4, p.

809); and Burckhardt’s friend, the early friend of Wagner and the type

of a new spirit in German letters, NIETZSCHE (Vol. 19, p. 672), by F. C.

S. Schiller, Oxford, author of _Studies in Humanism_.

The most important names of the last few years are SUDERMANN (Vol. 26,

p. 20) and HAUPTMANN (Vol. 13, p. 68). See, besides, the articles on

WILHELM JENSEN (Vol. 15, p. 321), WILHELM RAABE (Vol. 22, p. 765), W.

BUSCH (Vol. 4, p. 869), PETER ROSEGGER (Vol. 23, p. 734), FONTANE (Vol.

10, p. 608), EBNER-ESCHENBACH (Vol. 8, p. 843), FRANZOS (Vol. 11, p.

38), K. F. MEYER (Vol. 18, p. 349), RICHARD VOSS (Vol. 28, p. 215),

ERNST VON WILDENBRUCH (Vol. 28, p. 633), and for modern German drama, in

the article DRAMA (Vol. 8, especially pp. 535–536).

CHAPTER XL

GREEK LITERATURE

In the article LITERATURE in the Britannica, by Professor James

Fitzmaurice-Kelly, himself a specialist in Spanish literature, are these

sentences:

The evolution of literature is completed in Greece, and there its

subdivisions may best be studied. Epic poetry is represented by the

Homeric cycle, lyric poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus,

history by Herodotus, oratory by Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and

criticism by Zoilus, the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in each

department there is a long succession of illustrative names. Roughly

speaking, all subsequent literature is imitative.

[Sidenote: The Main Article]

This testimony to the importance of Greek literature is all the more

weighty as coming from one whose own field of criticism is in Romantic

literature. The authority with which such an important subject as Greek

literature is treated in the Britannica will be apparent to any

classical student who notes the names of the contributors of the

articles mentioned in the following course of reading. The key article

GREEK LITERATURE (Vol. 12, p. 507; equivalent to 65 pages of this Guide)

is divided into three sections: Ancient (p. 507), Byzantine (p. 516) and

Modern (p. 524). The second section, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher of Munich,

author of _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_, and the third, by

J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of _The Times_ (London) in South-Eastern

Europe, need not be dwelt upon here. To the ordinary student, in spite

of the increasing interest shown in Byzantine and modern Hellenic

literature, “Greek literature” must mean the literature of ancient

Greece, and for him the _first_ part of the article will be the

foundation of his study of the subject. This section of the article is

by the late Sir Richard C. Jebb, professor of Greek at Glasgow and then

at Cambridge, known as the biographer of Bentley, as the author of an

excellent brief history of Greek literature, and as an authority on

subdivisions of that subject so diverse as rhetoric and oratory on the

one side and lyric and dramatic poetry on the other.

Jebb’s article divides ancient Greek literature into three periods:

_Early_, including epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry and coming

down to 475 B.C.; _Attic_, 475–300 B.C., including tragic and comic

drama and historical, oratorical and philosophical prose; and

_Decadence_—Alexandrian, 300–146 B.C., and Greco-Roman, 146 B.C.–529

A.D.

[Sidenote: Epic]

In the first of these periods the student should supplement Professor

Jebb’s treatment in the article GREEK LITERATURE by the following

articles: EPIC POETRY (Vol. 9, p. 681), a general sketch of the form by

Edmund Gosse; HOMER (Vol. 13, p. 626; equivalent to 40 pages of this

Guide), by the late Prof. David Binning Monro of Oriel College, Oxford,

editor of Homer and author of _Grammar of the Homeric Dialect_,—and on

the “Homeric question” see also the articles ARISTARCHUS and F. A. WOLF;

HESIOD (Vol. 13, p. 407), by James Davies, formerly head master Ludlow

Grammar School, and John Henry Freese, formerly fellow St. John’s,

Cambridge; CYCLE (Vol. 7, p. 682; last part of the article); and the

cyclic poets, STASINUS, ARCTINUS, LESCHES, and CREOPHYLUS.

[Sidenote: Elegy]

For the elegy see Edmund Gosse’s article ELEGY; and on the Greek

elegists, the articles CALLINUS and TYRTÆUS for martial poetry,

MIMNERMUS for melancholy verse, SOLON for political and ethical poetry,

THEOGNIS and PHOCYLIDES for the gnomic elegy, and XENOPHANES for the use

of the measure in didactic philosophical verse. On iambic verse and its

Greek writers before the time of the drama see: IAMBIC, ARCHILOCHUS,

SIMONIDES OF AMORGOS, and HIPPONAX.

[Sidenote: Lyric Poetry]

The third poetic form of the period, one which unfortunately has come

down to us only in tantalizingly brief fragments—comparable to the

quotations illustrating word-usage in our dictionaries—is the lyric. On

this see the general article LYRICAL POETRY, by Edmund Gosse, on this

form in different literatures, and the sketches of the Greek lyrists the

Aeolians ALCAEUS (see also the article ALCAICS) and SAPPHO, by Prof.

John Arthur Platt, University College, London; PRAXILLA and ERINNA,

Sappho’s rivals as lyric poetesses; the Ionian ANACREON (see also the

article ANACREONTICS, by Edmund Gosse); the Dorian ALCMAN; STESICHORUS,

ARION and IBYCUS; SIMONIDES, who may be called Panhellenic; PINDAR (Vol.

21, p. 617; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb),

the only Greek lyrist whose work has come down to us in any considerable

quantity, and whose poems are such remarkable examples of metrical

structure; BACCHYLIDES (Vol. 3, p. 121; equivalent to 9 pages of this

Guide; also by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was one of the first editors),

Pindar’s rival, whose poems until a few years ago were known to us only

by brief quotations by grammarians, but who had the good luck to survive

in papyrus lately found in Egypt; and TIMOTHEUS of Miletus, of whose

“Persians” a valuable fragment was found in 1903 in what seems to be the

oldest papyrus in existence.

[Sidenote: Attic Literature]

[Sidenote: Comedy]

The Attic period has two important developments—the drama, tragic and

comic, and the beginnings of a Greek prose. For the drama read the part

of Prof. A. W. Ward’s article DRAMA dealing with the Greek period (Vol.

8, pp. 488–493), and the article COMEDY; and the articles on the great

dramatists:—the tragedians THESPIS, CHOERILUS, PHRYNICHUS and PRATINAS

in the earlier period; AESCHYLUS (Vol. 1, p. 272; equivalent to 12 pages

of this Guide), by Arthur Sidgwick, fellow of Corpus Christi, Oxford,

and editor of the Oxford text of Aeschylus; SOPHOCLES (Vol. 25, p. 424;

equivalent to 12 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor and

translator of this poet; and EURIPIDES (Vol. 9, p. 901; equivalent to 15

pages of this Guide), in the main by Sir R. C. Jebb; and the comic

poets,—the Sicilian EPICHARMUS; the representatives of the Attic Old

Comedy, CRATINUS, CRATES, PHERECRATES, EUPOLIS, PHRYNICHUS (not to be

confused with the tragic poet of that name), MAGNES, PLATO (to be

distinguished from the philosopher),—all these known to us only by

allusions and chance quotations—and ARISTOPHANES (Vol. 2, p. 499;

equivalent to 7 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek

poet of whom we have complete plays and probably the greatest of the

writers of Greek comedy; the names—they are little more—of EUBULUS,

ANTIPHANES, ALEXIS in the Middle Comedy; and in the New Comedy or third

period, PHILEMON, MENANDER (by J. H. Freese), who was so highly esteemed

and so constantly pilfered from by the Roman comic writers, and of whose

plays large fragments have been found in the last few years; DIPHILUS,

APOLLODORUS of Carystus, POSIDIPPUS, RHINTHON and SOTADES.

[Sidenote: History]

The prose of the Attic period we may divide roughly into history,

oratory and philosophy. On the historians read LOGOGRAPHI, GREECE,

_Ancient History_, “Authorities” (Vol. 12, p. 454), with criticism of

the historical accuracy of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus, Plutarch,

Xenophon, etc., HECATAEUS of Miletus, HERODOTUS (Vol. 13, p. 381;

equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide), by the historian George Rawlinson

and E. M. Walker, librarian of Queen’s College, Oxford; THUCYDIDES (Vol.

26, p. 893; equivalent to 10 pages of the Guide), by Sir R. C. Jebb, and

Malcolm Mitchell, editor of Grote’s _Greece_; XENOPHON (Vol. 28, p. 885;

equivalent to 7 pages in this Guide), by E. M. Walker and J. H. Freese;

CTESIAS, PHILISTUS, THEOPOMPUS, and TIMAEUS.

[Sidenote: Oratory]

On Attic orators read ANDOCIDES, LYSIAS, ISOCRATES, ISAEUS, ANTIPHON,

DEMOSTHENES, AESCHINES, HYPEREIDES,—most of these articles being by Sir

R. C. Jebb, who was particularly versed in this branch of Greek

literature. The special student of the orators should read also the

articles GREEK LAW (Vol. 12, p. 501; equivalent to 15 pages in this

Guide), by Prof. J. E. Sandys of Cambridge, author of _A History of

Classical Scholarship_, etc.; SOPHISTS (Vol. 25, p. 418, equivalent to

20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Henry Jackson of Cambridge, a

well-known writer on Greek philosophy, and RHETORIC (Vol. 23, p. 233),

by Sir R. C. Jebb.

On Greek philosophical writing see the articles PHERECYDES of Syros,

ANAXIMENES of Miletus, ANAXIMANDER, and the names great not only in

Greek thought and literature but in the world’s—PLATO (Vol. 21, p. 808;

equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor

and critic of many of the Platonic dialogues, and ARISTOTLE (Vol. 2, p.

501; equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Thomas Case,

Oxford, author of _Physical Realism_, etc. For a fuller guide to Greek

philosophy see the chapter in this Guide on _Philosophy_.

[Sidenote: Decadence]

The third period of classical Greek literature was one of Greek thought

in unGreek surroundings—see the article HELLENISM, by E. R. Bevan,

author of _The House of Seleucus_, etc.,—and this came to its first and

finest flower in Alexandria, in Egypt, under the Ptolemies—see the

article ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, especially that part of it dealing with

_Literature_ (Vol. 1, p. 573). On the writers of the Alexandrian period

see: for poetry, PHILETAS, HERMESIANAX, ASCLEPIADES of Samos, and the

comic poets SOTADES and RHINTHON, already mentioned; HERODAS, by W. G.

Headlam, editor of Herodas; the idyllist THEOCRITUS (Vol. 26, p. 760),

by A. C. Clark, fellow of Queen’s, Oxford; Theocritus’s followers BION

and MOSCHUS; the mythologist CALLIMACHUS, who influenced Catullus as

much as Theocritus did the young Virgil; the didactic poet ARATUS, whom

Cicero translated into Latin and whom Virgil imitated in his _Georgics_;

the epic APOLLONIUS of Rhodes, and the late tragedian LYCOPHRON; and for

prose the critic ARISTARCHUS.

In the Greco-Roman period, following the Alexandrian the principal

articles for the student are: the historians POLYBIUS and DIODORUS

SICULUS, the satirist LUCIAN, the later historians DIONYSIUS

HALICARNASSENSIS, DIO CASSIUS, ARRIAN, APPIAN, HERODIAN, EUSEBIUS,

ZOSIMUS, the biographers PLUTARCH, DIOGENES LAERTIUS, PHILOSTRATUS, the

rhetoricians LONGINUS and DIO CHRYSOSTOM, and the emperor philosopher

MARCUS AURELIUS and his forerunner the “slave philosopher” EPICTETUS.

Possibly the most typical output of the later Greek age is the matchless

collection of short poems known to us as “the Greek Anthology”; on this

see the articles EPIGRAM and ANTHOLOGY.

CHAPTER XLI

BIBLE STUDY

It is impossible for the student to consider the subject of Bible Study

without being impressed by the immense labour and the profound

scholarship which have been devoted to the interpretation and discussion

of Scripture. Continued investigation has solved many difficulties, but

has also vastly increased the mass of evidences and conjectures which

must be weighed in connection with any doubtful passages. The Britannica

tells us, for example, (Vol. 3, pp. 903, 904) that the translators of

the King James’s version spent only two years and nine months over their

task, while the work on the Revised Version took eleven years for the

New Testament and fourteen for the Old Testament.

[Sidenote: The Bible as a Focus of Thought]

It is equally true that all the time which learned men have given to

translating and elucidating the text seems nothing when it is compared

with the time that mankind at large have spent in reading it. But the

Britannica mentions a report of the great English Bible Society, the

“British and Foreign,” in which the copies circulated by it are totalled

at more than 198 million, and, for the American Bible Society and its

federated associations, it gives a total of more than 84 million copies

(Vol. 3, p. 907). It has often been said that the English Bible is the

only example of a translation that became more famous than the original,

and it is as true that no other translation has been the source of so

many secondary translations, for versions in no less than 530 distinct

languages and dialects have been derived from the English text. It is

interesting to note, although in this case the English version has

certainly nothing to do with the matter, that “in Italy, by a departure

from the traditional policy of the Roman Church, the newly formed,

‘Pious Society of St. Jerome for the Dissemination of the Holy Gospels’

issued in 1901, from the Vatican press, a new Italian version of the

Four Gospels and _Acts_,” and sold 400,000 copies at 4 cents each.

As a sort of threshold-study, it will be well to consider three topics:

Hebrew Literature, Hebrew Religion and Biblical History.

[Sidenote: Preliminaries]

HEBREW LITERATURE (Vol. 13, p. 169), by Dr. Arthur Cowley, of the

Bodleian Library, Oxford, points out that the term “Hebrew Literature”

is loosely used of “all works written in Hebrew characters, whether the

language be Aramaic, Arabic, or even some vernacular not related to

Hebrew;” and that “this literature begins with, as it is almost entirely

based upon, the Old Testament.” This article on Hebrew Literature may be

supplemented by the following articles:

TARGUM, by John Frederick Stenning, lecturer in Aramaic at Oxford.

HALAKHA │by Israel Abrahams, reader in

│ Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature,

│ Cambridge.

QARAITES │ „

───────────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────

TALMUD │by Stanley Arthur Cook, lecturer in

│ Hebrew and Syriac, Cambridge.

MIDRASH │ „

SEADIAH, by Dr. Arthur Cowley.

MAIMONIDES, by Herbert Loewe, curator of Oriental Literature, Cambridge.

[Sidenote: Hebrew Religion]

Quite as important is the article HEBREW RELIGION (Vol. 13, p. 176), by

the Rev. Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse of Christ’s and Cheshunt Colleges,

Cambridge. His treatment of the subject is comparative and historical.

There is an interesting summary of what is known and may be inferred

about pre-Mosaic religion; and it is important to notice that the author

does not consider that the plural Elohim used in certain Old Testament

passages to mean “God” is to be understood as “a comprehensive

expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old

Testament religion,” but explains the plural as one “of majesty” like

the “we” of royalty. Blood-offerings and magic charms against demons and

jinns may be assumed as belonging to the early Hebrew religion as to the

later Arabian period before Mahomet. Dr. Whitehouse thinks that there is

little or no trace of totemism but possibly some of ancestor-worship in

the Jews’ religion.

Among the many articles supplementing this general treatment of Hebrew

religion the following are possibly the most important:

CIRCUMCISION, by Israel Abrahams.

TERAPHIM, by W. Robertson Smith and G. H. Box, formerly lecturer in

theology, Oxford.

BAAL, by W. Robertson Smith and Stanley Arthur Cook, editor for

Palestine Exploration Fund.

CALF, THE GOLDEN, by S. A. Cook.

HIGH PLACES.

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS.

PASSOVER, by Dr. Joseph Jacobs of the Jewish Theological Seminary of New

York City.

PENTECOST, by Dr. O. C. Whitehouse.

ARK, by Stanley Arthur Cook.

TABERNACLE and TEMPLE, by Dr. Archibald R. S. Kennedy, professor of

Hebrew and Semitic languages, Edinburgh.

EPHOD, by S. A. Cook.

URIM AND THUMMIM, by G. H. Box.

PROPHET, by W. Robertson Smith, Owen Charles Whitehouse, Adolf Harnack

of Berlin, and Professor A. C. McGiffert of Union Theological Seminary,

New York.

JEHOVAH, by George Foot Moore, professor of history of religion,

Harvard.

MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and O. C. Whitehouse.

ESCHATOLOGY, by Dr. A. E. Garvie, principal of New College, Hampstead.

ANGEL, by William Henry Bennett, professor of Old Testament Exegesis in

New and Hackney Colleges, London.

[Sidenote: Biblical History]

The third topic is history and for this the student should read the

article JEWS (Vol. 15, p. 371), especially the part on _Old Testament

History_, by S. A. Cook; the article PALESTINE, _Physical Features_, by

R. A. S. Macalister, director of excavations for the Palestine

Exploration Fund, _Old Testament History_, by S. A. Cook, especially the

treatment of Biblical Religion (pp. 610–611 of Vol. 20); CANAAN, by Dr.

Thomas Kelly Cheyne, formerly Oriel professor of interpretation of

Scripture, Oxford; HITTITES, by D. G. Hogarth, keeper of the Ashmolean

Museum, Oxford.

[Sidenote: The Article Bible]

But of course the central article for the Bible student is the article

BIBLE (Vol. 3, p. 849), which is divided into two main parts—_Old

Testament_ and _New Testament_, each of these being divided in turn into

five parts: Canon, Texts and Versions, Textual Criticism, Higher

Criticism, and Chronology. This logical arrangement greatly enhances the

value of the article, which is in itself an excellent summary of the

subject written by the following authorities: Dr. Samuel Rolles Driver,

professor of Hebrew, Oxford, on Old Testament canon and chronology; John

Frederick Stenning, dean of Wadham College, Oxford, and lecturer in

Aramaic, on Old Testament texts and versions; Dr. George Buchanan Gray,

professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Mansfield College,

Oxford, on Old Testament textual and higher criticism; Dr. William

Sanday, professor of Divinity and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, on New

Testament canon; the Rev. Kirsopp Lake, author of _The Text of the New

Testament_, etc., and professor of New Testament exegesis at Leiden, on

New Testament texts and versions and textual criticism; Dr. Francis

Crawford Burkitt, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of _The

Gospel History and its Transmission_, etc., on New Testament higher

criticism; and Cuthbert Hamilton Turner, of Magdalen College, Oxford, on

New Testament chronology.

The article BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894), by Anna C. Paues, author of

_A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version_, and Canon Henson of Westminster

Abbey (on the Revised Version) is accompanied by a plate with

fac-similes of several early English Bibles and is besides of special

value as giving quotations from different versions in Anglo-Saxon and

later English. The article BIBLE SOCIETIES (Vol. 3, p. 905), by the Rev.

Thomas Herbert Darlow, literary superintendent of the British and

Foreign Bible Society, will also be of value to the student.

[Sidenote: Inspiration]

One other general article should be studied before the articles on

different books of the Bible are taken up. This is—INSPIRATION (Vol. 14,

p. 645), by Dr. Alfred Ernest Garvie, author of _Studies in the Inner

Life of Jesus_; it outlines the principal theories of inspiration—

(1) Mechanical dictation or verbal inspiration;

(2) Dynamic influence or degrees of inspiration;

(3) Essential inspiration, distinguishing matters of doctrine and

conduct from the remaining contents of Scripture;

(4) Vital inspiration, emphasizing religious and moral life.

[Sidenote: The Hexateuch]

A course of study in the books of the Bible may well start with the

outline in the article BIBLE, especially pages 851–854 for the Old

Testament. For the Hexateuch the student should read first the brief

article HEXATEUCH; then what there is under BIBLE on pp. 851–852 of Vol.

3; then under JEWS for the early period; and then the articles:

GENESIS, by S. A. Cook; and the subsidiary articles: COSMOGONY, EDEN,

PARADISE, ADAM, EVE, ABEL, CAIN, ENOCH, LAMECH, NOAH, DELUGE, ARARAT,

ARK, BABEL, CANAAN, GENEALOGY, NIMROD, HAM, SHEM, JAPHETH, ABRAHAM,

BEERSHEBA, MELCHIZEDEK, ISAAC, MIDIAN, ABIMELECH, ISHMAEL, ESAU, JACOB,

JACOB’S WELL, BETHEL, ISRAEL, SIMEON, SHECHEM, REUBEN, ISSACHAR,

ZEBULUN, DAN, NAPHTALI, ASHER, GAD, MANASSEH, JOSEPH, BENJAMIN, LOT,

MOAB, AMMONITES, GOSHEN, etc.

EXODUS, BOOK OF, by John Frederick Stenning, and EXODUS by S. A. Cook;

and the articles MOSES, AARON, RAMESES, PITHOM, AMALEKITES, JETHRO,

PASSOVER, SINAI, HOREB, DECALOGUE, SABBATH, CALF (GOLDEN), TABERNACLE,

ARK, URIM AND THUMMIM.

LEVITICUS, by J. F. Stenning and LEVITES, by S. A. Cook; and SACRIFICE,

ATONEMENT AND DAY OF ATONEMENT, MOLOCH, PENTECOST.

NUMBERS, by Dr. James Alexander Paterson, professor of Hebrew, New

College, Edinburgh; and the articles BALAAM, HEBRON.

DEUTERONOMY, by Dr. Paterson, and the articles EZRA, NEHEMIAH, and

JOSIAH.

JOSHUA, by S. A. Cook, and the articles AMALEKITES, GIBEONITES, HIVITES,

PHILISTINES, GEZER, JUDAH, CALEB, SHECHEM.

JUDGES, BOOK OF, by S. A. Cook, and the articles, OTHNIEL, EHUD,

DEBORAH, GIBEON, ABIMELECH, JEPHTHAH, SHIBBOLETH, SAMSON, EPHOD,

TERAPHIM, MICAH (of Ephraim).

SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, and SAMUEL, by S. A. Cook; and the articles ELI,

SHILOH, ARK, SAUL, JONATHAN, DAVID, GOLIATH, AHITHOPHEL, JASHAR,

ABSALOM, JERAHMEEL, KENITES.

KINGS, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; and the articles DAVID, ADONIJAH,

SOLOMON, TEMPLE, JERUSALEM, ABIATHAR, JOAB, EPHRAIM, JEROBOAM, REHOBOAM,

ASA, OMRI, AHAB, JEHOSHAPHAT, JEHORAM, ATHALIAH, AHAZIAH, ELIJAH,

CARMEL, JORDAN, ELISHA, JEHU, RECHABITES, JOASH, AZARIAH, HOSEA, UZZIAH,

AHAZ, ISAIAH, HEZEKIAH, MANASSEH, JOSIAH, JEHOIACHIN, SAMARIA.

CHRONICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles

ABSALOM, DAVID, UZZIAH, JUBILEES, MIDRASH, LEVITES and many mentioned

above under SAMUEL and KINGS.

EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; the article EZRA; and, as

the books are to be grouped with CHRONICLES, that article and

DEUTERONOMY, and the article SAMARITANS and those on the two

“apocryphal” books, EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF, by

Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in Biblical studies, Oxford. See also

SYNAGOGUE.

[Sidenote: The Prophets]

For the prophetical books the article PROPHET as an introduction, and

then:

ISAIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and, for outline, under BIBLE, Vol. 3, p. 853;

and EMMANUEL (on chap. 7) and MESSIAH and ATONEMENT (on chap. 53).

JEREMIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the articles BARUCH, ZEDEKIAH,

NEBUCHADREZZAR, EDOM, AMMONITES, MOAB.

LAMENTATIONS, by the Rev. Charles James Ball, lecturer in ASSYRIOLOGY,

Oxford, with peculiarly valuable information about poetical structure

and acrostic verse, some suggested emendations of the text, and a

summary of the arguments in regard to the authorship.

EZEKIEL, by Professor C. H. Toy of Harvard University; and the articles

ZEDEKIAH, and, for certain literary forms, ALLEGORY and PARABLE.

[Sidenote: Minor Prophets]

The Minor Prophets: see Vol. 3, p. 853; Vol. 22, p. 443; Vol. 13, p.

183.

HOSEA, by W. Robertson Smith and the Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson,

professor of church history, Rawdon College, Leeds; articles BAAL, CALF

(GOLDEN), etc.

JOEL, by W. Robertson Smith and T. K. Cheyne; and ESCHATOLOGY, etc.

AMOS, by T. K. Cheyne; JEROBOAM, etc.

OBADIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and EDOM,

ESCHATOLOGY, etc.

JONAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the article NINEVEH, and, for an explanation

of the “great fish,” COSMOGONY.

MICAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and SAMARIA, HIGH

PLACE, MESSIAH, ESCHATOLOGY.

NAHUM, by G. H. Box; NINEVEH, etc.

HABAKKUK, by H. W. Robinson; CHALDAEAN, etc.

ZEPHANIAH, by S. A. Cook; and BAAL, MOLOCH, COSTUME, _Oriental_ (Vol. 7,

p. 226 sq., for chap. 1, v. 8), etc.

HAGGAI, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. A. J. Grieve, professor at the

United Independent College, Bradford; and the article TEMPLE.

ZECHARIAH, by Julius Wellhausen, professor at Göttingen, and H. W.

Robinson; and the articles ANGEL, TEMPLE, MESSIAH, ZION, JAPHETH and

IONIANS (for “Javan” of chap. 9, v. 13).

MALACHI, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson.

[Sidenote: Psalms]

PSALMS is by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Robert Hatch Kennett, Canon of

Ely and professor of Hebrew, Cambridge; read the articles HALLEL, DAVID,

SOLOMON, TEMPLE, LEVITES (for Levitical Psalms), ASAPH, CHRONICLES,

EZRA, PSALTERY, LITURGY, the section of Hebrew Hymnody in, and the whole

article HYMNS; BIBLE, ENGLISH, for the version of the Psalms in the

English Prayer Book from the Great Bible; and, for Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34,

37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, and the article ACROSTIC. See also R. H.

Charles’s article on the apocryphal book, SOLOMON, PSALMS OF.

[Sidenote: Wisdom Literature]

The student should read the article WISDOM LITERATURE, by Prof. C. H.

Toy of Harvard as an introduction to PROVERBS, JOB and ECCLESIASTES (and

to the apocryphal WISDOM, BOOK OF—see article by Professor Toy;

ECCLESIASTICUS,—see article by William Emery Barnes, Hulsean professor

of Divinity, Cambridge; TOBIT,—see article by St. George Stock, lecturer

University of Birmingham; and 4th MACCABEES—see the article MACCABEES,

by Dr. William Fairweather, editor of Maccabees in the “Cambridge Bible

for Schools.”)

PROVERBS, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy; and the articles SOLOMON, PROVERB and,

for other famous collections, PUBLILIUS, ERASMUS, etc.

JOB, by Dr. Andrew B. Davidson, late professor of Oriental languages,

New College, Edinburgh, and author of a Commentary on Job, and Prof. C.

H. Toy; and the articles DEVIL (for the meaning of “Satan” in chap. 1,

v. 6); SABAEANS, UZ, BEHEMOTH, etc.

ECCLESIASTES, by Professor Toy; the articles PESSIMISM, ESCHATOLOGY,

SADDUCEES.

CANTICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson.

[Sidenote: Other Old Testament Books]

ESTHER, by T. K. Cheyne and, on the “additions,” Dr. Robert Henry

Charles, Grinfield lecturer, Oxford; and the articles AHASUERUS, SUSA,

COSMOGONY, PURIM.

RUTH, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles BETHLEHEM,

CALEB, and, for the marriage custom underlying the story, the article on

LEVIRATE.

DANIEL, by John Dyneley Prince, professor of Semitic languages, Columbia

University, and, for the “additions,” Susannah, Bel and the Dragon, and

The Song of the Three Children, the Rev. Dr. Robert Henry Charles; the

article SEMITIC LANGUAGES for the Aramaic of chapters 2 (from verse 4)

to 7; ANGELS, GABRIEL, MICHAEL; CHALDAEAN and CHALDEE; BELSHAZZAR;

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE (for chapters 7–12).

[Sidenote: Apocrypha]

Before passing to the New Testament the student should read the article

APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, by Robert Henry Charles; and the articles on the

separate books: EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF (1 Esdras) and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or

APOCALYPSE), both by Robert Henry Charles; JUDITH, by the same scholar;

ECCLESIASTICUS, by Dr. W. E. Barnes; BARUCH, by R. H. Charles; TOBIT, by

St. George Stock; JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, by R. H. Charles; MACCABEES, BOOKS

OF, and MACCABEES, by the Rev. Dr. William Fairweather; MANASSES, PRAYER

OF, by R. H. Charles, and MANASSEH; and WISDOM, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy.

[Sidenote: New Testament]

The general articles preliminary to a study of the New Testament

are:—besides the part of the article BIBLE dealing with New Testament,

Canon, Criticism, Text, Chronology, etc.—the following:

MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, lecturer

in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.

JESUS CHRIST, by the Very Rev. Dr. Joseph Armitage Robinson, dean of

Westminster, constituting a critical outline of the gospel story.

CHRISTIANITY, by Dr. George William Knox, late professor of philosophy

and history of religion, Union Theological Seminary, New York City.

In outlining a course of study on the New Testament, the order of the

books as printed in English Bibles will not be followed absolutely.

Here, as in studying the Old Testament, a rearrangement may be worth

while for topical study.

[Sidenote: The Gospels]

But first the student should read the article GOSPEL, by the Rev. Dr.

Vincent Henry Stanton, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of

_The Gospels as Historical Documents_, etc.; and the article by Dr.

Kirsopp Lake on TATIAN the compiler of the Diatessaron or “Gospel of the

Four Gospels.”

For the gospel story the student should read the following separate

articles:

JOHN THE BAPTIST, HEROD ANTIPAS, SALOME, JOSEPH (Vol. 15, p. 513, col.

2), MARY, IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, BETHLEHEM, NAZARETH, NAZARENES,

EBIONITES, GALILEE, CAPERNAUM, CANA, JORDAN, PETER, ANDREW, JAMES, JOHN,

PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, THOMAS, MATTHEW, JUDAS, DEMONOLOGY, POSSESSION,

EXORCISM, MIRACLE, MARY MAGDALENE, NATHANAEL, PHARISEES, SADDUCEES,

SABBATH, PASSOVER, EUCHARIST, PARABLE, CAESAREA PHILIPPI, JUDAEA,

JERUSALEM, BETHANY, OLIVES, MOUNT OF; GETHSEMANE, PILATE, CALVARY,

JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA.

In studying the separate Gospels, let the reader follow the order

suggested in the articles GOSPEL and JESUS CHRIST.

First he should study the article MARK, GOSPEL OF, by Dr. Stanton; the

article on ST. MARK, by Dr. James Vernon Bartlett, professor of Church

History, Mansfield College, Oxford, and, for a summary of the points in

the Marcan or Galilean narrative as contrasted with the Jerusalem

narrative in regard to the betrayal of Jesus and the period immediately

following, the article on ST. PETER by Dr. Kirsopp Lake.

MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Vincent H. Stanton, and MATTHEW, by Dr.

J. V. Bartlett; with particular attention to the paragraph on additions

to Mark’s narrative in Vol. 15, p. 355, and to the stress on the

Messianic character, the mention of the church and of St. Peter as the

Rock in chapter 16.

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Stanton, and the biographical sketch of

LUKE, by Dr. Bartlett; and the paragraph on Luke’s additions to Mark’s

narrative in Vol. 15, p. 356. This is the universal gospel, just as

Mark’s was for extra-Palestinian use and Matthew’s particularly for the

Jew, as is shown by the incidents of Zaccheus and of the Samaritan

leper; and Renan’s characterization of the gospel of the one evangelist

who was not a Jew, “the most beautiful book in the world,” is quoted

twice in the Britannica.

JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST., and JOHN (the Apostle), both by Baron Friedrich von

Hügel, author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_: the paragraph on

the distinctive elements of John’s gospel (in Vol. 15, p. 357), such as

the story of John the Baptist (see the article on this “forerunner,” by

G. H. Box, late lecturer in theology, Oxford); the philosophical

prologue (see the article LOGOS, by the late Rev. Dr. Stewart Dingwall

Fordyce Salmon, professor of systematic theology, United Free Church

College, Aberdeen, and the Rev. A. J. Grieve, professor of New Testament

and church history, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford); the

Judean scene as contrasted with the predominance of Galilee and Samaria

in the other three (synoptic) gospels, and the prominence given to great

abstract ideas and symbols—the Light of the World, the Living Bread, the

Only-Begotten, the Re-Birth, Eternal Life, the Way, the Truth, and the

Life, Water and Wine, the Paraclete, and the refrain and variations on

the theme of Love.

Before studying the articles dealing with the book of ACTS, let the

reader consult Dr. Garvie’s article MIRACLE, for a study of the

supernatural and particularly for a development of the argument for

miracles from “the congruity of the miracle with divine truth and

grace”; the miracles of Jesus, and of the apostles, consist in “the

relief of need, the removal of suffering, the recovery of health and

strength.”

[Sidenote: Acts]

The article ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, by Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett, should be

supplemented by referring again to the article LUKE, and the student

should call to mind that the probable author was not a Jew, was a

personal friend and traveling companion of both Paul and Peter, and was

a physician, a trained scientific observer, as can be seen not only from

his descriptions of disease, but from his accuracy in geographical,

meteorological and other matters. The importance of the testimony of the

physician to the miracles of the apostles is brought out (p. 164, top of

column 2) in the article on the book. For the study of ACTS, besides the

article on the book, read the following separate articles:

LUKE, PETER, JOHN, JUDAS, ACELDAMA, MATTHIAS, PENTECOST, TONGUES, GIFT

OF; ANANIAS, GAMALIEL, STEPHEN, SIMON MAGUS, PHILIP, PAUL, JOPPA,

ANTIOCH, HEROD, BARNABAS, ICONIUM, LYCAONIA, MARK, TIMOTHY, SILAS,

PHILIPPI, THESSALONICA, ATHENS, AREOPAGUS, CORINTH, AQUILA, APOLLOS,

EPHESUS, FELIX, ANANIAS, AGRIPPA.

[Sidenote: St. Paul]

For a study of the book of Acts, which was probably written before any

one of the Gospels, one will need constantly to refer in the Britannica

to the article on PAUL, THE APOSTLE (Vol. 20, p. 938), by Dr. J. Vernon

Bartlett. This article, equivalent to 55 pages in this Guide, is so

important that it will be well to outline it here. After an

introduction, in which Paul’s attitude toward Jewish legalism is made an

explanation of the superficially obvious contrast between Jesus and

Paul, there is a biographical sketch: Paul of Tarsus, a Roman citizen

with Roman name, talking Latin and not a narrow, one-sided Jew; his

Jewish training; in Jerusalem, under Gamaliel (see the article

GAMALIEL); first impressions as to Jesus, and Saul as persecutor; the

vision at Damascus and its spiritual content; his new theory of the law

and its universal value; Christology of Paul,—his deep insight into

Jesus’s character; Paul’s theology rooted in experience; his early

apostolate; his first missionary journey; the issue of Gentile

Christianity raised; Paul’s conciliatory spirit; Peter’s visit to

Antioch; Paul’s protest; the second mission tour; Paul in Europe—Athens,

Corinth, etc.; first missionary letters; as an ethical teacher; Paul,

the Law, the Spirit; later travels; later letters; Paulinism—its

Christocentric character; apparent contrasts and contradictions between

Paul’s gospel and Jesus’s gospel—one seen through the eyes of a

conscious sinner, the other the sinless consciousness of the Saviour;

Paul’s position between Judaeo-Christianity and Gnosticism—see also the

article GNOSTICISM, by Wilhelm Bousset, professor of New Testament

exegesis, Göttingen.

[Sidenote: The Pauline Epistles]

In general on the Pauline epistles the student should not only read this

article PAUL, but should turn again to the treatment of New Testament

canon in the article BIBLE (Vol. 3, pp. 872–873), and should look over

the first part of the article JESUS CHRIST which finds in 1st

Thessalonians the earliest extant document of Christianity. Then let him

read the articles:

THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, by the Rev. James Everett Frame,

professor of Biblical theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York

City. See also in the article PAUL (Vol. 20, pp. 945–946) for Paul at

Thessalonica, and the articles ESCHATOLOGY and APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

for the doctrine of the “second coming” or “Parousia,” especially in 2

Thess., chap. 2.

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, by the Rev. Dr. James Hardy Ropes,

professor of New Testament criticism and interpretation, Harvard; and

the articles CORINTH, APOLLOS, PETER, ASCETICISM, FASTING, EUCHARIST (1

Cor., chap. 11, vs. 23 sqq. is the oldest extant account of the Lord’s

Supper), TITUS.

GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by the Rev. Dr. James Moffatt, author of _The

Historical New Testament_: and the articles GALATIA (for the “South

Galatian” theory), ANTINOMIANISM (for Christianity _vs._ legalism).

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. Moffatt; and the article HEBREW RELIGION

for the covenant which Paul here presents as one of faith and not of the

law.

EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Prof. J. H. Ropes, pointing out that the

theme is “the unity of mankind in Christ and hence the unity and

divinity of the Church of Christ”; the article EPHESUS; the articles on

COLOSSIANS and on 1st PETER for textual criticism; the article MARRIAGE

for Paul’s influence (Eph. ch. 5, v. 23–32) on the Church’s attitude

toward marriage; and the article GNOSTICISM for the tendency in the

church which Paul attacked in this epistle and in Colossians.

COLOSSIANS, by Prof. J. E. Frame; the article COLOSSAE; ANGEL (on chap.

2, v. 18); ASCETICISM (on chap. 2, v. 16).

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, by Dr. Moffatt; the article SLAVERY, _Rome_ (Vol.

25, p. 218) for the status of a runaway like Onesimus.

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. Moffatt; the article PHILIPPI;

ANTINOMIANISM (on the beginning of chap. 3); and on the Kenosis or

emptying of self of Christ in Phil. 2, 7, see the article on CHARLES

GORE (Vol. 2, p. 255), and in the article THEOLOGY the discussion in

column 1 of p. 781 (Vol. 26).

TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO; and TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO, by Dr.

Moffatt; the article TIMOTHY; the articles MARRIAGE and CELIBACY (on 1

Tim. 4, 3); FASTING, the article GNOSTICISM (for the “knowledge falsely

so-called” of 1 Tim. 6, 20), and the article PASTORAL EPISTLES on these

letters and on that to Titus. The article TITUS has much important

criticism on Timothy.

TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO, by Dr. Moffatt; the articles BISHOP and

PRESBYTER, etc.

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett; and, on authorship,

the articles PAUL, BARNABAS, APOLLOS, LUKE, CLEMENT, STEPHEN; and the

articles CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, HEBREW RELIGION, TEMPLE, ATONEMENT AND

DAY OF ATONEMENT, ANGEL, MOSES, PRIEST, AARON, MELCHIZEDEK, SACRIFICE,

MESSIAH.

[Sidenote: The Other Epistles]

Before turning to the articles on the other books of the New Testament,

let the student read a part of the article THEOLOGY, by the Rev. Dr.

Robert Mackintosh of the Lancashire Independent College, Manchester,

with special attention to the paragraphs (end of p. 773 and p. 774, Vol.

26) on Jewish theology, St. Paul and contents of the New Testament. Here

“Paulinism” is shown not merely in the Pauline writings but in the Acts,

in 1st Peter (“good independent Paulinism”), and even in the Apocalypse,

at least as regards the atonement and Christology. “The Johannine Gospel

and Epistles are later than Paulinism, and presuppose its leading or

less startling positions.” And the same article (p. 783) after pointing

out that Luther and the evangelical revival “went back to St. Paul” asks

“can Christianity not dig deeper by going back to Jesus?” The writer

also suggests that the German school of Ritschl in “not idolizing

Paulinism” have “idolized Luther.”

The other principal topics to be studied are:

JAMES, EPISTLE OF, by the Rev. Dr. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, professor of

New Testament criticism and exegesis, Yale; the article on JAMES by the

Rev. Dr. George Milligan, Professor of divinity and Biblical criticism,

Glasgow; and the articles REVELATION, CLEMENT, HERMAS, etc., for the

question of date and relation with other writings; WISDOM LITERATURE,

for earlier writings on the “Wisdom” and proverbial expressions of

chapter 3; MATTHEW, for a similar view of the gospel and the Church; and

on “Justification,” vol. 20, p. 954, in article PAUL.

PETER, EPISTLES OF, by Dr. Kirsopp Lake; the article on ST. PETER, by

the same scholar. For a date earlier than that of the Epistle of James,

see the article on that book. See also ROMANS and POLYCARP to supplement

what is here said of the relations of 1st Peter to these writings; and

ESCHATOLOGY on the expected “second coming” of 2nd Peter, chapter 3, vs.

1–13, and JUDE, EPISTLE OF, on its relation to this book.

JUDE, EPISTLE OF, by Prof. B. W. Bacon of Yale; the article on

HEGESIPPUS, the authority for the little we know of Jude; the articles

ESCHATOLOGY (for “the last time” of verse 18), ANGEL (for vs. 6, 9),

MICHAEL, and especially the articles APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE; MOSES,

ASSUMPTION OF; and ENOCH, BOOK OF, for the allusions in verses 9 and 14.

Under the head of Johannine are grouped, besides the fourth gospel, the

three epistles of John and the Revelation. On these see:

[Sidenote: Johannine Writings]

JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF, by Dr. Moffatt, and the article on St. John in

regard to authorship, which may more probably be assigned to John the

presbyter; and the articles ANTICHRIST (on 1 John, 2, 22), GNOSTICISM

(for chap. 3, vs. 4–7), etc.

REVELATION, BOOK OF, by the Rev. Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in

Biblical studies, Oxford. This book, and this article, should be studied

in connection with the article, also by Dr. Charles, on APOCALYPTIC

LITERATURE, and the canonical apocalyptic passages in Mark 13, Mathew

24, Luke 21 and 2nd Thessalonians 2, as well as the extra-canonical

apocalypses described in APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE and in the separate

articles ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF, and HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF. Besides see the

articles ESCHATOLOGY, MILLENIUM. The student should read the article

NERO, even if “666” does not certainly refer to him, and the articles

DOMITIAN and VESPASIAN on the possibility that one of them may have been

“the beast that was and is not, ... himself also an eighth” (see

footnote on p. 220, Vol. 23).

[Sidenote: Apocryphal Literature]

As an epilogue the student should read the articles APOCRYPHAL

LITERATURE, both of the Old and New Testament periods, by Dr. Charles

and at least the first part, by Dr. A. C. McGiffert of Union Theological

Seminary, New York City, of the article CHURCH HISTORY.

[Sidenote: A Biblical Encyclopaedia]

The study outline sketched in this chapter will give the student some

idea of the possibilities of the Britannica in helping him. The list of

articles dealing with the Bible on pp. 944–945 of the Index (Vol. 29)

will show that in the Britannica there is an adequate and excellent

encyclopaedia of the Bible or text-book of Bible Study.

CHAPTER XLII

HISTORY, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL

When you turn to the new Britannica to study history, you naturally

expect to learn a great deal that will be new to you. But you can

anticipate something more and better than that. You will find a great

deal that is new to _everyone_, even to those who have been reading

history for years. For the contributors to the work, in making a

completely fresh survey of the whole field of human knowledge, were

helping one another to obtain new light upon the history of even the

earliest periods. As all the articles were completed before a single

volume was printed, there was such an opportunity for comparison and

revision as has never before existed. When research upon one subject had

disclosed new evidence that was of value in relation to another subject,

the contributors and editors could co-operate as fully as if they had

all been assembled in a great international congress. And the result of

this collaboration is that the publication of the new Britannica does

more, at one stroke, to advance historical knowledge, to solve

historical doubts, and to correct historical mistakes than is done by

isolated historians in the course of a generation.

[Sidenote: Authority]

With this idea of _combined_ effort clearly before you, consider for a

moment the accumulated individual authority of such individual

specialists as those who deal with history in the Britannica. There are,

to name only a few, the Germans Eduard Meyer and Schiemann of Berlin,

Hashagen of Bonn, von Pastor of Innsbruck, Pauli of Göttingen, Keutgen

of Hamburg, and Count Lützow; Frenchmen like Mgr. Duchesne, Luchaire,

Valois, Anchel, Halphen, Babelon and Bémont; the Italians Villari,

Barnabei and Balzani; the Canadians Doughty, Grant, Dionne and Wrong;

among Americans, J. H. Robinson, W. A. Dunning, H. L. Osgood, C. H.

Hayes, G. W. Botsford, and J. T. Shotwell of Columbia; President

Emeritus Charles W. Eliot, and Drs. Edward Channing, F. J. Turner and

Charles Gross of Harvard; Drs. A. D. Morse, R. B. Richardson and

Preserved Smith of Amherst; Dr. T. F. Collier of Williams; Professors

William Graham Sumner, G. Burton Adams and J. C. Schwab of Yale; Prof.

Grant Showerman of Wisconsin; Prof. William MacDonald of Brown; Profs.

Fleming and Scroggs of Louisiana; Dr. McMaster of Pennsylvania; Prof. I.

J. Cox of Cincinnati; the late Alexander Johnston of Princeton; Prof. W.

Roy Smith of Bryn Mawr; Henry Cabot Lodge, Carl Schurz and James Ford

Rhodes; and—to mention only a few English names—S. R. Gardiner, Edward

Freeman, Thomas Hodgkin, James Bryce, James Gairdner, J. D. Bury, C. W.

C. Oman, A. F. Pollard, J. H. Round, H. W. C. Davis, Osmund Airy, G. W.

Prothero, John Morley, Reginald Lane Poole, J. Holland Rose, F. J.

Haverfield, W. Alison Phillips, Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, R. Nisbet

Bain, W. Warde Fowler, J. L. Myres, J. S. Reid, W. J. Brodribb and H. F.

Pelham.

So much for the quality of the historical matter in the Britannica. The

quantity is equally remarkable.

_If the history in the Britannica was printed in the usual volumes on

heavy paper, containing 100,000 words to a volume, it would fill about

70 such volumes, or, say, four good-sized shelves in an ordinary

“unit” bookcase._

[Sidenote: Method of Treatment]

Every country and every event from the earliest syllable of recorded

time receives its proper treatment. Under such circumstances it is

obvious that in the limits of this Guide it would not be possible to

give outlines of courses of historical readings for all nations and

periods. Such readings in history alone would more than fill this whole

Guide. But the information is all in the Britannica, and what has been

said above will give the reader some notion of the authority of the

articles written by natives of nearly every civilized country in the

world, and some idea of the scope of treatment. The character of the

subject matter of history and the method of treatment in the Britannica

combine to make minute outlines less necessary for historical study than

for the pursuit of a course in almost any other subject. The Britannica,

the student will quickly see, contains in each instance a “key” article

on the history of each nation—either as a separate article, like ENGLISH

HISTORY or ROMAN HISTORY or as a historical section of the article on

the country—for instance, in the article GREECE there is a

“sub-article,” so to say, on history (Vol. 12, pp. 440–470), and in the

article UNITED STATES a sub-article on American history (Vol. 27, pp.

663–735). The student of any country’s history should read _first_ such

an article or sub-article, so that he will get a big outline view of the

subject, and then use it as a basis or starting point for further

reading, looking up in the Index volume the important topics mentioned

in the main article. These will be:

(1) Articles on the history of parts of the country he is

studying—states, provinces, counties, kingdoms, duchies, cities and

towns.

(2) Biographies of rulers, statesmen, soldiers, reformers, etc.

(3) Articles on wars and battles, each under its proper heading.

(4) Articles on movements and changes, sometimes of national, sometimes

of international importance, the Renaissance, political parties,

economic, political and religious revolutions, the Crusades, etc.

(5) Articles on churches, sects and denominations of historical

importance in the country under consideration.

But although it is impossible to give in this Guide complete courses of

reading for the history of all countries, it is possible and desirable

to give it in cases where it would be most useful to the greatest number

of readers.

The following chapter is an outline course of study in the _History of

the United States_, which is given in some detail, because it has a

peculiar interest to Americans.

Next is given an outline of a course of reading in Canadian and then in

English History, then in French History, and then in the History of the

countries of the Far East, India, China and Japan. These will show the

reader how fully and authoritatively the history of countries, whether

near or distant, is given in the Britannica; and if he wishes to pursue

his studies into the record of other countries, it is certain that with

these for an example, and with the aid of the Index, he will have no

trouble in so doing.

CHAPTER XLIII

AMERICAN HISTORY

The plan adopted in most of the chapters of this Guide is to give a

separate account of each of the more important articles on the subject

to which the chapter is devoted. But in the case of American history,

the articles are so numerous, and are so accurately dovetailed to make a

continuous story, that the reader’s convenience has been better served

by reversing this process, and grouping the articles under the periods

with which they deal. The reader is thus enabled to turn at once to any

one of the outstanding episodes of the story, and to find explicit

references to those parts of the Britannica in which the narrative is

continued from one article to another. The summary has been put in the

form of a table, in order that its contents may more easily be surveyed.

There is a much fuller summary, in narrative form, in the Britannica

itself in the historical portion of the article UNITED STATES (Vol. 27,

pp. 663–735). This is the most complete condensed history of the country

that has ever been written. It is not quite so long as this entire

Guide; but from each of its 412 sections the reader can turn to articles

describing in detail the events consecutively outlined.

It has been taken for granted that the reader will recognize the natural

connection between this and other chapters of the Guide. For example, no

attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate the articles,

elsewhere described, which discuss the history of American industries

and commerce, railroads and shipping, finance and economics, art and

literature. Again, the particular history of a city, town, or river may

be of the greatest interest in itself, although the events with which

its name is associated were not so typical of any period as to give the

article a place in the present chapter. Similarly, the numerous and

elaborate American biographies are represented, in this chapter, only by

the names of the foremost statesmen and soldiers of the periods included

in the table. In short, the articles named are so few, in proportion to

all those which directly relate to American history, that the general

effect is to make the space which the Britannica devotes to the subject

seem less than it really is. But it is not the purpose of this Guide to

impress upon the reader the magnitude of the volumes he is using. In

that respect the Britannica speaks for itself. The table instances a few

of the main topics of American history, in order to show the reader how

he may plan fuller courses of reading by combining other articles on the

principle indicated by these illustrations.

The left hand columns present a brief outline of the main periods and

aspects of American history. The right hand columns give the titles of

the articles to be read, the page numbers as well as the volume numbers

(so that when the reference is to only one section of a long article the

reader can find it at once) and the names of the contributors.

_Topics for Reading_ _Articles_

_The Aborigines._

Where did they come from, and when? AMERICA, _Ethnology and

Their food, tools, clothing and Archaeology_ (Vol. 1, p. 810,

customs. How they carried on fully illustrated), by Otis

their wars. Their practical Tufton Mason, late curator,

knowledge and religion. What the Department of Anthropology,

white man has learned from the National Museum, Washington;

Indians. Over 1000 languages and author of _Primitive Travel and

dialects in America. Transportation_, etc.

INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (Vol. 14,

p. 452), by Dr. A. F.

Chamberlain, professor of

anthropology, Clark University.

Evidence of Asiatic origin. A state ARCHAEOLOGY (Vol. 2, p. 349), by

of culture in Mexico and Peru, Dr. Charles H. Read, keeper of

“which in some respects must have British and Medieval Antiquities

put the Spaniards to shame.” and Ethnography, British Museum.

The fascinating story of the MEXICO, _Ancient History and

Aztecs. Did the Asiatic peoples Civilization_ (Vol. 18, p. 329),

make voyages to America long by Dr. E. B. Tylor, professor of

before Columbus? anthropology at Oxford; author of

_Methods and Results in Mexican

Research_.

The splendid past of Central CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology of_

America. What was accomplished (Vol. 5, p. 677), by Dr. Walter

during the 500 years of Mayan Lehmann, Royal Ethnographical

culture. An interesting calendar. Museum, Munich.

_First Voyages of Discovery._

The Northmen first Europeans to VINLAND (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Julius

reach American continent, about E. Olson, professor of

1000 A.D. The story of the Scandinavian languages,

Icelandic sagas. Was Vinland Nova University of Wisconsin, editor

Scotia? of _Voyages of the Northmen_,

etc.

The accident of Leif’s discovery of LEIF ERICSSON (Vol. 16, p. 396), by

the American continent. Dr. C. R. Beazley, professor of

modern history in the University

of Birmingham, author of _The

Dawn of Modern Geography_.

The first colonizer (A.D. 1002). THORFINN KARLSEFNI (Vol. 26, p.

Fate of the colony. The hostile 878), by Dr. C. R. Beazley,

Skraelings. author of _The_ _Dawn of Modern

Geography_, etc.

_Columbus and His Successors._

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). AMERICA, _General Historical

Sketch_ (Vol. 1, p. 806), by

David Hannay, author of _A Short

History of the Royal Navy_.

Columbus thinks he discovers Asia. COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (Vol. 6, p.

His voyages and colonies 741), by Dr. C. R. Beazley,

(1492–1504). author of _The Dawn of Modern

Geography_, etc.

Discovery of the Mainland (1497). CABOT, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 921), by

Henry P. Biggar, author of _The

Voyage of the Cabots to

Greenland_.

How the New World received its VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (Vol. 27, p.

name. The beginning of free-lance 1053), by Dr. C. R. Beazley,

expeditions. The mystery of the author of _The Dawn of Modern

voyage of 1497. Geography_, etc.

The Discovery of the Pacific BALBOA, VASCO NUÑEZ DE (Vol. 3, p.

(1513). 241).

The existence of a new continent MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (Vol. 17, p.

distinct from Asia revealed to 302), by Dr. C. R. Beazley,

the world. First circumnavigation author of _The Dawn of Modern

of the globe. The Pacific Ocean Geography_, etc.

named (1520).

PACIFIC OCEAN, _History_ (Vol. 20,

p. 438).

The Conquest of Mexico (1519–1521). CORTES, HERNAN (Vol. 7, p. 205).

“The Descendant of the Sun.”

Discovery of Lower California.

Ingratitude of Charles V.

CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Vol. 5, p. 21).

Exploration of Guatemala and SOTO, FERDINANDO DE (Vol. 25, p.

Yucatan (1528), and the 435).

Mississippi (1541).

France attacks Spain in the New LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE (Vol. 16,

World. p. 232).

Discovery of the St. Lawrence CARTIER, JACQUES (Vol. 5, p. 433),

(1534). How Canada got its name. by H. P. Biggar, author of _The

Early Canadian History. Voyage of the Cabots to

Greenland_.

CANADA, _History_ (Vol. 5, p. 156),

by Dr. George McKinnon Wrong,

University of Toronto.

Foundation of Quebec (1608). CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (Vol. 5, p.

Discovery of Lake Champlain 830), by Prof. Narcisse E.

(1609). Champlain assists Dionne, Librarian of the

Algonquins and Hurons against the Legislature of the Province of

Iroquois. The beginning of the Quebec, author of _Life of Samuel

murderous conflicts between the de Champlain, Founder of Quebec_,

French and the Iroquois. etc.

The Fortunes of New France. FRONTENAC (Vol. 11, p. 249), by Dr.

Colonial Expansion. Horrors of Arthur G. Doughty, Dominion

Indian Warfare. archivist of Canada, author of

_The Cradle of New France_, etc.

Louisiana in possession of France LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT, SIEUR DE

(1682). Discovery of the Ohio (Vol. 16, p. 230), by Charles C.

River. Whinery, assistant editor,

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The first English colony (1583) NEWFOUNDLAND, _History_ (Vol. 19,

unsuccessful. p. 482), by Beckles Willson,

author of _The Romance of

Canada_, etc.

The persistent efforts of Raleigh NORTH CAROLINA, _History_ (Vol. 19,

(1584–1587). First English child p. 775).

born in America (Aug. 15, 1587).

NORTH CAROLINA, _History_ (Vol. 19,

p. 775).

RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (Vol. 22, p.

869), by David Hannay, author of

_Short History of the Royal

Navy_.

The first permanent English VIRGINIA, _History_ (Vol. 28, p.

settlement (1607). 122).

JAMESTOWN (Vol. 15, p. 148).

_Colonial Expansion and Development

of Imperial Control._

The Thirteen Original Colonies, UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

their Founders and Leaders, and p. 663), by Dr. Herbert L.

their early Struggles. Osgood, professor of history,

Columbia University, author of

_The American Colonies in the

17th Century_, etc.

Virginia. VIRGINIA (Vol. 28, p. 122).

JAMESTOWN (Vol. 15, p. 148).

SMITH, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 264).

GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (Vol. 12, p.

265).

BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 3, p.

781).

BLAIR, JAMES (Vol. 4, p. 34).

SPOTSWOOD, ALEXANDER (Vol. 25, p.

735).

North Carolina. NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 775).

South Carolina. SOUTH CAROLINA (Vol. 25, p. 503).

New England. NEW ENGLAND (Vol. 19, p. 476).

Massachusetts. MASSACHUSETTS (Vol. 17, p. 858).

PLYMOUTH, MASS. (Vol. 21, p. 863).

BRADFORD, WILLIAM (Vol. 4, p. 370).

STANDISH, MILES (Vol. 25, p. 772)

ALDEN, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 533).

WINSLOW, EDWARD (Vol. 28, p. 733).

ENDECOTT, JOHN (Vol. 9, p. 382).

SALEM (Vol. 24, p. 62).

WINTHROP, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 736).

BOSTON, MASS. (Vol. 4, p. 290).

IPSWICH, MASS. (Vol. 14, p. 739).

VANE, SIR HENRY (Vol. 27, p. 892).

HUTCHINSON, ANNE (Vol. 14, p. 12).

Maine (a part of Massachusetts). MAINE (Vol. 17, p. 439).

POPHAM, SIR JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 88).

GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (Vol. 12, p.

256).

PORTLAND, ME. (Vol. 22, p. 120).

Rhode Island. RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 251).

WILLIAMS, ROGER (Vol. 28, p. 682).

PROVIDENCE (Vol. 22, p. 512).

New Hampshire. NEW HAMPSHIRE (Vol. 19, p. 496).

PORTSMOUTH, N. H. (Vol. 22, p.

132).

Connecticut. CONNECTICUT (Vol. 6, p. 954).

HOOKER, THOMAS (Vol. 13, p. 674).

NEW HAVEN (Vol. 19, p. 499).

EATON, THEOPHILUS (Vol. 8, p. 838).

HARTFORD (Vol. 13, p. 33).

Vermont. VERMONT (Vol. 27, p. 1028).

Indian Wars in New England. PEQUOT (Vol. 21, p. 132).

PHILIP, KING (Vol. 21, p. 389).

New York. NEW YORK (Vol. 19, p. 603).

HUDSON, HENRY (Vol. 13, p. 849).

IROQUOIS (Vol. 14, p. 839).

NEW YORK (CITY) (Vol. 19, p. 620).

ALBANY (Vol. 1, p. 490).

STATEN ISLAND (Vol. 25, p. 802).

LONG ISLAND (Vol. 16, p. 982).

STUYVESANT, PETER (Vol. 25, p.

1055).

New Jersey. NEW JERSEY (Vol. 19, p. 508).

CARTERET, SIR GEORGE (Vol. 5, p.

413).

ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (Vol. 2, p. 1).

ELIZABETH, N. J. (Vol. 9, p. 287).

Delaware. DELAWARE (Vol. 7, p. 949).

LEWES (Vol. 16, p. 522).

NEW CASTLE (Vol. 19, p. 472).

WILMINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 690).

Pennsylvania. PENNSYLVANIA (Vol. 21, p. 111).

PENN, WILLIAM (Vol. 21, p. 99), by

Osmund Airy, author of _Charles

II_, editor of the _Lauderdale

Papers_, etc.

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF (Vol. 11, p.

227).

PHILADELPHIA (Vol. 21, p. 372).

Maryland. MARYLAND (Vol. 17, p. 831), by N.

D. Mereness, Ph.D., author of

_Maryland as a Proprietary

Province_.

BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1st

Baron (Vol. 3, p. 288).

BALTIMORE (Vol. 3, p. 290).

MASON AND DIXON LINE (Vol. 17, p.

841).

Georgia. GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 755).

OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD (Vol. 20,

p. 24).

SAVANNAH (Vol. 24, p. 240).

_The French and Indian Wars._

Struggle of the British and the UNITED STATES, _History_, The

French in America. Pressure of Struggle with the French

British on the French “paper (1690–1760) (Vol. 27, p. 670), by

barriers.” Old-World quarrel Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia

carried into the New World. University.

CANADA, _History_ (Vol. 5, p. 156),

by Prof. G. M. Wrong, author of

_A Canadian Manor and Its

Seigneurs_, etc.

Capture of Louisburg, 1745. LOUISBURG (Vol. 17, p. 52).

Albany Congress of 1754. ALBANY, N. Y. (Vol. 1, p. 490).

The Continental Contest of which SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 24, p. 715),

the French and Indian Wars were a by Col. F. N. Maude, author of

part. _War and the World’s Policy_, and

David Hannay, author of _Short

History of the Royal Navy_.

Western Campaigns. In Pennsylvania PITTSBURG (Vol. 21, p. 680).

and Virginia.

BRADDOCK, EDWARD (Vol. 4, p. 369).

PONTIAC (Vol. 22, p. 65).

DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (Vol. 8, p. 278).

SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 24, p. 991).

The New York Frontier and Fighting TICONDEROGA (Vol. 26, p. 937).

there.

GEORGE, LAKE (Vol. 11, p. 748).

NIAGARA, FORT (Vol. 19, p. 634).

JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 15, p.

472).

The Campaign against Quebec and its QUEBEC (Vol. 22, p. 728).

Capture by the British.

WOLFE, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 773).

MONTCALM (Vol. 18, p. 761).

_Colonization on the Pacific

Coast._

Spanish Government in California. CALIFORNIA, _History_ (Vol. 5, p.

Rule of the Missions. “A complete 17).

failure save in the acquisition

of material wealth.”

The Spaniards neglect northwestern OREGON, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.

America. 247).

British Traders seize the HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY (Vol. 13, p.

opportunity. 852).

_The Colonial Revolt and Events

Leading up to It._

(1763–1783). UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

p. 672), by Prof. H. L. Osgood,

Columbia University.

Immediate Causes:

The Stamp Act (1765). STAMP (Vol. 25, p. 772).

Boston Massacre and Boston Tea BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 296);

Party. HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (Vol. 14, p.

13).

Suffolk Resolves. MILTON, MASS. (Vol. 18, p. 492).

Mecklenburg Resolutions and NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 776).

“Declaration,” May, 1775.

Virginia leaders decide on VIRGINIA, _History_ (Vol. 28, p.

independence to secure foreign 123).

assistance.

The Leaders of Public Opinion:

Virginia. HENRY, PATRICK (Vol. 13, p. 300),

by N. D. Mereness, author of

_Maryland, a Proprietary

Province_.

WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p.

344), by Prof. William MacDonald,

Brown University.

LEE, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 16, p.

362).

Massachusetts. OTIS, JAMES (Vol. 20, p. 366).

ADAMS, SAMUEL (Vol. 1, p. 180), by

Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard.

ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176).

New Hampshire. LANGDON, JOHN (Vol. 16, p. 172).

Pennsylvania. DICKINSON, JOHN (Vol. 8, p. 184).

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p.

24), by Richard Webster.

New York. HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p.

881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and

Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Conservative Leaders. LOYALISTS, or TORIES (Vol. 17, p.

79).

GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (Vol. 11, p. 421).

SEABURY, SAMUEL (Vol. 24, p. 531).

TRYON, WILLIAM (Vol. 27, p. 340).

JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM and SIR JOHN

(Vol. 15, p. 472).

Why did not the Canadians revolt? QUEBEC ACT (Vol. 22, p. 729).

_Declaration of Independence._

Resolution of Independence adopted INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF (Vol.

July 2. 14, p. 372), by Dr. F. S.

Philbrick.

Jefferson’s Declaration adopted

July 4. Most of the signatures

affixed Aug. 2. One not until

1781.

Some of the “Signers”:

Virginia. JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p.

301), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.

LEE, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 16, p.

362).

LEE, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT (Vol. 16, p.

362).

Massachusetts. HANCOCK, JOHN (Vol. 12, p. 908).

ADAMS, SAMUEL (Vol. 1, p. 180), by

Prof. Edward Channing.

ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by

Prof. Edward Channing.

PAINE, ROBERT TREAT (Vol. 20, p.

456).

GERRY, ELBRIDGE (Vol. 11, p. 903).

New York. LIVINGSTON, PHILIP (Vol. 16, p.

813).

Pennsylvania. MORRIS, ROBERT (Vol. 18, p. 871).

RUSH, BENJAMIN (Vol. 23, p. 857).

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p.

24).

WILSON, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 693).

New Jersey. WITHERSPOON, JOHN (Vol. 28, p.

759).

HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (Vol. 13, p.

685).

Connecticut. SHERMAN, ROGER (Vol. 24, p. 851).

WOLCOTT, OLIVER (Vol. 28, p. 770).

Rhode Island. ELLERY, WILLIAM (Vol. 9, p. 290).

Maryland. CARROLL, CHARLES (Vol. 5, p. 409).

South Carolina. MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (Vol. 18, p.

415).

RUTLEDGE, EDWARD (Vol. 23, p. 945).

English Opinion and Policy. GEORGE III (Vol. 11, p. 740), by

Dr. S. R. Gardiner, author of

_History of England_.

GUILFORD, FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd Earl

(Lord North) (Vol. 12, p. 691).

“Conciliation.” BURKE, EDMUND (Vol. 4, p. 824), by

John Morley (Viscount Morley of

Blackburn).

CHATHAM, EARL OF (Pitt) (Vol. 6, p.

1).

FOX, CHARLES JAMES (Vol. 10, p.

761), by David Hannay.

American Foreign Agents and their FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p.

work, especially in France, 24).

during the war.

DEANE, SILAS (Vol. 7, p. 898).

LEE, ARTHUR (Vol. 16, p. 360).

JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).

_The War for Independence._

General outline. AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (Vol.

1, p. 842), by Prof. Harry Phelps

Johnston, New York University,

author of _Loyalist History of

the Revolution_, and, for naval

affairs, by David Hannay, author

of _A Short History of the Royal

Navy_.

American Leaders REVERE, PAUL (Vol. 23, p. 223).

In early fighting in Massachusetts WARREN, JOSEPH (Vol. 28, p. 330).

PUTNAM, ISRAEL (Vol. 22, p. 670).

WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p.

344), by Prof. William MacDonald,

Brown University.

On the border and in Canada ALLEN, ETHAN (Vol. 1, p. 691).

MONTGOMERY, RICHARD (Vol. 18, p.

784).

ARNOLD, BENEDICT (Vol. 2, p. 633).

SCHUYLER, PHILIP JOHN (Vol. 24, p.

387).

In the Middle States WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p.

344), by Prof. William MacDonald,

Brown University.

STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL

OF (Vol. 25, p. 925).

KNOX, HENRY (Vol. 15, p. 878).

STARK, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 798).

WAYNE, ANTHONY (Vol. 28, p. 432).

GATES, HORATIO (Vol. 11, p. 529).

BENEDICT, ARNOLD (Vol. 2, p. 633).

SULLIVAN, JOHN (Vol. 26, p. 57).

In the South MOULTRIE, WILLIAM (Vol. 18, p.

935).

MORGAN, DANIEL (Vol. 18, p. 833).

MARION, FRANCIS (Vol. 17, p. 722).

PICKENS, ANDREW (Vol. 21, p. 582).

SUMTER, THOMAS (Vol. 26, p. 85).

SHELBY, ISAAC (Vol. 24, p. 826).

GATES, HORATIO (Vol. 11, p. 529).

LEE, HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 361).

GREENE, NATHANIEL (Vol. 12, p.

588).

In the Northwest CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (Vol. 6, p.

442).

On Sea JONES, JOHN PAUL (Vol. 15, p. 499).

HOPKINS, ESEK (Vol. 13, p. 684).

Foreign Officers in the War

French LAFAYETTE (Vol. 16, p. 65).

ROCHAMBEAU (Vol. 23, p. 425).

GRASSE, COMTE DE (Vol. 12, p. 369).

ESTAING, C. H. D’ (Vol. 9, p. 789).

Polish KOSCIUSZKO (Vol. 15, p. 914).

PULASKI (Vol. 22, p. 640).

German STEUBEN (Vol. 25, p. 904).

KALB, JOHANN (Vol. 15, p. 639).

English Leaders

On land HOWE, WILLIAM (Vol. 13, p. 839).

CLINTON, SIR HENRY (Vol. 6, p.

529).

BURGOYNE, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 819).

ANDRÉ, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 968).

CORNWALLIS, CHARLES (Vol. 7, p.

183).

TARLETON, SIR BANASTRE (Vol. 26, p.

428).

On sea HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF (Lord Rawdon)

(Vol. 13, p. 53).

HOWE, RICHARD (Vol. 13, p. 836).

RODNEY, GEORGE BRYDGES (Vol. 23, p.

447).

BYRON, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 906).

The Principal Engagements of the

War, Separately Treated

Around Boston LEXINGTON (Vol. 16, p. 527).

CONCORD (Vol. 6, p. 830).

BUNKER HILL (Vol. 4, p. 798).

BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 296).

Canada and the Border TICONDEROGA (Vol. 26, p. 938).

CROWN POINT (Vol. 7, p. 519).

QUEBEC (Vol. 22, p. 728).

Middle States LONG ISLAND (Vol. 16, p. 984), by

C. F. Atkinson, author of _The

Wilderness and Cold Harbour_.

NEW YORK CITY (Vol. 19, p. 622).

TRENTON AND PRINCETON (Vol. 27, p.

252).

BRANDYWINE (Vol. 4, p. 430).

GERMANTOWN (Vol. 11, p. 804).

SARATOGA (Vol. 24, p. 205).

BENNINGTON (Vol. 3, p. 743).

VALLEY FORGE (Vol. 27, p. 864).

MONMOUTH (Vol. 18, p. 727).

STONY POINT (Vol. 25, p. 966).

WEST POINT (Vol. 28, p. 559).

South CHARLESTON (Vol. 5, p. 944).

CAMDEN (Vol. 5, p. 102).

KING’S MOUNTAIN (Vol. 15, p. 819).

EUTAWVILLE (Vol. 9, p. 957).

YORKTOWN (Vol. 28, p. 936).

_Governmental History._

First attempts at Confederation UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

(1776–1789). Article of p. 681), by Prof. H. L. Osgood,

Confederation (1777–1781). Columbia University.

Difficulties of ratification. MARYLAND (Vol. 17, p. 832), by Dr.

N. D. Mereness, author of

_Maryland, a Proprietary

Province_.

Necessity for centralization seen HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p.

(1779–1780). 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and

Hugh Chisholm, editor 11th

Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Recognition of the United States. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p.

Treaty of Versailles (Sept. 27), by Richard Webster.

1783).

ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by

Dr. Edward Channing, Harvard

University.

JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).

LAURENS, HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 284).

Struggle for National Government. UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

The Critical Period. p. 684), by Dr. Alexander

Government found impossible under Johnston, late professor of

the articles (1783–1789). history, Princeton University,

and C. C. Whinery, assistant

editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Territorial cessions and JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p.

government. Ordinance of 1787. 303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.

Roundabout origin of the MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 285).

Constitutional Conventions:

Alexandria (1785). ALEXANDRIA, VA. (Vol. 1, p. 572).

Annapolis (1786). ANNAPOLIS, VA. (Vol. 2, p. 63).

Philadelphia (1787). PHILADELPHIA, _History_ (Vol. 21,

p. 372).

The three plans:

Virginia RANDOLPH, EDMUND J. (Vol. 22, p.

886).

Pinckney PINCKNEY, CHARLES C. (Vol. 21, p.

616).

New Jersey (Paterson) NEW JERSEY (Vol. 19, p. 512).

Struggle over State Representation. MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (Vol. 18, p.

869).

Origin of the Senate, Connecticut CONNECTICUT, _History_ (Vol. 6, p.

compromise. 956).

Opposition and Ratification. HENRY, PATRICK (Vol. 13, p. 300).

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p.

880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and

Hugh Chisholm.

MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286).

JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).

Federalists and Anti-Federalists. FEDERALIST PARTY (Vol. 10, p. 235).

ANTI-FEDERALISTS (Vol. 2, p. 124).

Government Under the Constitution.

The form of Government established UNITED STATES, _Constitution and

by the Constitution. Government_ (Vol. 27, p. 646), by

Hon. James Bryce, British

Ambassador at Washington, and

author of _The American

Commonwealth_.

Washington as President WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p.

(1789–1797). 347), by Dr. William MacDonald,

professor of American History,

Brown University.

Development of Democracy UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

(1789–1801). p. 688), by Prof. Alexander

Johnston and C. C. Whinery.

Constitution finally ratified by NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 777).

all the States.

RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 252).

The first Tariff act, 1789, a TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Dr. F.

moderate protective measure. W. Taussig, professor Harvard

University, author of _Principles

of Economics_, etc.

Admission of new States, Vermont VERMONT (Vol. 27, p. 1028).

and Kentucky.

KENTUCKY (Vol. 15, p. 746).

Hamilton’s efforts for strength and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p.

stability. His tendency towards 881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and

Aristocracy. Opposition of Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief

Jefferson. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p.

303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.

Excise troubles (1794). First WHISKY INSURRECTION (Vol. 28, p.

employment by the Federal 592).

Executive of power to enforce

Federal laws within the States.

GALLATIN, ALBERT (Vol. 11, p. 414),

by Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S.

Senator from Massachusetts,

biographer of Washington,

Webster, etc.

Jay’s treaty with England (1794). JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).

Its defects.

Presidency of John Adams. Alien and ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by

Sedition Laws. Prof. Edward Channing of Harvard.

Organization of Navy Department NAVY AND NAVIES, _The United

(1798). States_ (Vol. 19, p. 308), by

David Hannay.

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1,

p. 201), by the late Rear-Admiral

William T. Sampson, U. S. Navy.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. VIRGINIA (Vol. 28, p. 124).

KENTUCKY (Vol. 15, p. 746).

Part in them taken by Jefferson and MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286).

Madison.

Idea of Secession present from the SECESSION (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Dr.

beginning. Early threats. Walter L. Fleming, professor

Louisiana State University.

Invention of cotton gin (1793) and WHITNEY, ELI (Vol. 28, p. 611).

its far-reaching consequences,

introducing a commercial element

into slavery.

_Democracy and Nationality_ UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

(1801–1829). p. 692), by Prof. Alexander

Johnston and C. C. Whinery.

Election of Jefferson (1800). The DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Vol. 8, p. 2).

Democratic Party called by

Jefferson the Republican Party,

later and officially the

Democratic-Republican, and later

still simply the Democratic

Party.

STATE RIGHTS (Vol. 25, p. 802).

The acquisition of Louisiana LOUISIANA PURCHASE (Vol. 17, p.

(1803). 62).

The Lewis-Clark expedition (1804); LEWIS, MERIWETHER (Vol. 16, p.

a basis for future acquisition of 523).

territory in the far west.

CLARK, WILLIAM (Vol. 6, p. 442).

OREGON, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.

248).

War with the Barbary pirates PIRATE AND PIRACY, _History_ (Vol.

(1805). These robbers first 21, p. 638), by D. Hannay, author

checked by the little American of _Short History of the Royal

navy. Navy_. EATON, WILLIAM (Vol. 8, p.

839).

War with Barbary Pirates. DERNA (Vol. 8, p. 74), by D. G.

Hogarth.

HULL, ISAAC (Vol. 13, p. 869).

Expedition of Aaron Burr BURR, AARON (Vol. 4, p. 862).

(1806–1807).

WILKINSON, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 647),

by Dr. Isaac Joslin Cox,

professor of history, University

of Cincinnati.

Election of Madison (1808). MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 284).

Difficulties with Great Britain. SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH (Vol.

Restrictions of Commerce and 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas

right of search. Barclay, author of _Problems of

International Practice and

Diplomacy_.

_The War of 1812._

Military and naval events. AMERICAN WAR OF 1812 (Vol. 1, p.

847), by David Hannay, author of

_Short History of the Royal

Navy_.

Principal engagements and Strategic

Points.

In the Northwest MACKINAC ISLAND (Vol. 17, p. 255).

DETROIT (Vol. 8, p. 116).

MICHIGAN (Vol. 18, p. 376).

TORONTO (Vol. 27, p. 53).

SACKETT’S HARBOR (Vol. 23, p. 974).

PLATTSBURG (Vol. 21, p. 825).

CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 831).

NIAGARA, FORT (Vol. 19, p. 635).

In the East WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 352).

BALTIMORE (Vol. 3, p. 290).

In the Southwest NEW ORLEANS (Vol. 19, p. 531).

Principal Leaders in the War on

Land and on Sea.

American RODGERS, JOHN (Vol. 23, p. 447).

DECATUR, STEPHEN (Vol. 7, p. 910).

HULL, ISAAC (Vol. 13, p. 869).

BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM (Vol. 3, p.

223).

PORTER, DAVID (Vol. 22, p. 113).

CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (Vol. 6, p. 18).

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (Vol. 21, p.

185).

BROWN, JACOB (Vol. 4, p. 659).

SCOTT, WINFIELD (Vol. 24, p. 475).

JACKSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 107).

On the other side BROCK, SIR ISAAC (Vol. 4, p. 623).

ROSS, ROBERT (Vol. 23, p. 740).

BROKE, SIR P. B. V. (Vol. 4, p.

628).

TECUMSEH (Vol. 26, p. 499).

Weakness of Madison’s MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286).

Administration.

Opposition to the war in New HARTFORD (Vol. 13, p. 33).

England: The Hartford Convention.

_After the War._

Reaction against Federalist party FEDERALIST PARTY (Vol. 10, p. 235).

Acquisition of Florida (1819) FLORIDA, _History_ (Vol. 10, p.

545).

Bank of the United States (1816). BANKS AND BANKING, _United States_

(Vol. 3, p. 345), by Charles A.

Conant, author of _The History of

Modern Banks_.

Tariff revision (1816–1828). TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof.

F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of

_Tariff History of the United

States_, etc.

“The American System”—Clay’s name PROTECTION (Vol. 22, p. 465), by

for the combination of protective Dr. Edmund J. James, president of

tariff and internal improvements University of Illinois, author of

begun by Dallas and carried on by _History of American Tariff

himself and the Whig and Legislation_.

Republican parties.

DALLAS, A. J. (Vol. 7, p. 768).

CLAY, HENRY (Vol. 6, p. 471), by

Carl Schurz, biographer of Clay.

The Monroe Doctrine (1823). MONROE, JAMES (Vol. 18, p. 736).

The first weighty international MONROE DOCTRINE (Vol. 18, p. 738),

action of the Government—warning by Dr. Theodore S. Woolsey,

to European states at instance of professor of International Law,

England. Yale University.

Admission of new States:

Indiana (1816) INDIANA, _History_ (Vol. 14, p.

425).

Mississippi (1817) MISSISSIPPI, _History_ (Vol. 18, p.

602).

Illinois (1818) ILLINOIS, _History_ (Vol. 14, p.

309).

Alabama (1819) ALABAMA, _History_ (Vol. 1, p.

462).

Maine (1820) MAINE, _History_ (Vol. 17, p. 439).

Missouri (1821) MISSOURI, _History_ (Vol. 18, p.

613).

Fixing the Northwest Boundary: OREGON, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.

Agreements with Great Britain 248).

(1818 and 1827) and with Russia

(1825).

A nationalizing element in the WHIG PARTY (Vol. 28, p. 589), by

Republican Party fostered by Dr. Anson D. Morse, professor of

commercial and manufacturing history, Amherst College.

elements in the East fuses with

broad constructionists to form

new party (National Republican,

later the Whig) under J. Q. Adams

and Clay (1824).

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (Vol. 1, p.

178), by Prof. Edward Channing,

Harvard University.

CLAY, HENRY (Vol. 6, p. 470), by

Carl Schurz, author of _Life of

Henry Clay_.

ANTI-MASONIC PARTY (Vol. 2, p.

127).

Jackson and the Democratic Party. DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Vol. 8, p. 2).

The “power of the people” CRAWFORD, W. H. (Vol. 6, p. 386).

established.

Free _vs._ Slave States. MISSOURI COMPROMISE (Vol. 18, p.

614), by Prof. William Roy Smith,

Bryn Mawr College.

Beginning of a sectional struggle, MISSOURI, _History_ (Vol. 18, p.

which Clay and others tried to 613).

compromise (1820).

_Industrial Development and UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

Sectional Divergence._ p. 697), by Prof. Alexander

Johnston and C. C. Whinery.

_Tendencies to Disunion_

(1829–1851).

“The reign of Andrew Jackson” JACKSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 107),

(1829–1837). by the late Prof. William G.

Sumner, Yale University, author

of _Life of Andrew Jackson_, etc.

The Kitchen Cabinet and the Cabinet GREEN, DUFF (Vol. 12, p. 534).

Crisis.

EATON, MARGARET O’NEILL (“Peggy

O’Neill”) (Vol. 8, p. 838).

Jackson and the Bank. BANKS AND BANKING, _United States_

(Vol. 3, p. 346), by C. A.

Conant, author of _History of

Modern Banks of Issue_.

The new school of leaders.

Jackson’s lieutenant and successor. VAN BUREN, MARTIN (Vol. 27, p.

881), by Prof. William MacDonald,

Brown University.

Van Buren’s lieutenant in New York. MARCY, W. L. (Vol. 17, p. 696).

The Jacksonian leader in the BENTON, T. H. (Vol. 3, p. 753).

Senate.

Jackson’s War Secretary, 1831–36. CASS, LEWIS (Vol. 5, p. 455).

Jackson’s Attorney-General, TANEY, R. B. (Vol. 26, p. 396).

Treasurer, and (1835) Chief

Justice.

Jackson’s Secretary of State LIVINGSTON, EDWARD (Vol. 16, p.

(1831–33), who drafted the 811).

anti-nullification proclamation.

Georgia and the Cherokees. GEORGIA, _History_ (Vol. 11, p.

Opposition in the South to the 756).

Protective System. Tariff of

1832.

TARIFF, _United States_ (Vol. 26,

p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig,

Harvard University, author of

_Tariff History of the United

States_.

Rise and fall of doctrine of CALHOUN, JOHN C. (Vol. 5, p. 1), by

Nullification (1830). Hon. Henry A. M. Smith, U. S.

District Judge, South Carolina.

SOUTH CAROLINA, _History_ (Vol. 25,

p. 504).

Nullification not original with NULLIFICATION (Vol. 19, p. 846), by

Calhoun. Prof. Walter L. Fleming,

Louisiana State University.

The debate in the U. S. Senate on WEBSTER, DANIEL (Vol. 28, p. 461),

nullification—Webster and Hayne. by Everett P. Wheeler, author of

_Daniel Webster_, etc.

HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (Vol. 13, p.

114).

Compromise Tariff of 1833. TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof.

F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of

_Tariff History of the United

States_.

Beginning of abolitionist movement SLAVERY, _United States_ (Vol. 25,

(1831). The “Liberator.” p. 225), by Dr. J. K. Ingram.

Foundation of American Anti-Slavery LUNDY, BENJAMIN (Vol. 17, p. 124).

Society (1831). Its leaders.

GARRISON, W. L. (Vol. 11, p. 477).

Dissent from this view and PHILLIPS, WENDELL (Vol. 21, p.

formation of anti-slavery 407), by Thomas Wentworth

political party (1840). Higginson, author of _History of

the United States_.

LIBERTY PARTY (Vol. 16, p. 543).

BIRNEY, JAMES G. (Vol. 3, p. 988).

SMITH, GERRIT (Vol. 25, p. 261).

“Dorr’s Rebellion.” RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 252).

Seminole War (1835–1842). OSCEOLA (Vol. 20, p. 346).

Texas independent of Mexico (1836). TEXAS, _History_ (Vol. 26, p. 692).

HOUSTON, SAM (Vol. 13, p. 828).

Admission of Texas (1845). SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS (Vol. 24, p.

126).

AUSTIN, S. F. (Vol. 2, p. 940).

CROCKETT, DAVID (Vol. 7, p. 477).

Polk’s Administration. POLK, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by

Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr

College.

War with Mexico (1846–1848). TAYLOR, ZACHARY (Vol. 26, p. 473),

by Prof. Isaac J. Cox, University

of Cincinnati.

The Generals and the Fighting. SCOTT, WINFIELD (Vol. 24, p. 475).

SANTA-ANA (Vol. 24, p. 184).

MEXICO, _History_ (Vol. 18, p.

340).

MEXICO CITY (Vol. 18, p. 347).

Wilmot Proviso and similar WILMOT, DAVID (Vol. 28, p. 691).

measures.

Cession of California (1848), and CALIFORNIA, _History_ (Vol. 5, p.

Discovery of Gold there. 17).

The Gadsden Purchase (1853). GADSDEN, JAMES (Vol. 11, p. 383).

Compromise Measures of 1850. COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850 (Vol.

6, p. 813), by Prof. W. R. Smith,

Bryn Mawr College.

Opposition in Georgia. GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 756).

Fugitive Slave Laws. FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS (Vol. 11, p.

288).

Various political elements join to FREE SOIL PARTY (Vol. 11, p. 87).

oppose introduction of slavery

into territories (1847–1848).

Tariff Reduction, Walker Bill of TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof.

1846. F. W. Taussig, Harvard

University.

WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (Vol. 28, p.

273).

Independent Treasury System (1846). POLK, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by

Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850). CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY (Vol. 6, p.

475).

CLAYTON, JOHN M. (Vol. 6, p. 474).

The northern boundary “Fifty-four OREGON, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.

forty or fight.” 249).

WASHINGTON, _History_ (Vol. 28, p.

357).

New Leaders in the ’50’s.

Northern anti-slavery men. SUMNER, CHARLES (Vol. 26, p. 81).

SEWARD, WILLIAM H. (Vol. 24, p.

733).

CHASE, SALMON P. (Vol. 5, p. 955).

Southern leaders, protecting DAVIS, JEFFERSON (Vol. 7, p. 867),

slavery in the Territories. by Hon. W. W. Henry, late

president of the American

Historical Association, and Dr.

N. D. Mereness.

STEPHENS, A. H. (Vol. 26, p. 887).

Northern “popular sovereignty DOUGLAS, STEPHEN A. (Vol. 8, p.

leader.” 446).

Attempt to uphold Fugitive Slave WHIG PARTY (Vol. 28, p. 590), by

Law of 1850—a death blow to the Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst

Whig Party. College.

The American or “Know Nothing” KNOW NOTHING PARTY (Vol. 15, p.

Party. 877).

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, repealing KANSAS, _History_ (Vol. 15, p.

Missouri Compromise. 658).

NEBRASKA, _History_ (Vol. 19, p.

330).

Origin of the Republican Party REPUBLICAN PARTY (Vol. 23, p. 177),

(1854). by Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst

College.

Opening of Japan (1854). JAPAN, _History_ (Vol. 15, p. 237),

by Capt. Frank Brinkley, late

editor of “The Japan Mail”;

author of _Japan_; PERRY, M. C.

(Vol. 21, p. 184).

Efforts to obtain Cuba in the BUCHANAN, JAMES (Vol. 4, p. 716).

interests of Slavery. The Ostend

Manifesto (1854).

The election of 1856. FILLMORE, MILLARD (Vol. 10, p.

344).

FREMONT, JOHN C. (Vol. 11, p. 97).

The Dred Scott decision and its TANEY, ROGER B. (Vol. 26, p. 396).

effects (1857).

Lincoln and Douglas debates in LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 705),

Illinois. Senatorial contest by J. G. Nicolay and C. C.

(1858). Whinery.

DOUGLAS, S. A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).

FREEPORT, ILL. (Vol. 11, p. 85).

John Brown’s Raid (1859). BROWN, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 660).

Admission of Minnesota and Oregon. MINNESOTA, _History_ (Vol. 17, p.

553).

OREGON, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.

249).

The Presidential Campaign of 1860. BELL, JOHN (Vol. 3, p. 686).

EVERETT, EDWARD (Vol. 10, p. 8), by

Dr. Edward Everett Hale, author

of _The Man Without a Country_,

etc.

Lincoln elected with Hannibal LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 703),

Hamlin of Maine as by John G. Nicolay, author (with

Vice-President. John Hay) of _Abraham Lincoln—a

History_, and C. C. Whinery,

assistant editor, 11th edition,

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (Vol. 12, p. 896).

_Secession_ (1860–1861). UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,

p. 707), by the late Prof.

Alexander Johnston of Princeton

and C. C. Whinery.

SECESSION (Vol. 24, p. 568), by

Prof. W. L. Fleming, Louisiana

State University.

STATE RIGHTS (Vol. 25, p. 802).

Organization and administration of CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA (Vol.

the Confederacy. 6, p. 899), by Dr. J. C. Schwab,

Yale, author of _The Confederate

States of America_.

President DAVIS, JEFFERSON (Vol. 7, p. 867),

by Hon. William Wirt Henry and N.

D. Mereness.

Vice-President STEPHENS, ALEXANDER H. (Vol. 25, p.

87).

Other leaders and administrators BENJAMIN, JUDAH P. (Vol. 3, p.

739).

REAGAN, JOHN H. (Vol. 22, p. 940).

COBB, HOWELL (Vol. 6, p. 606).