VANCE, Z. B. (Vol. 27, p. 882).
Commissioners to Europe YANCEY, WILLIAM LOWNDES (Vol. 28,
p. 902).
MASON, JAMES MURRAY (Vol. 17, p.
839).
SLIDELL, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 241).
Secession by popular vote, May TENNESSEE, _History_ (Vol. 26, p.
(1861). 624).
VIRGINIA, _History_ (Vol. 28, p.
124).
The people of Virginia divide the WEST VIRGINIA, _History_ (Vol. 28,
State (May, 1861). p. 563).
[Sidenote: Battles and Campaigns]
The main article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (Vol. 1, p. 818), by Capt. Charles
F. Atkinson, author of _The Wilderness and Cold Harbour_, is richly
supplemented with detailed accounts of the principal campaigns and
battles, and biographies of military leaders on both the Federal and
Confederate sides. For battles and campaigns see: CHARLESTON (Vol. 5, p.
944); BULL RUN (Vol. 4, p. 791), with map and description of both famous
battles; LEXINGTON, Mo. (Vol. 16, p. 527); SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS
(Vol. 24, p. 834); YORKTOWN (Vol. 28, p. 936); SEVEN DAYS’ BATTLE (Vol.
24, p. 707), both with fine maps, and written by Major George W. Redway,
author of _The War of Secession_; FAIR OAKS (Vol. 10, p. 133); HAMPTON
ROADS (Vol. 12, p. 906); DONELSON, FORT (Vol. 8, p. 414); SHILOH, BATTLE
OF (Vol. 24, p. 859); CORINTH (Vol. 7, p. 150); NEW MADRID (Vol. 19, p.
516); PERRYVILLE (Vol. 21, p. 185); IUKA (Vol. 15, p. 87); MEMPHIS (Vol.
18, p. 107); NEW ORLEANS (Vol. 19, p. 531); HARPER’S FERRY (Vol. 13, p.
14); ANTIETAM (Vol. 2, p. 124); FREDERICKSBURG (Vol. 11, p. 68); STONE
RIVER, BATTLE OF (Vol. 25, p. 966); CHANCELLORSVILLE (Vol. 5, p. 835),
see also WILDERNESS (Vol. 28, p. 633); GETTYSBURG (Vol. 11, p. 911),
with map; VICKSBURG (Vol. 28, p. 21), with maps; PORT HUDSON (Vol. 22,
p. 117); BATON ROUGE (Vol. 3, p. 521); HELENA, ARK. (Vol. 13, p. 219);
CHICKAMAUGA CREEK (Vol. 6, p. 130), with map; CHATTANOOGA (Vol. 6, p.
7); KNOXVILLE (Vol. 15, p. 883); RED RIVER (Vol. 22, p. 969); WILDERNESS
(Vol. 28, p. 633), with 4 maps, by C. F. Atkinson, author of _The
Wilderness and Cold Harbour_; WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 352); MARIETTA,
Ga. (Vol. 17, p. 715); ATLANTA (Vol. 2, p. 854); SAVANNAH (Vol. 24, p.
241); MOBILE (Vol. 18, p. 636); GALVESTON (Vol. 11, p. 431); FRANKLIN,
Tenn. (Vol. 11, p. 34); NASHVILLE (Vol. 19, p. 247); PETERSBURG (Vol.
21, p. 301), with two maps, by Major G. W. Redway; COLUMBIA, S. C. (Vol.
6, p. 738); APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE (Vol. 2, p. 226); RICHMOND, Va. (Vol.
23, p. 311).
[Sidenote: Union Generals]
On the leaders on both sides see the biographical articles: MCCLELLAN,
GEORGE BRINTON (Vol. 17, p. 201); HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (Vol. 12, p.
854); GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (Vol. 12, p. 355), by John Fiske and Capt.
C. F. Atkinson; DIX, JOHN ADAMS (Vol. 8, p. 346); MCDOWELL, IRVIN (Vol.
17, p. 214); BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT (Vol. 4, p. 861); HOOKER, JOSEPH
(Vol. 13, p. 671); MEADE, GEORGE GORDON (Vol. 17, p. 945); POPE, JOHN
(Vol. 22, p. 87); BUELL, DON CARLOS (Vol. 4, p. 751); ROSECRANS, WILLIAM
STARKE (Vol. 23, p. 734); SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH (Vol. 24, p. 851);
THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (Vol. 26, p. 866); MACPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE (Vol.
17, p. 268); SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (Vol. 24, p. 847); SLOCUM, HENRY
WARNER (Vol. 25, p. 243); BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 4, p. 881);
HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (Vol. 12, p. 909); HUMPHREYS, ANDREW ATKINSON
(Vol. 13, p. 891); SEDGWICK, JOHN (Vol. 24, p. 578); REYNOLDS, JOHN
FULTON (Vol. 23, p. 226); WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (Vol. 28, p. 329);
HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (Vol. 13, p. 833); DOUBLEDAY, ABNER (Vol. 8, p.
441); SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (Vol. 25, p. 36); SCHURZ, CARL (Vol. 24, p.
386); DEVENS, CHARLES (Vol. 8, p. 120); BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (Vol. 4, p.
890); PORTER, HORACE (Vol. 22, p. 116); FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (Vol. 11,
p. 33); PORTER, FITZ-JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 115); SHIELDS, JAMES (Vol. 24, p.
856); HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (Vol. 13, p. 934); COUCH, DARIUS NASH (Vol. 7,
p. 307); COX, JACOB DOLSON (Vol. 7, p. 352); MEAGHER, THOMAS FRANCIS
(Vol. 17, p. 946); SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (Vol. 26, p. 83); SIGEL, FRANZ
(Vol. 25, p. 60); KEARNY, PHILIP (Vol. 15, p. 707); SMITH, CHARLES
FERGUSON (Vol. 25, p. 259); SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (Vol. 25, p. 271);
CRITTENDEN, THOMAS LEONIDAS (Vol. 7, p. 471); MCCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER
(Vol. 17, p. 202); SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (Vol. 25, p. 259); GARFIELD,
JAMES ABRAM (Vol. 11, p. 464); WALLACE, LEWIS (Vol. 28, p. 276); BANKS,
NATHANIEL PRENTISS (Vol. 3, p. 333); WASHBURN, CADWALADER COLDEN (Vol.
28, p. 344); LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (Vol. 16, p. 866); PALMER, JOHN
MCAULEY (Vol. 20, p. 645); MCCOOK, ALEXANDER MCDOWELL, MCCOOK, DANIEL,
and MCCOOK, JOHN JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 205); SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS, and
SMITH, GILES ALEXANDER (Vol. 25, p. 267); BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (Vol.
4, p. 34); SCHOFIELD, JOHN MCALLISTER (Vol. 24, p. 345); NEWTON, JOHN
(Vol. 19, p. 592); MILES, NELSON A. (Vol. 18, p. 442); MERRITT, WESLEY
(Vol. 18, p. 173); CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (Vol. 7, p. 668); STONEMAN,
GEORGE (Vol. 25, p. 962); WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (Vol. 28, p. 695);
TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 27, p. 127); LYON, NATHANIEL (Vol. 17, p.
173); FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (Vol. 10, p. 187); PORTER, DAVID DIXON
(Vol. 22, p. 113); FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (Vol. 10, p. 625); CUSHING,
WILLIAM BARKER (Vol. 7, p. 667).
[Sidenote: Confederate Generals]
And, for Confederate leaders: LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (Vol. 16, p. 362);
JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN, “STONEWALL” (Vol. 15, p. 110); LONGSTREET,
JAMES (Vol. 16, p. 985); JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (Vol. 15, p. 472);
JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (Vol. 15, p. 474); BEAUREGARD, PIERRE G. T.
(Vol. 3, p. 599); BRAGG, BRAXTON (Vol. 4, p. 376); HOOD, JOHN BELL (Vol.
13, p. 665); POLK, LEONIDAS (Vol. 21, p. 984); HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH
(Vol. 12, p. 941); HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (Vol. 13, p. 463); HILL, DANIEL
HARVEY (Vol. 13, p. 464); EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (Vol. 10, p. 40);
EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (Vol. 8, p. 797); ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 1,
p. 960); FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (Vol. 10, p. 573); BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR
(Vol. 4, p. 732); CRITTENDEN, GEORGE BIBB (Vol. 7, p. 471);
BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (Vol. 4, p. 483); SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (Vol.
25, p. 260); LEE, STEPHEN DILL (Vol. 16, p. 364); VAN DORN, EARL (Vol.
27, p. 887); ASHBY, TURNER (Vol. 2, p. 730); STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN
(Vol. 25, p. 1047); HAMPTON, WADE (Vol. 12, p. 905); LEE, FITZHUGH (Vol.
16, p. 360); WHEELER, JOSEPH (Vol. 28, p. 586); FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD
(Vol. 10, p. 673); MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (Vol. 18, p. 834); MOSBY, JOHN
SINGLETON (Vol. 18, p. 890); WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (Vol. 28, p. 751).
_Topics for Reading_ _Articles_
_Political History During the Civil
War._
Paper money (1862). GREENBACKS (Vol. 12, p. 537).
Public lands given to settlers at HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS (Vol.
reduced rates (1862), and granted 13, p. 639), by Dr. N. D.
to agricultural colleges (1862). Mereness.
MORRILL, J. S. (Vol. 18, p. 869).
War Tariffs (1862–1864). TARIFF, _United States_ (Vol. 26,
p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig,
Harvard, author of _Tariff
History of the United States_.
Establishment of National Banking BANKS AND BANKING, _United States_
System (1862–1865). (Vol. 3, p. 347), by Charles A.
Conant, author of _Banks of
Issue_.
Emancipation (1863). LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 707),
by J. G. Nicolay, biographer of
Lincoln, and C. C. Whinery,
assistant editor, Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Second election of Lincoln (1864). MCCLELLAN, G. B. (Vol. 17, p. 201).
Opposition to the War in the North. KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE (Vol.
15, p. 868), by Prof. W. L.
Fleming, Louisiana State
University.
VALLANDIGHAM, C. L. (Vol. 27, p.
862).
COPPERHEADS (Vol. 7, p. 110).
The War Governors of the Northern ANDREW, JOHN A. (Vol. 1, p. 973).
States.
CURTIN, A. G. (Vol. 7, p. 651).
MORGAN, E. D. (Vol. 18, p. 833).
SEYMOUR, HORATIO (Vol. 24, p. 755).
MORTON, OLIVER P. (Vol. 18, p.
882).
YATES, RICHARD (Vol. 28, p. 908).
Assassination of Lincoln (1865). LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 709),
by J. G. Nicolay and C. C.
Whinery.
_The Reconstruction Period._ UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27,
p. 711), by Dr. Frederick J.
Turner, professor of history,
Harvard University.
Organizing the negroes into a FREEDMEN’S BUREAU (Vol. 11, p. 75),
political party. by Prof. W. L. Fleming.
HOWARD, O. O. (Vol. 13, p. 833).
Opposition to Reconstruction KU KLUX KLAN (Vol. 15, p. 942), by
Measures (1865–1876). Prof. W. L. Fleming.
Thirteenth, Fourteenth and UNITED STATES, _Constitution and
Fifteenth Amendments. Government_ (Vol. 27, pp. 647,
658, etc.), by James Bryce,
author of _The American
Commonwealth_.
Character of Reconstruction See under _History_ in articles on
Government. Southern States.
“Scalawags” and “Carpet Baggers.” CARPET BAGGER (Vol. 5, p. 397).
Johnson’s Policy: his impeachment. JOHNSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 461).
IMPEACHMENT (Vol. 14, p. 340).
The Legal Tenders. MCCULLOCH, HUGH (Vol. 17, p. 207).
Grant’s two administrations GRANT, U. S. (Vol. 12, p. 357), by
(1869–1877). Dr. John Fiske, author of
_American Political Ideas_, etc.,
and C. F. Atkinson, author of
_Wilderness and Cold Harbour_,
etc.
Beginning of Woman’s Suffrage WOMAN (Vol. 28, p. 788).
(1869).
Black Friday (1869). GOULD, JAY (Vol. 12, p. 284).
FISK, JAMES (Vol. 10, p. 437).
The Alabama Claims, Treaty of “ALABAMA” ARBITRATION (Vol. 1, p.
Washington (1871). 464), by Montague H.
Crackanthorpe.
The “Virginius” Affair (1873). SANTIAGO DE CUBA (Vol. 24, p. 193).
The Panic of 1873 and the Inflation GREENBACKS (Vol. 12, p. 536).
Bill (1874).
Political unrest in the West FARMERS’ MOVEMENT (Vol. 10, p.
(1873–1874). 181).
Railway abuses. The greatest CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA (Vol. 7,
American political scandal. p. 391).
War with the Sioux. Custer massacre CUSTER, GEORGE A. (Vol. 7, p. 668).
(1876).
The Hayes-Tilden Contest (1876). ELECTORAL COMMISSION (Vol. 9, p.
172).
TILDEN, S. J. (Vol. 26, p. 970).
Withdrawal of Federal troops from HAYES, R. B. (Vol. 13, p. 112), by
the South. Carl Schurz.
Civil Service Reform. SCHURZ, CARL (Vol. 24, p. 386).
GODKIN, E. L. (Vol. 12, p. 174).
Monetary Question—Bland-Allison Act ALLISON, W. B. (Vol. 1, p. 696).
(1878).
Republicans regain control of CONKLING, ROSCOE (Vol. 6, p. 950).
Congress.
Factions in Republican Party. PLATT, T. C. (Vol. 21, p. 825).
Assassination of Garfield. GARFIELD, JAMES A. (Vol. 11, p.
465), by Prof. John B. McMaster,
University of Pennsylvania,
author of _A History of the
People of the United States_.
Succession of the Vice-President. ARTHUR, C. A. (Vol. 2, p. 683).
Anti-Polygamy Act (1882). MORMONS (Vol. 18, p. 846).
UTAH (Vol. 27, p. 818).
Triumph of Civil Service Reform CIVIL SERVICE, _United States_
(1883). (Vol. 6, p. 414).
Tariff revision (1883). TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 426), by Prof.
F. W. Taussig, Harvard
University, author of _Tariff
History of the United States_.
The Presidential campaign of 1884. BLAINE, JAMES G. (Vol. 4, p. 32),
First election of Grover by Charles Emory Smith, late
Cleveland. editor _Albany Journal_ and
_Philadelphia Press_, and
Postmaster-General of the United
States.
CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 501),
by Horace White, formerly editor
_The Evening Post_, New York;
author of _The Tariff Question_.
Party Breaks. MUGWUMP (Vol. 18, p. 956).
Increasing problems of Interstate INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Vol. 14, p.
Commerce. Federal legislation 711), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter,
(1887) on interstate commerce. Princeton University, author of
_The Principles of Economics._
Labor combinations, social unrest. TRADE UNIONS, _United States_ (Vol.
27, p. 150), by Carroll D.
Wright, late U. S. Commissioner
of Labor.
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, _United
States_ (Vol. 25, p. 1033), by
Carroll D. Wright.
Republican success in 1888. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (Vol. 13, p.
Benjamin Harrison, president. 22), by Hon. J. W. Foster,
formerly U. S. Secretary of
State.
Republican policy in Congress. REED, THOMAS B. (Vol. 22, p. 973).
American control in Samoa (1889). SAMOA, _History_ (Vol. 24, p. 116).
Republican and Democratic Tariffs: TARIFF, _United States_ (Vol. 26,
Mills Bill (1888), McKinley Act p. 426), by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
(1890).
MILLS, R. Q. (Vol. 18, p. 475).
MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 17, p.
256).
States powerless to arrest the TRUSTS (Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof.
progress of Industrial J. W. Jenks, professor of Economy
Combinations. Federal and Government, New York
legislation. Sherman Anti-Trust University, special investigator
Law (1890). of Trusts for U. S. Government.
Party disruption over free coinage SHERMAN, JOHN (Vol. 24, p. 850), by
of silver. Sherman Silver Prof. W. A. Dunning, Columbia
Purchase Act (1890). University, author of _Essays on
Civil War and Reconstruction_,
etc.
BIMETALLISM (Vol. 3, p. 946), by C.
F. Bastable, Dublin University,
author of _Public Finance_.
Opening of Indian Lands OKLAHOMA, _History_ (Vol. 20, p.
(1889–1898). Formation of 60).
Oklahoma.
Beginning of restriction of Negro UNITED STATES, _Constitution and
suffrage (1890), and adoption of Government_ (Vol. 27, p. 647), by
grandfather clauses in Hon. James Bryce. Sections on
constitutions of Southern states. _Government_ of articles
MISSISSIPPI, VIRGINIA, NORTH
CAROLINA, GEORGIA, ALABAMA,
LOUISIANA and OKLAHOMA.
The campaign of 1892.
The candidates. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (Vol. 13, p.
22), by J. W. Foster, late U. S.
Secretary of State.
Second election of Cleveland. WEAVER, JAMES B. (Vol. 28, p. 439).
Panic of 1893. CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 502),
by Horace White, late editor of
_The New_ _York Evening Post_.
Wilson Tariff (1894). TARIFF, _United States_ (Vol. 26,
p. 426), by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Venezuela Boundary Question (1895). CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 503),
by Horace White.
New phase of Monroe Doctrine. OLNEY, RICHARD (Vol. 20, p. 91).
The issues of 1896. McKinley’s MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 17, p.
election. 257).
Republicans and Gold Standard. HANNA, M. A. (Vol. 12, p. 919).
Democrats and Silver. BRYAN, WILLIAM J. (Vol. 9, p. 697).
Gold Democrats. PALMER, J. M. (Vol. 20, p. 645).
BUCKNER, S. B. (Vol. 4, p. 732).
The Dingley Tariff (1897). TARIFF, _United States_ (Vol. 26,
p. 427), by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Annexation of Hawaii and events HAWAII, _History_ (Vol. 13, p. 91).
leading to it (1898).
War with Spain (1898). SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898 (Vol.
25, p. 594).
Treaty of Paris (1898). The United PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, _History_ (Vol.
States finds itself “in a 21, p. 399), by Prof. Hiram
position of increased importance Bingham, Yale University.
and prestige among the nations of
the world.”
PORTO RICO, _History_ (Vol. 22, p.
126).
Regeneration of Cuba (1898–1909). CUBA, _History_ (Vol. 7, p. 604),
by F. S. Philbrick.
Initiative and Referendum first SOUTH DAKOTA, _History_ (Vol. 25,
adopted (1898). p. 508).
UNITED STATES, _Constitution and
Government_ (Vol. 27, p. 651), by
Hon. James Bryce, author of _The
American Commonwealth_.
Discovery of gold in Alaska. ALASKA (Vol. 1, p. 475).
Conservation of National Resources, FOREST AND FORESTRY, _United
a new policy. States_ (Vol. 10, p. 651), by
Gifford Pinchot, formerly chief
of the Forestry Service, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.
Assassination of McKinley. The ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (Vol. 23, p.
Roosevelt Administration 707), by Lawrence F. Abbott,
(1901–1909). president of “The Outlook
Company.”
Isthmian Canal. PANAMA (Vol. 20, p. 666).
PANAMA CANAL (Vol. 20, p. 666).
Panic of 1907. BANKS AND BANKING (Vol. 3, p. 348),
by Charles A. Conant, author of
_A History of Modern Banks of
Issue_.
Elkins Law. RAILWAYS, _American Legislation_
(Vol. 22, p. 829).
Eastern Policy. HAY, JOHN (Vol. 13, p. 105).
ROOT, ELIHU (Vol. 23, p. 711).
This sketch of American History closes with the inauguration of
President Roosevelt, for the questions that have arisen since that date
are questions into which current politics enter, and these are treated
in the chapter of this Guide on _Questions of the Day_. Here we need
only say that throughout his study of American history the reader will
constantly—and easily—find many more articles bearing on the subject
than are mentioned in the outline given above. In particular let him
note:
—that there are many biographies of figures prominent in nation and
state not mentioned above;
—that in each article devoted to a state there is a section on history,
which has a double value, as giving the outline of the state’s history
and as showing its part in the history of the nation;
—and that there is in articles on cities and towns a great deal of
important information of historical value, sometimes merely local, but
oftener bearing on the history of state or nation, or both.
CHAPTER XLIV
CANADIAN HISTORY
[Sidenote: “Young” Rivers and Lakes]
All the world thinks of Canada as the youngest of countries, for the
extraordinary rapidity with which her western territory has been
developed within recent years surpasses every other record of
agricultural expansion. But in order to realize how young Canada is, in
another sense, one must examine the less familiar facts of her
geological history. “The innumerable lakes and waterfalls,” says the
Britannica (Vol. 5, p. 143), prove “that the rivers have not been long
at work,” and that the country owes its contours to comparatively recent
geological action. “In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over,
at the lowest point, from one basin into the next below, since in so
young a country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have
carved wide valleys.... Thousands of these lakes have been mapped; and
every new survey brings to light small lakes hitherto unknown to the
white man.... For the great extent of lake-filled country there is no
comparison” in any part of the world. And because the rivers have not
yet worn their beds to an even slope, there are waterfalls enough to
provide unlimited horse power; so that the natural advantages of Canada
invite manufacturing just as the fertility of her soil invites
agriculture.
The geographical and geological portions of the article CANADA (Vol. 5,
p. 142) must be carefully read in order that the significance of the
historical account of the country may be fully grasped; and the same is
true of those parts of the article which deal with agriculture and with
the commerce of which the first developments were associated with early
exploration. There is ample and authoritative information on all these
subjects in the article, which is equivalent in length to 85 pages of
this Guide. The sections and their contributors are: _Geography_, by
Prof. A. P. Coleman, Toronto University; _Population_, _Commerce_, etc.,
by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston; _Agriculture_, by E.
H. Godfrey, editor of Census and Statistics Office, Department of
Agriculture, Ottawa; _History_—to the Federation by G. M. Wrong,
University of Toronto, and after the Federation by G. R. Parkin, author
of _Imperial Federation_ and _Life of Sir John Macdonald_, etc., and
_Literature_—English-Canadian, by L. J. Burpee, author of _The Search
for the Western Sea_, and French-Canadian by William Wood, author of
_The Fight for Canada_.
[Sidenote: Exploration and Settlement]
On the early history of Canada the student should compare what is given
in this Guide on the early history of America in general and especially
the following articles: LEIF ERICSSON (Vol. 16, p. 396); VINLAND (Vol.
28, p. 98), by Prof. Julius Emil Olson, University of Wisconsin; JOHN
CABOT (Vol. 4, p. 921); and JACQUES CARTIER (Vol. 5, p. 433), both by H.
P. Biggar, author of _The Voyages of the Cabots to Greenland_; SAMUEL DE
CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 830), by N. E. Dionne, librarian of the
Legislature of the Province of Quebec and biographer of Champlain;
JACQUES MARQUETTE (Vol. 17, p. 752); SIEUR DE LA SALLE (Vol. 16, p.
230), by Charles C. Whinery, assistant-editor Encyclopaedia Britannica;
FRONTENAC (Vol. 11, p. 249), by A. G. Doughty, Dominion archivist of
Canada; LOUISBURG; DETROIT; SAULT STE. MARIE; MACKINAC ISLAND;
PITTSBURG; NOVA SCOTIA, _History_; SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 24, especially
page 722); QUEBEC; MONTCALM and WOLFE.
[Sidenote: The War Periods]
The close of the Seven Years’ War saw New France ceded to Great Britain.
On English rule down to Canadian Federation, the student should consult
the following articles: QUEBEC ACT; JAMES MURRAY; AMERICAN WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE—and particularly the articles on MONTGOMERY and ARNOLD,
leaders in the nearly successful attempt of the Americans to capture
Canada, and that on the 1st Baron DORCHESTER, the British defender of
Quebec; JOHN GRAVES SIMCOE; LOYALISTS—and the articles NEW BRUNSWICK and
ONTARIO, both regions largely influenced by the settlement there of
these Loyalists; AMERICAN WAR OF 1812—and especially the articles ISAAC
BROCK, by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston; ERIE, OLIVER
H. PERRY, SACKETT’S HARBOR, TECUMSEH, LAKE CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 830);
FORT NIAGARA (Vol. 19, p. 634); JOHN STRACHAN; PAPINEAU and W. L.
MACKENZIE for the two revolts of 1837; LORD DURHAM; LORD SYDENHAM;
ROBERT BALDWIN and SIR LOUIS LAFONTAINE, heads of the first Liberal
administrations; EARL ELGIN (Vol. 9, p. 268); SIR A. A. DORION; JOHN
SANDFIELD MACDONALD, “the Ishmael of Parliament”; SIR JOHN BEVERLEY
ROBINSON, head of the Tory “Family Compact”; and, for Irish-American
outrages on the Canadian border, the article FENIANS.
[Sidenote: Federation and Since]
On the period since federation (1867), see the article FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT (Vol. 10, p. 233) for a general description of this form of
administration; the articles NOVA SCOTIA, ALFRED GILPIN JONES and JOSEPH
HOWE, for local opposition to federation; SIR CHARLES TUPPER, who alone
in the delegation from Nova Scotia favoured federation; THOMAS D’ARCY
MCGEE (by A. G. Doughty), a prominent opponent of Fenianism who was
assassinated by a Fenian; the articles HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY and SIR G.
E. CARTIER, by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston, for the
extinction of the Hudson’s Bay Company claims and the transfer of its
territories to the government; LOUIS RIEL for the Red River Rebellion;
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND for its entrance into the Dominion; GEORGE BROWN, a
prominent advocate of federation, by Prof. Grant; GEORGE MONRO GRANT,
author of _Ocean to Ocean_; SIR JOHN MACDONALD, by G. R. Parkin, author
of _Imperial Federation_, and biographer of Macdonald; SIR FRANCIS
HINCKS and SIR ALEXANDER GALT, financiers; SIR HUGH ALLAN and SIR DAVID
MACPHERSON, for the Canadian Pacific Railway question; _Lord Dufferin_;
_Alexander Mackenzie_, head of a Liberal government from 1873 to 1878
when SIR JOHN MACDONALD returned to power on a platform calling for
protection of Canadian industries; GEORGE TAYLOR DENISON, founder of the
“Canada First” party; SIR SAMUEL LEONARD TILLEY, Macdonald’s minister of
finance, who was principally responsible for the tariff of 1879; _Sir
Louis Henry Davies_, Liberal politician and jurist; _Lord Strathcona_,
by Prof. W. L. Grant, BARON MOUNTSTEPHEN, SIR WILLIAM C. VAN HORNE and
SIR SANDFORD FLEMING for the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway;
LOUIS RIEL for the Second Riel Rebellion; SIR JOHN THOMPSON; GEORGE
EULAS FOSTER; SIR H. G. JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE; HONORÉ MERCIER, the French
leader of Quebec; S. N. PARENT; SIR MACKENZIE BOWELL, premier in
1894–1896; his successor, _Sir Charles Tupper_; EDWARD BLAKE, a Liberal
leader who in 1892 left Canadian politics to take a seat in the British
House of Commons; SIR OLIVER MOWAT, Blake’s successor as premier of
Ontario; GEORGE WILLIAM ROSS; SIR DANIEL WILSON, educational reformer,
by Professor Grant; SIR WILFRID LAURIER (by J. S. Willison, author of
_Sir W. Laurier and the Liberal Party: A Political History_), the great
Liberal leader of the last decade, and Laurier’s ministers of finance,
_Sir Richard John Cartwright_ and _W. S. Fielding_, and his minister of
militia SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM BORDEN; SIR WILLIAM MULOCK; and ROBERT L.
BORDEN, long leader of the Conservative opposition and premier in 1911.
CHAPTER XLV
ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
[Sidenote: The British Empire]
The student of English history in the Britannica may well begin with the
summary view in the article BRITISH EMPIRE (Vol. 4, p. 606), equivalent
to 30 pages of this Guide, by Lady Lugard, wife of the British explorer
and colonial administrator, Sir Frederick Lugard, herself an authority
on colonial subjects and well-known as colonial editor of the _Times_ of
London. On pp. 608–610 there is a chronological list of the acquisitions
of the Empire, and nothing will surprise the reader more than the
comparative recentness of the movement by which two small islands have
expanded into an empire covering nearly one-fourth of the earth’s land
surface. Except for the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and “the
nominal possession of Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, all
the territorial acquisitions of the Empire have been made in the 17th
and subsequent centuries.” On each of the localities mentioned in this
imposing list the reader will find a separate article in its proper
alphabetical place in the Encyclopaedia Britannica dealing with
geography, government and history. Here it will be possible only to call
attention to articles on the more important branches of the subject.
[Sidenote: Early Britain]
On the early inhabitants of the islands and on British archaeology,
read the elaborate article CELT (Vol. 5, p. 611; equivalent to 135
pages of this Guide), by Prof. William Ridgeway, Cambridge, author of
_The Oldest Irish Epic_, and E. C. Quiggin, lecturer in Celtic,
Cambridge,—with particularly full treatment of Celtic languages and
literatures,—Gaulish, Irish, Scottish, Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Breton and
Cornish; and the article BRITAIN (Vol. 4, p. 583; equivalent to 40
pages of this Guide), which is illustrated by a map of Roman Britain
and plans of Roman remains. The treatment of pre-Roman and Roman
Britain is by Professor F. J. Haverfield of Oxford; and later Britain
is described by Hector Munro Chadwick, librarian of Clare College,
Cambridge, and author of _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.
Then read:
WALES, _History_ (Vol. 28, pp. 261–268), by Herbert Murray Vaughan,
Keble College, Oxford.
[Sidenote: Scottish History]
SCOTLAND, _Political History_ (Vol. 24, pp. 429–457), by Andrew Lang,
author of _History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation_; and, among
many other articles, SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, (Vol. 24, 460), by the Rev.
Dr. Allan Menzies, St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews, and such biographies
as: MALCOLM III. (Canmore); ALEXANDER I, II AND III (Vol. 1, p. 563);
WILLIAM THE LION (Vol. 28, p. 665); WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 28, p.
277), by A. F. Hutchinson, late rector of the High School, Stirling;
ROBERT I, THE BRUCE (Vol. 23, p. 395); DAVID I AND II (Vol. 8, p. 859);
JAMES I, II, III, IV AND V (Vol. 15, p. 139); MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (Vol.
17, p. 817), a striking biography by the poet and essayist Algernon
Charles Swinburne, author of the tragedies _Chastelard_, _Bothwell_ and
_Mary Stuart_; BOTHWELL (Vol. 4, p. 303), by P. C. Yorke; RIZZIO (Vol.
23, p. 388); DARNLEY (Vol. 7, p. 836), and see also the article CASKET
LETTERS (Vol. 5, p. 449), an examination of the evidence in this mystery
by Andrew Lang; MAR (Vol. 17, p. 666); KNOX, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 878), by
Dr. Alexander Taylor Innes, author of JOHN KNOX and _Studies in Scottish
History_; GOWRIE (Vol. 12, p. 301), by R. J. McNeill, late editor _St.
James’s Gazette_; and JAMES I of England—VI of Scotland (Vol. 15, p.
136); and for the later period see ENGLISH HISTORY to supplement Andrew
Lang’s account of the period since the Union under SCOTLAND, _History_.
[Sidenote: Irish History]
IRELAND, _History_ (Vol. 14, p. 756), by Prof. E. C. Quiggin, of
Cambridge, on the early period, and Richard Bagwell, commissioner of
national education for Ireland and author of _Ireland under the Tudors_,
_Ireland under the Stuarts_, etc.; and to supplement this general
treatment such separate articles as ST. PATRICK (Vol. 20, p. 933) and
ST. COLUMBA (Vol. 6, p. 737), both by Dr. E. C. Quiggin; ST. BRENDAN
(Vol. 4, p. 495); BRIAN (Vol. 4, p. 515); BREHON LAWS (Vol. 4, p. 488),
by Laurence Ginnell, M. P. for North Westmeath and author of _Land and
Liberty_, etc.; O’NEILL family (Vol. 20, p. 107) and O’DONNELL family
(Vol. 20, p. 6), by R. J. McNeill; FITZGERALD family (Vol. 10, p. 441),
by J. H. Round, author of _Feudal England_, etc.; TYRONE, earls of (Vol.
27, p. 549); TYRCONNELL (Vol. 27, p. 548); ST. LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (Vol.
24, p. 23), by R. J. McNeill; DESMOND (Vol. 8, p. 98); BUTLER family
(Vol. 4, p. 879), by Oswald Barron, editor of _The Ancestor_; DROGHEDA
(Vol. 8, p. 587); PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS (Vol. 21, p. 45); ORANGEMEN (Vol. 20,
p. 160); FLOOD, HENRY (Vol. 10, p. 525); GRATTAN, HENRY (Vol. 12, p.
379); TONE, T. WOLFE (Vol. 27, p. 2) and EMMET, ROBERT and THOMAS A.
(Vol. 9, pp. 342–343), all by R. J. McNeill; O’CONNELL, DANIEL (Vol. 19,
p. 990), by the late William O’Connor Morris, author of _Irish History_,
etc.; FENIANS (Vol. 10, p. 254), by R. J. McNeill; BUTT, ISAAC (Vol. 4,
p. 889); PARNELL, C. S. (Vol. 20, p. 854), by James R. Thursfield,
author of _Peel_, etc.; DAVITT, MICHAEL (Vol. 7, p. 870); BOYCOTT (Vol.
4, p. 353); DILLON, JOHN (Vol. 8, p. 273); PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE CURZON
(Vol. 21, p. 857); REDMOND, JOHN E. (Vol. 22, p. 968); and many articles
on Irish towns and counties, and, on Home Rule and recent political
questions, the biographies of English viceroys, premiers and chief
secretaries, and the latter part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY.
ENGLISH HISTORY
On English history the student will find the Britannica particularly
valuable. The article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 466–587), is itself
equivalent to about 380 pages of this Guide, and carries the story
through 13 centuries. This great article—a text-book of the subject in
scope and power—is written by: Prof. C. W. C. Oman, Oxford, author of
_England before the Norman Conquest_, etc., dealing with the period down
to the time of Elizabeth; Prof. A. F. Pollard, University of London,
assistant editor _Dictionary of National Biography_, for the Reformation
and the reign of Elizabeth, 1528–1603; Samuel Rawson Gardiner, best
known as the historian of the Puritan Revolution, who deals with the
period from 1603 to 1793; W. Alison Phillips, author of MODERN EUROPE,
on the years 1793 to 1837; and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, for the period since the accession of Queen
Victoria. And the article closes with a critical estimate of _Sources
and Writers of English History_, by Prof. Albert Frederick Pollard,
University of London.
For the period from 600 to 1066 read: Part 1 of ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 8,
pp. 466–474); and the separate articles:
[Sidenote: Anglo-Saxon Period]
For the introduction of Christianity and the “Kingdoms”—AUGUSTINE (Vol.
2, p. 910); AETHELBERHT (Vol. 1, p. 289); EDWIN (Vol. 9, p. 7), by F. G.
M. Beck, of Clare College, Cambridge; ANGLO-SAXONS (Vol. 2, p. 38), by
H. M. Chadwick; BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_ (Vol. 4, pp. 589–595) and ANGLI
(Vol. 2, p. 18) and JUTES (Vol. 15, p. 609), by the same author; SAXONS
(Vol. 24, p. 264); NORTHUMBRIA (Vol. 19, p. 793); BERNICIA (Vol. 3, p.
802); DEIRA (Vol. 7, p. 933); EAST ANGLIA (Vol. 8, p. 827); WESSEX (Vol.
28, p. 534); MERCIA (Vol. 18, p. 151); SUSSEX, KINGDOM of (Vol. 26, p.
168), and KENT (Vol. 15, p. 735), ECGBERT (Vol. 8, p. 869); AETHELWULF
(Vol. 1, p. 292).
On the Danish invasions and the Anglo-Saxon period, VIKING (Vol. 28, pp.
62–66), by C. F. Keary, author of _The Vikings in Western Europe_;
ÆTHELBALD (Vol. 1, p. 289), ÆTHELBERHT (Vol. 1, p. 289) and ÆTHELRED I
(Vol. 1, p. 290); ALFRED THE GREAT (Vol. 1, p. 582), by Charles Plummer,
biographer of Alfred; DANELAGH (Vol. 7, p. 803), by Prof, Allen Mawer of
Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne; EDWARD “THE ELDER” (Vol. 8, p.
989), ÆTHELSTAN (Vol. 1, p. 291), EDMUND I (Vol. 8, p. 948), EDGAR (Vol.
8, p. 933), all by Prof. Mawer; ST. DUNSTAN (Vol. 8, p. 684), ÆTHELRED
II “the Unready” (Vol. 1, p. 290), by Rev. C. Stanley Phillips, King’s
College, Cambridge; SWEYN I (Vol. 26, p. 224), by R. Nisbet Bain of the
British Museum; DANEGELD (Vol. 7, p. 803); CANUTE (Vol. 5, p. 221), by
R. Nisbet Bain; EDMUND “Ironside” (Vol. 8, p. 948), by Rev. C. Stanley
Phillips; HAROLD I (Vol. 13, p. 11); HARDICANUTE (Vol. 12, p. 942);
EDWARD “the Confessor” (Vol. 8, p. 990), by Rev. C. Stanley Phillips;
HAROLD II (Vol. 13, p. 11).
For the Norman Conquest and the Norman and Angevin kings the student
should read the second section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9,
pp. 474–486) and, at least, the following important articles:
[Sidenote: William the Conqueror
William Rufus
Henry I
Stephen and Matilda
Henry II]
WILLIAM I, “The Conqueror” (Vol. 28, p. 659), by H. W. Carless Davis of
Oxford, author of _England under the Normans and Angevins_; HEREWARD
(Vol. 13, p. 363), by J. H. Round, author of _Feudal England_, etc.;
FEUDALISM (Vol. 10, p. 297), by Prof. George Burton Adams, Yale
University, author of _Political History of England, 1066–1216_, etc.;
DOMESDAY BOOK (Vol. 8, p. 398), by J. H. Round; WILLIAM II, “Rufus”
(Vol. 28, p. 661) and LANFRANC (Vol. 16, p. 169), both by H. W. Carless
Davis; ANSELM (Vol. 2, p. 81); HENRY I (Vol. 13, p. 279), STEPHEN (Vol.
25, p. 881), MATILDA (Vol. 17, p. 888), HENRY II (Vol. 13, p. 281),
BECKET, THOMAS (Vol. 3, p. 608), RICHARD I, “Coeur de Lion” (Vol. 23, p.
294), all by H. W. Carless Davis.
[Sidenote: John Henry III Edward I to III]
In connection with the third section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY
dealing with the struggle for constitutional liberty from 1199 to 1337
(Vol. 9, pp. 486–501) the following supplementary articles are among the
many to which the student should turn: JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 439), and
LANGTON, STEPHEN (Vol. 16, p. 178), both by H. W. Carless Davis; MAGNA
CARTA (Vol. 16, p. 314), by A. W. Holland, late scholar of St. John’s,
Oxford; HENRY III (Vol. 13, p. 282), PEMBROKE (Vol. 21, p. 78),
MONTFORT, SIMON DE (Vol. 18, p. 781), EVESHAM (Vol. 10, p. 10); EDWARD I
(Vol. 8, p. 991–993), by Prof. T. F. Tout, University of Manchester,
author of _Edward I_; MORTMAIN (Vol. 18, p. 880); WESTMINSTER, STATUTES
OF (Vol. 28, p. 551); EDWARD II (Vol. 8, p. 993); LANCASTER, HENRY and
THOMAS, EARLS OF (Vol. 16, pp. 144 and 148); DESPENSER, HUGH LE (Vol. 8,
p. 101); MORTIMER family (Vol. 18, p. 879); and EDWARD III (Vol. 8, p.
994).
[Sidenote: Richard II Henry IV to VI]
On the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) and contemporary history, see the
section in ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 8, pp. 501–516); the article HUNDRED
YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 13, p. 893), by Jules Viard, archivist of the National
Archives, Paris; SLUYS, BATTLE OF (Vol. 25, p. 246), by D. Hannay,
author of _Short History of the Royal Navy_; CRÉCY (Vol. 7, p. 389);
POITIERS, BATTLE OF (Vol. 21, p. 898); EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE (Vol. 8,
p. 999), by Prof. Tout; WYCLIFFE (Vol. 28, p. 866), by R. Lane Poole,
author of _Wycliffe and Movements for Reform_, and W. Alison Phillips,
author of _Modern Europe_, etc.; LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF (Vol.
16, p. 146), by C. Lethbridge Kingsford, biographer of Henry V; RICHARD
II (Vol. 23, p. 295), also by C. L. Kingsford; TYLER, WAT (Vol. 27, p.
495); BALL, JOHN (Vol. 3, p. 263); LOLLARDS (Vol. 16, p. 929), by Dr. T.
M. Lindsay, author of _History of the Reformation_; GLOUCESTER, THOMAS,
DUKE OF (Vol. 12, p. 130); NORFOLK, THOMAS MOWBRAY, DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p.
742); HENRY IV (Vol. 13, p. 283), by C. L. Kingsford; GLENDOWER, OWEN
(Vol. 12, p. 120); NORTHUMBERLAND (Vol. 19, p. 787); HENRY V (Vol. 13,
p. 284) and OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN (Vol. 20, p. 66), by C. L. Kingsford;
AGINCOURT (Vol. 1, p. 375); HENRY VI (Vol. 13, p. 285) and GLOUCESTER,
HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (Vol. 12, p. 129), both by C. L. Kingsford; BEDFORD
JOHN, DUKE OF (Vol. 3, p. 616); JOAN OF ARC (Vol. 15, p. 520), by Prof.
J. T. Shotwell of Columbia University and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; BEAUFORT family (Vol. 3, p. 585); CADE,
JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 927).
[Sidenote: Edward IV and V
Richard III
Henry VII]
On the fifth period of English history, read section 5, _The Wars of the
Roses (1453–1497)_ in the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 516–525);
the separate article, ROSES, WARS OF THE (Vol. 23, p. 735); and the
articles: YORK, HOUSE OF (Vol. 28, p. 924), and LANCASTER, HOUSE OF
(Vol. 16, p. 143), both by James Gairdner, author of _The Houses of
Lancaster and York_, etc.; YORK, RICHARD, DUKE OF (Vol. 28, p. 926),
WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (Vol. 28, p. 339), EDWARD IV (Vol. 8,
p. 996), MARGARET OF ANJOU (Vol. 17, p. 702), CLARENCE, GEORGE, DUKE OF
(Vol. 6, p. 428), EDWARD V (Vol. 8, p. 996), RICHARD III (Vol. 23, p.
296), and BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 726), all
by C. L. Kingsford; HENRY VII (Vol. 13, p. 286), by James Gairdner,
author of _The Houses of Lancaster and York_, and biographer of Henry
VII; WARBECK, PERKIN (Vol. 28, p. 316).
[Sidenote: Henry VIII Edward VI Mary Elizabeth]
The sixth section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY, dealing with the years
1497–1528 (Vol. 9, pp. 525–530), should be supplemented by the latter
part of James Gairdner’s article on HENRY VII and by the articles:
REFORMATION (Vol. 23, p. 4), by Prof. James Harvey Robinson, Columbia
University, author of _History of Western Europe_, etc.; HENRY VIII
(Vol. 13, p. 287) and FOX, RICHARD (Vol. 10, p. 766), both by Prof. A. F
Pollard; WOLSEY, THOMAS (Vol. 28, p 779); CATHERINE OF ARAGON (Vol. 5 p.
529) and BOLEYN, ANNE (Vol. 4, p. 159), by P. C. Yorke, Oxford; CROMWELL
THOMAS (Vol. 7, p. 499); CRANMER THOMAS (Vol. 7, p. 375); FISHER, JOHN
(Vol. 10, p. 427), by Rev. E. L. Taunton, author of _The English Black
Monks of St. Benedict_, etc.; MORE, SIR THOMAS (Vol. 18, p. 822), by
Mark Pattison, late rector of Lincoln College, Oxford; HOWARD, CATHERINE
(Vol. 13, p. 832); PARR, CATHERINE (Vol. 20, p. 861); NORFOLK, THOMAS
HOWARD, 3RD DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 743); ASKEW, ANNE (Vol. 2, p. 762), by
A. F. Pollard; EDWARD VI (Vol. 8, p. 996); SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR,
DUKE OF (Vol. 25, p. 386); NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, EARL OF WARWICK,
AND DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 788); GREY, LADY JANE (Vol. 12, p. 590); MARY I
(Vol. 17, p. 814) and GARDINER, STEPHEN (Vol. 11, p. 460), both by James
Gairdner; WYAT, SIR THOMAS (Vol. 28, p. 862); POLE, CARDINAL (Vol. 21,
p. 974), by E. L. Taunton; RIDLEY, NICHOLAS (Vol. 23, p. 320); LATIMER,
HUGH (Vol. 16, p. 242), by T. F. Henderson, author of _Mary Queen of
Scots and the Casket Letters_; ELIZABETH (Vol. 9, p. 282); MARY QUEEN OF
SCOTS (Vol. 17, p. 817), by A. C. Swinburne; NORFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 4TH
DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 744); ARMADA (Vol. 2, p. 560); HAWKINS, SIR RICHARD
(Vol. 13, p. 99); DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (Vol. 8, p. 473); RALEIGH, SIR
WALTER (Vol. 22, p. 869); LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (Vol. 16, p.
390); ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, EARL OF (Vol. 9, p. 782); BACON, FRANCIS
(Vol. 3, p. 135), by Prof. Robert Adamson of Glasgow, and J. Malcolm
Mitchell, University of London; BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (Vol. 4,
p. 816); and—for this whole period the article ENGLAND, CHURCH OF (Vol.
9, especially pp. 447–448), by William Hunt, author of _History of the
English Church_.
[Sidenote: James I Charles I The Commonwealth Charles II James II]
The seventh part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 535–542)
deals with the _Stuart Monarchy, the Great Rebellion and the Restoration
(1603–1689)_. From the great wealth of supplementary material in the
Britannica on this interesting period, at least the following articles
should be selected: STEWART or STUART family (Vol. 12, p. 911); JAMES I
(Vol. 15, p. 136); GUNPOWDER PLOT (Vol. 12, p. 727); BIBLE, ENGLISH
(Vol. 3, p. 894); SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (Vol. 24, p. 76);
BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 722); THIRTY YEARS’
WAR (Vol. 26, p. 852); CHARLES I (Vol. 5, p. 906) and LAUD, WILLIAM
(Vol. 16, p. 276), both by P. Chesney York; SHIP-MONEY (Vol. 24, p.
982); HAMPDEN, JOHN (Vol. 12, p. 900); PYM, JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 680) and
STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF (Vol. 25, p. 978), both by P. C.
Yorke; GREAT REBELLION (Vol. 12, p. 403); CROMWELL, OLIVER (Vol. 7, p.
487), by P. C. Yorke, C. F. Atkinson and R. J. McNeill; Cromwell,
Richard (Vol. 7, p. 498); for the military operations of the Great
Rebellion, the articles listed under that heading in the chapter of this
Guide entitled _For Army Officers_; MONK, GEORGE (Vol. 18, p. 723);
CHARLES II, (Vol. 5, p. 912); CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (Vol.
6, p. 428); BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 724);
CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF (Vol. 6, p. 500); PORTSMOUTH, DUCHESS OF (Vol. 22,
p. 131); GWYN, NELL (Vol. 12, p. 750); LAUDERDALE, DUKE OF (Vol. 16, p.
279); SHAFTESBURY, 1ST EARL (Vol. 24, p. 760) by Osmund Airy, biographer
of Charles II; DUTCH WARS (Vol. 9, p. 729); TEST ACTS (Vol. 26, p. 665);
JAMES II (Vol. 15, p. 138); ARGYLL, 9TH EARL OF (Vol. 2, p. 484);
MONMOUTH, DUKE OF (Vol. 18, p. 725); TYRCONNELL (Vol. 27, p. 548).
[Sidenote: William and Mary; Anne]
On the Revolution and the age of Anne (1689–1714) see the article
ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 542–544), and WILLIAM III. (Vol. 28, p.
662); MARY II. (Vol. 17, p. 816); BURNET, GILBERT (Vol. 4, p. 851);
GRAND ALLIANCE (Vol. 12, p. 342), and for additional military articles
the chapter _For Army Officers_ in this Guide; ANNE (Vol. 2, p. 65);
MARLBOROUGH, 1ST DUKE OF (Vol. 17, p. 737), by W. Prideaux Courtney;
MASHAM, LADY (Vol. 17, p. 836); GODOLPHIN (Vol. 12, p. 174); SOMERS
(Vol. 25, p. 384); HALIFAX, 1ST MARQUESS OF (Vol. 12, p. 839); OXFORD,
1ST EARL (Vol. 20, p. 403); BOLINGBROKE, VISCOUNT (Vol. 4, p. 161);
SHREWSBURY, DUKE OF (Vol. 24, p. 1016).
[Sidenote: George I to IV William IV]
The part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY dealing with the Hanoverian
Kings, 1714–1793 (Vol. 9, pp. 544–551) and that on the Revolutionary
epoch, the reaction and the triumph of reform, 1793–1837 (pp. 551–558)
are respectively by S. R. Gardiner and W. Alison Phillips. They should
be supplemented by S. R. Gardiner’s articles on the four Georges (Vol.
11, pp. 737–745); SOUTH SEA BUBBLE (Vol. 25, p. 515); STANHOPE, 1ST EARL
(Vol. 25, p. 773); WALPOLE, HORATIO (Vol. 28, p. 288); WHIG AND TORY
(Vol. 28, p. 588); TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (Vol. 27, p. 111); CAROLINE (Vol.
5, p. 380); PELHAM, HENRY (Vol. 21, p. 67); CHARLES EDWARD, “the Young
Pretender” (Vol. 5, p. 940), by H. M. Vaughan, author of _The Last of
the Royal Stuarts_; METHODISM (Vol. 18, p. 293); WESLEY, JOHN (Vol. 28,
p. 527); NEWCASTLE, THOMAS PELHAM HOLLES, DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 471);
CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, 1ST EARL OF (Vol. 6, p. 1); SEVEN YEARS’ WAR
(Vol. 24, p. 715) and, for engagements and commanders in the war, see
the chapter in this Guide _For Army Officers_; INDIA, _History_ (Vol.
14, especially pp. 407–409); CANADA, _History_ (Vol. 5, especially p.
158); BUTE, 3RD EARL OF (Vol. 4, p. 877); GRENVILLE, GEORGE (Vol. 12, p.
580); ROCKINGHAM, MARQUESS OF (Vol. 23, p. 434); GUILFORD, 2ND EARL,
Lord North (Vol. 12, p. 691); WILKES, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 642); BURKE,
EDMUND (Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley; FOX, CHARLES JAMES (Vol. 10, p.
761); GORDON, LORD GEORGE (Vol. 12, p. 253); LANSDOWNE, MARQUESS OF,
Lord Shelburne (Vol. 16, p. 184); PORTLAND, 3RD DUKE (Vol. 22, p. 119);
PITT, WILLIAM (Vol. 21, p. 667); FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (Vol. 11, p.
171), NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS (Vol. 19, p. 216) and, for leaders and
engagements in these wars, in the Peninsular War, and in the American
War for Independence, see the chapter in this Guide _For Army Officers_;
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA (Vol. 5, p. 380); WELLESLEY, MARQUESS (Vol. 28,
p. 506); LONDONDERRY, MARQUESS OF, Castlereagh (Vol. 16, p. 969);
CANNING, GEORGE (Vol. 5, p. 186); CORN LAWS (Vol. 7, p. 174); COBBETT,
WILLIAM (Vol. 6, p. 606); WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (Vol. 28, p. 507); WILLIAM
IV. (Vol. 28, p. 664); GREY, 2ND EARL (Vol. 12, p. 586); BROUGHAM, LORD
(Vol. 4, p. 652); PARLIAMENT (Vol. 20, especially p. 843); MELBOURNE,
2ND VISCOUNT (Vol. 18, p. 90); PEEL, SIR ROBERT (Vol. 21, p. 40).
[Sidenote: Victoria]
On the reign of Victoria the section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY
(Vol. 9, pp. 558–582) gives a very full treatment, which should be
supplemented by the study of such articles as: VICTORIA (Vol. 28, p.
28), by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica;
ALBERT (Vol. 1, p. 495), by the same author; PALMERSTON (Vol. 20, p.
645); RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (Vol. 23, p. 863); O’BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH (Vol.
19, p. 953); CHARTISM (Vol. 5, p. 953); DERBY, 14TH EARL (Vol. 8, p.
66); CRIMEAN WAR (Vol. 7, p. 450); “ALABAMA” ARBITRATION (Vol. 1, p.
464); BRIGHT, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 567); COBDEN, RICHARD (Vol. 6, p. 607);
BEACONSFIELD (Vol. 3, p. 563); GLADSTONE, W. E. (Vol. 12, p. 66), by G.
W. E. Russell, biographer of Gladstone; SALISBURY (Vol. 24, p. 72);
TRANSVAAL, _History_ (Vol. 27, p. 193); PARNELL, C. S. (Vol. 20, p.
854); GORDON, C. G. (Vol. 11, p. 249); ROSEBERY (Vol. 23, p. 731);
RHODES, C. J. (Vol. 23, p. 254).
[Sidenote: Edward VII George V]
For the years since Victoria’s death see the articles: EDWARD VII. (Vol.
8, p. 997) and GEORGE V. (Vol. 11, p. 745), and the articles on recent
political leaders: BALFOUR (Vol. 3, p. 250); CHAMBERLAIN (Vol. 5, p.
813); CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN (Vol. 5, p. 131); ASQUITH (Vol. 2, p. 769); and
LLOYD GEORGE (Vol. 16, p. 832); and on the reform of the House of Lords
PARLIAMENT (Vol. 20, especially pp. 845–847) and REPRESENTATION (Vol.
23, especially pp. 111–113).
CHAPTER XLVI
FRENCH HISTORY
The article FRANCE in the Encyclopaedia Britannica includes a section on
_History_ (Vol. 10, pp. 801–906) equivalent to 320 pages of this Guide,
of which the first part, down to 1870, is by Paul Wiriath, director of
the École Supérieure Pratique de Commerce et d’Industrie, Paris, and the
part since 1870 is by J. E. C. Bodley, author of _France_, etc. Opposite
page 802 are four coloured historical maps showing France at the end of
the 10th, 13th and 14th centuries, and the changes in the eastern
frontier from 1598 to 1789. The historical part of the article closes
with a historiographic section, or critical summary of French historical
writing, by Charles Bémont of the University of Paris.
Supplementing this main treatment, see:
[Sidenote: Early History of France]
On prehistoric and Roman France, GAUL (Vol. 11, p. 533), by Prof. F. J.
Haverfield, Oxford, the well-known authority on Roman occupation of
Britain and Gaul; BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, DRUIDISM, and, on
Caesar’s campaigns, CAESAR, JULIUS; and, on Roman remains, ARLES, NÎMES,
ORANGE, ARCHITECTURE, AQUEDUCT, and AMPHITHEATRE.
On the Franks, the articles FRANKS (Vol. 11, p. 35) and SALIC LAW (Vol.
24, p. 68), by Prof. Christian Pfister of the Sorbonne; and the
articles, AUSTRASIA, MEROVINGIANS, CHILDERIC, CLOVIS, CHILDEBERT,
CLOTAIRE, SIGEBERT, CHARIBERT, GUNTRAM, FREDEGOND, BRUNHILDA, CLOTAIRE
II, DAGOBERT, PIPPIN I, II and III, EBROIN, CAROLINGIANS, CHARLES MARTEL
(Vol. 5, p. 942), CARLOMAN, CHILDERIC; CHARLEMAGNE, ROLAND, EINHARD,
ALCUIN; LOUIS I “the Pious,” LOTHAIR (Vol. 17, p. 17); CHARLES II “the
Bald” (Vol. 5, p. 897); FEUDALISM; LOUIS II and III; CHARLES III “the
Fat” (Vol. 5, p. 898); ODO; LOUIS IV (Vol. 17, p. 35), by Dr. René
Poupardin, secretary of the École des Charles; LOTHAIR (Vol. 17, p. 18);
BRUNO; LOUIS V.
[Sidenote: Medieval France]
For the Capetian period, the articles CAPET (Vol. 5, p. 251); ROBERT
“the Strong” (Vol. 23, p. 402); HUGH “the Great” (Vol. 13, p. 857); HUGH
CAPET (Vol. 13, p. 858); ROBERT “the Pious” (Vol. 23, p. 399); HENRY I
(Vol. 13, p. 290); PHILIP I (Vol. 21, p. 378); LOUIS VI (Vol. 17, p.
35), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia University; Prof. Shotwell’s
article on LOUIS VII; SUGER; ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE (Vol. 9, p. 168);
PHILIP AUGUSTUS (Vol. 21, p. 378); INGEBORG; ALBIGENSES; and for French
and English relations, RICHARD I and JOHN of England; LOUIS VIII;
BLANCHE OF CASTILE (Vol. 4, p. 40); Prof. Shotwell’s article on LOUIS IX
“St. Louis”; and the article CRUSADES; PHILIP III “the Bold” (Vol. 21,
p. 381); PHILIP IV; BONIFACE VIII; SAISSET; NOGARET; TEMPLARS; LOUIS X;
PHILIP V and CHARLES IV.
For the Valois line and the history of the period (1328–1498), the
article HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR; SLUYS; CRÉCY; and for detail of the war the
articles under that head in the chapter _For the Army Officer_ in this
Guide; and PHILIP VI (Vol. 21, p. 383); FLANDERS; ARTEVELDE (Jacob and
Philip van); DAUPHINÉ; DAUPHIN; GABELLE; JOHN II (Vol. 15, p. 441);
POITIERS; MARCEL; LE COQ; STATES GENERAL; CHARLES II of Navarre (Vol. 5,
p. 924); CHARLES V (Vol. 5, p. 917); JACQUERIE; DU GUESCLIN; CHARLES VI;
ARMAGNAC; ISABELLA of Bavaria (Vol. 14, p. 860); BENEDICT XIII (Vol. 3,
p. 718); JOHN “the Fearless” (Vol. 15, p. 445); AGINCOURT; CHARLES VII;
ARTHUR III of Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 682); JOAN OF ARC; COEUR; AGNES SOREL
(Vol. 25, p. 432); BRÉZÉ; PRAGUERIE; LOUIS XI; BALUE; LE DAIM; LIÈGE,
_History_; CHARLES “the Bold” of Burgundy (Vol. 5, p. 932); CHARLES
VIII; ANNE of France (Vol. 2, p. 70); ANNE of Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 69).
[Sidenote: 16th Century]
For the years, 1498–1589, and the Orleans dynasty, LOUIS XII and
AMBOISE, by Prof. Jules Isaac of the Lyons Lycée; MARY (Vol. 17, p.
824); FRANCIS I (Vol. 10, p. 934), by Prof. Isaac; LOUISE OF SAVOY;
MARIGNANO; PAVIA; MARGUERITE D’ANGOULÊME (Vol. 17, p. 706); ÉTAMPES
(Vol. 9, p. 803); DU PRAT, ANNE DE MONTMORENCY (Vol. 18, p. 787); HENRY
II (Vol. 13, p. 291); DIANE DE POITIERS; CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI; FRANCIS
II; GUISE (Vol. 12, p. 699); L’HÔPITAL; CONDÉ; AMBOISE; ROMORANTIN;
HUGUENOTS; CHARLES IX; COLIGNY; SAINT ANDRÉ; ST. BARTHOLOMEW; HENRY III.
[Sidenote: The Bourbons]
For the Bourbon kings, beginning 1589—BOURBON (with genealogical chart);
HENRY IV; Duke of MAYENNE; EDICT OF NANTES (Vol. 19, p. 165); SULLY;
LOUIS XIII; MARIE DE’ MEDICI; RICHELIEU, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell,
Columbia University; CONCINI; LUYNES; CINQUE-MARS; ROHAN; SOUBISE;
JANSENISM; THIRTY YEARS’ WAR; and for leaders and engagements in that
conflict the titles listed in the chapter in this Guide entitled _For
Army Officers_; LOUIS XIV, by Prof. A. J. Grant of Leeds University;
MAZARIN, by Prof. H. Morse Stephens, University of California; MARIE
THERÈSE; LA VALLIÈRE; MONTESPAN; MAINTENON; Duc de BEAUFORT; FRONDE;
TURENNE; RETZ and LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, by Prof. George Saintsbury of
Edinburgh University; FOUQUET; COLBERT, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell,
Columbia; CHAMPLAIN; LA SALLE; LOUVOIS; CAMISARDS, by M. Frank Puaux,
president of the Socíeté de l’Histoire du Protestantisme Français;
JANSENISM, by Viscount St. Cyres; PORT ROYAL; BOSSUET; FENELON; LE
TELLIER; GRAND ALLIANCE; and for details of military operations and
sketches of commanders the articles enumerated in the chapter in this
Guide _For Army Officers_; LOUIS XV; Philip II, Duke of ORLEANS (Vol.
20, p. 286); FLEURY; AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION and SEVEN YEARS’ WAR and
articles under these heads in the chapter in this Guide _For Army
Officers_; CHATEAUROUX; POMPADOUR; DU BARRY; COMTE D’ ARGENSON (Vol. 2,
p. 459), CHOISEUL; MAUPEOU; AIGUILLON.
[Sidenote: The Revolution]
On the Revolution and the period immediately before it, the articles
LOUIS XVI, by Robert Anchel, archivist to the Department de l’Eure;
MARIE ANTOINETTE; BEAUMARCHAIS; MAUREPAS; TURGOT; NECKER; VERGENNES;
CALONNE; DIAMOND NECKLACE; LOMÉNIE DE BRIENNE; FRENCH REVOLUTION (Vol.
10, p. 154, equivalent to 58 pages of this Guide), by Prof. F. C.
Montague, University College, London; DES MOULINS; MIRABEAU; SIEYÈS;
DANTON; ROBESPIERRE; MOUNNIER; LA FAYETTE; MONTMORIN DE SAINT-HÉREM;
MARAT; CORDAY; TALLEYRAND; ASSIGNATS; NARBONNE-LARA; JACOBINS;
GIRONDISTS; ROLAND; BRISSOT; MOUNTAIN; DIRECTORY; BABEUF; FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS; and for battles and leaders in these wars the
articles mentioned under this head in the chapter in this Guide _For
Army Officers_.
[Sidenote: The First Empire]
On the Napoleonic period, the articles by J. Holland Rose, author of
_Napoleonic Studies_, etc., on NAPOLEON (Vol. 19, p. 190)—equivalent to
65 pages of this Guide, and on the principal figures of the Napoleonic
period,—for example, BONAPARTE family, FOUCHÉ, GARDANE, JUNOT; the
articles NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR WAR and WATERLOO and the
articles listed under these two heads in the chapter in this Guide _For
Army Officers_.
[Sidenote: The Kingdom Again]
On the Bourbon restoration, LOUIS XVIII; DECAZES; Duc de RICHELIEU (Vol.
23, p. 302); Duc de BERRY; VILLÈLE; CHARLES X (Vol. 5, p. 921);
MARTIGNAC; POLIGNAC; MARMONT.
On the revolution of 1830 and the rule of Louis Philippe, the articles
LOUIS PHILIPPE (Vol. 17, p. 51); CAVAIGNAC; THIERS; GUIZOT; CONSTANT;
CASIMIR PÉRIER; LAFITTE; BARROT; DUPONT DE L’EURE; BERRYER; SAINT-SIMON;
FOURIER; LAMENNAIS; LOUIS BLANC; MOLÉ.
[Sidenote: The Second Empire]
On the revolution of 1848 and the second Empire, besides most of the
articles in the preceding paragraph, NAPOLEON III, by Albert Thomas,
author of _The Second Empire_; CRÉMIEUX; LEDRU-ROLLIN; CARNOT;
GARNIER-PAGÈS; MONTALEMBERT; OLLIVIER; ROUHER; FAVRE; PICARD; CRIMEAN
WAR; ITALIAN WARS; FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR; and articles listed under those
heads in the chapter in this Guide _For Army Officers_; EUGÈNIE;
MAXIMILIAN of Mexico (Vol. 17, p. 924).
[Sidenote: Modern Times]
On the Third Republic, 1870 and the following years, the story in Vol.
10, pp. 873–904 (equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide) is to be
supplemented by the articles THIERS; RÉMUSAT; SIMON; BARTHÉLEMY;
BROGLIE; MACMAHON; DUFAURE; GRÈVY; FERRY; GAMBETTA; FREYCINET; CHAMBORD;
CLÉMENCEAU; BRISSON; BOULANGER; CARNOT; LOUBET; LESSEPS; CASIMIR-PÉRIER;
FAURE; RIBOT; MÉLINE; WALDECK-ROUSSEAU; DREYFUS; DUPUY; RIBOT;
GALLIFFET; JAURÈS; MILLERAND; COMBES; DELCASSÉ; ROUVIER; PELLETAN;
BRIAND; LEMIRE; FALLIÈRES; POINCARÉ.
CHAPTER XLVII
THE FAR EAST
[Sidenote: Asiatic Characteristics]
An account, in this chapter, of the principal articles dealing with the
history of India, China and Japan, will sufficiently indicate to the
student the plan adopted in the Britannica’s treatment of all the
countries in the far East. But before turning to these three groups of
articles, he should read ASIA (Vol. 2, p. 734), which defines the social
and economic position of the Orient in general, and gives a survey of
the field covered by articles on Eastern countries other than the three
dealt with in this chapter. This article, equivalent in length to 65
pages of this Guide, is by Sir Richard Strachey, the famous Indian
administrator; Sir Charles Eliot, of the British diplomatic service Sir
T. H. Holdich, of the Indian Frontier Survey; and Philip Lake, the
Oriental geologist. The general survey of Asiatic characteristics, as
revealed by history, with which the historical section (p. 749) of the
article begins, is noteworthy in connection with current political
questions:
The words “Asiatic” and “oriental” are often used as if they denoted a
definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many
ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, etc., differ in so many important
points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that
Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independence and freedom as
Europeans. Individuals are thought of as members of a family, state or
religion, rather than as entities with a destiny and rights of their
own. This leads to autocracy in politics, fatalism in religion, and
conservatism in both.
All three of these are certainly conspicuous in the history of the first
Eastern country dealt with in this chapter.
INDIA
In the article INDIA (Vol. 14, p. 375), (equivalent to 140 pages of this
Guide) there is much of value to the historical student besides the
chapter on _History_ (p. 395), which is written by Sir William Wilson
Hunter, administrative head of the statistical survey of India and one
of the editors of _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_, and by James
Sutherland Cotton, editor of this same Gazetteer. Particularly important
are the sections, _The People_ (p. 382), _Administration_ (p. 385), and
_Indian Costume_ (p. 417), illustrated from pen-and-ink drawings by J.
Lockwood Kipling, known to many as the illustrator of his son’s book
_Kim_. And the student of Oriental history will find it possible to gain
a little comprehension—at least—of Oriental ways of thought, Eastern
setting and colour, by reading in the Britannica such articles as CASTE
(Vol. 5, p. 464), HINDUISM (Vol. 13, p. 501), BRAHMANISM, BRAHMAN and
BRAHMANA (Vol. 4, p. 378), all by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh;
BUDDHA and BUDDHISM (Vol. 4, p. 737), both by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of
Manchester, author of _Sacred Books of the Buddhas_, etc.; MAHOMET (Vol.
17, p. 399), by Prof. D. G. Margoliouth, Oxford; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS
and MAHOMMEDAN LAW (Vol. 17, p. 411), by Prof. D. S. Macdonald, Hartford
Theological Seminary, and MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION (Vol. 17, p. 417), by Rev.
G. W. Thatcher, Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.; INDIAN LAW (Vol. 14,
p. 434), by Sir William Markby, author of _Lectures on English Law_,
etc.; and ZOROASTER (Vol. 28, p. 1039), by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg,
and PARSEES (Vol. 20, p. 866). This list of articles subsidiary to the
history of India could be prolonged almost indefinitely, but enough has
been given to put the student on the track of valuable articles which
might otherwise escape his notice.
Before we come to the authentic history of India there is a legendary
period, the only historic test for which is the rock inscriptions,—see
the article INSCRIPTIONS, _Indian_ (Vol. 14, p. 621), by J. F. Fleet,
author of _Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings_. On the earliest
literary description of the Aryans in India and their contests with the
Dravidians see the article SANSKRIT, _Vedic Period_ (especially p. 161
of Vol. 24, on the _Rig Veda_)—and in general the articles ARYAN and
DRAVIDIAN. An interesting reconstruction of the civilization of the
primitive Aryans on the basis of languages will be found in the article
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, especially pp. 498–500), by Dr. Peter
Giles, Cambridge, author of _Manual of Comparative Philology_; and this
picture of Aryan life before the conquest of India will hold in the main
for the earlier period of the Aryans in India.
[Sidenote: Early Buddhism]
With the 6th century we come to the beginning of the Buddhist period.
See the article JAINS, the articles on Buddhism already mentioned, and
the articles: ASOKA, the great Buddhist emperor and organizer of the
faith, whose rock inscriptions throughout India are so valuable as
historical records; KANISHKA, the Buddhist king of Kabul and Kashmir;
FA-HIEN and HSÜAN TSANG, the Chinese pilgrims of India, who left
important records of early Buddhism and of Brahmanism, which was
steadily growing in power and strength.
The Hindu period, overlapping the Buddhist, is marked by the beginning
of Western influences on India. For the Persians in India see the
articles PERSIA (Vol. 21, especially pp. 209–210), DARIUS (Vol. 7, p.
832), and SCYLAX, the Greek who under Darius’s orders explored the
course of the Indus. Far more important was the conquest by Alexander
the Great and the establishment of the Hellenistic empire of the
Seleucids in Syria, Bactria and India: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT (Vol. 1,
especially p. 548), NEARCHUS, Alexander’s admiral and navigator, and
SELEUCID DYNASTY. The first paramount ruler of India was CHANDRAGUPTA
(Vol. 5, p. 839), whom the Greeks called Sandracottus and who crushed
the Seleucid power and founded the Maurya dynasty. Of his grandson Asoka
we have already spoken in outlining the growth and decline of Buddhism.
In this period Greek thought and art influenced India greatly, and in
the period immediately following—2nd century B.C.—northwestern India was
invaded again by western troops: see DEMETRIUS, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER.
The records of the next four centuries are confused and vague; on the
invasions from the North, see SAKA and YUE-CHI, by Sir Charles Norton
Edgcumbe Eliot.
The Yue-Chi founded the Kushan dynasty, in which the greatest king was
KANISHKA (Vol. 15, p. 653), already mentioned as a Buddhist ruler whose
policy marked the beginning of the end of Buddhism in India. On the
succeeding dynasty see the article GUPTA; and refer again to the article
FA-HIEN for the Chinese account of the rule of the second Gupta king,
Chandragupta,—on whom in legend see VIKRAMADITYA. On the White Huns and
their invasion consult the articles EPHTHALITES and HUNS. On the only
other great king of this period, who was paramount monarch of northern
India in the first half of the 7th century and whose administration was
described by Hsüan-Tsang, see HARSHA. On the principal Deccan dynasties
of the Hindu period, see CHALUKYA and RASHTRAKUTA, and the article
DECCAN.
[Sidenote: Mahommedans and Moslems]
For a general notion of the Mahommedan period in India the student
should read the articles on Mahommedanism already mentioned, and for
more definite information about India, the articles on the 11th century
invader MAHMUD OF GHAZNI (Vol. 17, p. 397), and on SOMNATH, the temple
city which he captured and sacked in 1025. See DECCAN and GUJARAT for
the Moslem conquest of these states by Ala-ud-din. For the destruction
of the Tughlak dynasty, which followed Ala-ud-din’s successors, see
AFGHANISTAN (Vol. 1, especially p. 315) and TIMUR (Vol. 26, p. 994), by
Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. The “last stand made by the
national faith in India against conquering Islam” was in VIJAYANAGAR
(Vol. 28, p. 62). With the 16th century and the Mogul dynasty, India is
quite definitely Moslem: see BABER, HUMAYUN, AKBAR, ABUL FAZL the
historian of Akbar’s reign, JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN, and AGRA and INDIAN
ARCHITECTURE (especially Fig. 17, opposite p. 433, Vol. 14) for the Taj
Mahal, the Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtäz Mal,
and—for the culmination of the Mogul power, the beginning of its decay,
and the first sign of Moslem bigotry and intolerance on the part of the
Mogul emperors,—AURANGZEB. His attempt to conquer the Mahommedan kings
of the Deccan gave the natives an opportunity to regain power: see the
article MAHRATTAS, and for the earlier risings of the Mahrattas, SIVAJI.
And for the rise of Afghan power under the Durani dynasty and the battle
of Panipat in 1761, a crushing defeat for the Mahrattas, see
AFGHANISTAN, _History_ (Vol. 1, especially p. 316), and AHMAD SHAH.
On earlier European settlements in India see the article INDIA,
_History_ (Vol. 14, p. 404), and more particularly for Portuguese
explorations and settlements the articles VASCO DA GAMA (Vol. 11, p.
433), ALBUQUERQUE (Vol. 1, p. 516), and GOA the capitol of Portuguese
India, the last article being by K. G. Jayne, author of _Vasco da Gama
and His Successors_: for Dutch rule the article DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY
(Vol. 8, p. 716); and for the beginning of British influence in India
the articles EAST INDIA COMPANY; SURAT; MADRAS, where the first English
fort was built in 1640 and the first grant, except for factory use, was
made by the English; BOMBAY, acquired from Portugal in 1661–65; SIR JOHN
and SIR JOSIAH CHILD; JOB CHARNOCK, founder of Calcutta, and the article
on CALCUTTA.
[Sidenote: The British Conquest]
On British political history in India in the 18th century, see the
articles on PONDICHERRY, DUPLEIX, French Governor-General in
Pondicherry, his rival CLIVE the founder of the British Empire and of
the power of the East India Company in India, EYRE COOTE who took
Pondicherry from the French in 1761, SURAJ-UD-DOWLAH and CALCUTTA for
the siege of the city and story of the Black Hole, PLASSEY, SHAH ALAM
for the massacre of PATNA; and for the period after CLIVE the articles
WARREN HASTINGS, MAHRATTAS for the first Mahratta war, HYDER ALI and
MYSORE for the first Mysore war; TIPPOO SAHIB and CORNWALLIS for the
second Mysore war; TEIGNMOUTH and BENGAL, for the permanent settlement
of Bengal under Cornwallis; WELLESLEY and TIPPOO SAHIB and SERINGAPATAM,
WELLINGTON and LAKE (Vol. 16, p. 85) for the campaigns against the
French and natives during Wellesley’s governor-generalship; LORD MINTO
for the years from 1807 to 1813; MARQUESS OF HASTINGS, OCHTERLONY and
NEPAL for the war in Nepal; for the wars of 1817 the articles PINDARIS,
MAHRATTAS, ELPHINSTONE, SIR JOHN MALCOLM; for the administration
(1823–28) of Lord Amherst, the articles AMHERST, BURMESE WARS, BHARATPUR
and COMBERMERE; for Bentinck’s rule, the articles BENTINCK, SUTTEE,
THUGS by Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, and
MYSORE; METCALFE, for a view of his short tenure of office; for the
stormy period of the ’40’s, AUCKLAND, ELLENBOROUGH, AFGHANISTAN, SIR W.
H. MACNAGHTEN, SIR R. H. SALE and SIND; and for the Sikh wars, HARDINGE,
PUNJAB, SIKH WARS, RANJIT SINGH, SIR HUGH GOUGH, DALHOUSIE, SIR HENRY
LAWRENCE, EDWARDES, BURMESE WARS for the second war of 1852, and OUDH
for its annexation; and for the close of the Company’s rule, the
articles LORD CANNING, INDIAN MUTINY, DELHI, LORD LAWRENCE, RICHARD
BAIRD SMITH, JOHN NICHOLSON, SIR NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN, CAWNPORE, NANA
SAHIB, LUCKNOW, SIR HENRY LAWRENCE, SIR J. E. W. INGLIS, HAVELOCK, J. G.
S. NEILL, OUTRAM, Sir Colin Campbell.
On India under the Crown, since 1858, see particularly the articles on
the viceroys, CANNING, ELGIN, LAWRENCE, MAYO, NORTHBROOK, LYTTON (see
also SHERE ALI and YAKUB KHAN),—RIPON (see also AYUB KHAN, EARL ROBERTS,
and ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN), DUFFERIN (see also PANJDEH for the Russian scare
of 1885 and BURMA and BURMESE WARS for the dispute with Thebaw), CURZON
and KITCHENER, and MINTO.
CHINA
As with India, so with China, the whole of the article in the Britannica
is of value to the historical student. The article CHINA (Vol. 6, pp.
166–231) is equivalent to 200 pages of this Guide. The most important
part for the student of history is section V. (pp. 188–212) on
_History_: but such parts of the article as _Geography_, with a coloured
map, the _People_ (pp. 171–174), _Religion_ (174–177), _Economics_
(177–181), _Government and Administration_ (181–188), _Art_ (213–216)
with illustrations, and _Language and Literature_ (216–231) are all of
importance to help get the background that is so baffling to an
occidental studying the Far East. As was the case with India, the study
of religions is particularly important and besides the section
_Religion_ in the article CHINA, the student should turn to the articles
LAO-TSZE, the founder of a philosophy debased into Taoism, MENCIUS, and
CONFUCIUS, all by the Rev. James Legge, author of _The Religions of
China_, and the editor of _The Chinese Classics_, and BUDDHISM and
LAMAISM, the latter the form of Buddhism in vogue in China,—and he
should remember that there are some Mahommedans in China. In connection
with the latest developments in Chinese history he should read with
great care in the article CHINA, Section IV, _Government and
Administration_, especially p. 184 on the Civil Service, an elaborate
merit system.
Section V. of the article CHINA opens with a treatment by Sir Henry
Yule, the famous Orientalist, of the European knowledge of China before
1615, particularly “Cathay” and the early explorers of Mongolia, CARPINI
(see Vol. 5, p. 397) and RUBRUQUIS (see Vol. 23, pp. 810–812), and of
Cathay itself MARCO POLO (see Vol. 22, pp. 7–10). The internal history
of China begins (Vol. 6, p. 191) with a discussion of Chinese origins:
“anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connection
with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest
hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty
(second millenium B.C.) betray the Mongol character of the nation that
invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye whenever it
appears in an ideograph.... Our standpoint as regards the origin of the
Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic.... Their civilization
was already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled by
half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical principles on
which it is based remain, to all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever.”
Chinese legendary history goes back to Fu-hi as the “first historical
emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852–2738 B.C.”
[Sidenote: The First Definite Date] There is much that is purely
legendary and mythical in these early records, but with the year 776
B.C. we find a veritable record: in an ode referring to a wicked emperor
there is mention of “certain signs showing that Heaven itself is
indignant at Yu-wang’s crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the
sun ... the date and month being clearly stated. This date corresponds
exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that
on that precise date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China.”
It is an interesting coincidence that this earliest sure date in Chinese
history is the date of the first Greek Olympiad, from which time was
reckoned in the Greek calendar—though there are no certain dates in
Greek history until much later. The first outstanding event in the
history of China was nearly 20 centuries later—the Mongol invasion; see
the articles MONGOLS (Vol. 18, pp. 712–719) and JENGHIZ KHAN (Vol. 15,
p. 316), both by Sir Robert K. Douglas, author of _The Life of Jenghiz
Khan_. On the period immediately following see KUBLAI KHAN, for the
foundation of the Mongol dynasty, and the section _Medieval Cathay_
(Vol. 6, p. 189) of the article CHINA for early exploration and
missionary effort. Mongol rule was broken in the 14th century by the
founder of the Ming dynasty. [Sidenote: Foreign Relations] The
Portuguese arrival at Canton in 1517 marked the beginning of modern
intercourse with Europe; and see the article MATTEO RICCI by Sir Henry
Yule, for the first important work of a Christian missionary in China
early in the 17th century. Immediately thereafter came the Manchu
invasion, on which see the article MANCHURIA, by Sir R. K. Douglas.
Trade with Europe on a large scale began in the second half of the 18th
century; see the article CANTON. British diplomatic missions for the
improvement of the condition of traders in Canton were unsuccessful, but
in 1840 the opium war made China feel the weight of Great Britain’s
power when Hong Kong was ceded to the English and other ports were
opened to trade: see LORD NAPIER, SIR HUGH GOUGH, and HONG-KONG. On the
T’ai-p’ing rebellion, the “Arrow” affair, and the second interference of
Great Britain with China, see SIR H. S. PARKES, CHARLES GEORGE GORDON
(“Chinese Gordon”), EARL OF ELGIN (Vol. 9, p. 268), TSENG KUO-FAN, LI
HUNG CHANG. On the Russian boundary disputes of 1858 and 1860 see AMUR
and VLADIVOSTOK.
The history of China since 1875 is told pretty completely in the article
CHINA, in two sections, the first on 1875–1901 being by Sir Valentine
Chirol, author of _The Far Eastern Question_. But in connection with the
general treatment the student should read the articles on KOREA, ANNAM
and TONGKING for the earlier efforts to detach from the Chinese empire
these quasi-vassals; CHINO-JAPANESE WAR for the military details of the
struggle by which Japan got command of the Korean coast-line; MEKONG for
the dispute of 1895 with Great Britain; KIAOCHOW BAY, PORT ARTHUR and
WEI-HAI-WEI for the seizures of 1897 and 1898 by Germany, Russia and
Great Britain respectively; JOHN HAY for America’s part in the Open Door
policy; PEKING and TIENTSIN for details added to the general account in
the article CHINA, of the “Boxer” rising; MANCHURIA for Russian
encroachments before, and JAPAN for Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese
War.
JAPAN
[Sidenote: Japanese in America]
The article JAPAN (Vol. 15, p. 156) is equivalent to 370 pages of this
Guide,—and is almost entirely the work of Captain Frank Brinkley, editor
of the _Japan Mail_, author of _Japan_, _A History of Japan_, _An
Unabridged Japanese-English Dictionary_, etc. The article is divided
into 10 parts—_Geography_, _People_, _Language and Literature_, _Art_,
_Economic Conditions_, _Government and Administration_, _Religion_,
_Foreign Intercourse_, _Domestic History_, and _The Claim of Japan; A
Japanese View_, by Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, in which the president of the
Imperial University of Kyoto and of the Imperial Academy of Japan
discusses “the ambition of the Japanese people ... to be recognized as
an equal by the Great Powers,” their resenting “any discrimination
against them as an Asiatic people,” the “misrepresentation, arising from
want of proper knowledge of Japanese character and feelings,” that the
Japanese immediately after the war with Russia were “ready and eager to
fight with the United States”—whereas the Japanese have always regarded
the Americans with a special good will, due no doubt to the steady
liberal attitude of the American government and people towards Japan and
Japanese, and they look upon the idea of war between Japan and the
United States as ridiculous.
[Sidenote: Marks of the Race]
Any justifiable discrimination against the Japanese as Asiatics must of
course be based upon such characteristics of custom and thought as
render Japanese immigration undesirable, and not upon the colour of the
Japanese skin or any other peculiarity of appearance. But it is none the
less interesting to turn from Baron Dairoku Kikuchi’s argument to Capt.
Brinkley’s careful study (p. 164) of the physical characteristics of the
Japanese. “The best authorities are agreed that the Japanese do not
differ, physically, from their Korean and Chinese neighbors as much as
the inhabitants of Northern Europe differ from those of Southern
Europe.” Some of the bodily traits which distinguish the Japanese from
races of European origin are to be observed “in the eyes, the eyelashes,
the cheekbones and the beard.” The eyeball does not differ from that of
an occidental, but the eye is less deeply set. The conspicuous
peculiarity is that the upper eyelids are much heavier at the inner
corners than at the outer, making the eyes apparently oblique; and a
fold of the upper lids hangs over the roots of the upper lashes. The
lashes, too, are short and scanty, and converge, instead of diverging as
they do in occidentals, so that the tips are nearer together than the
roots. There is but little hair on the face (except among the Ainus),
and it is nearly always straight. The cheekbones are prominent among the
lower, rather than the upper classes. The article proceeds to discuss
the moral characteristics of the Japanese; attributing to them a degree
of frugality and endurance such as to make it virtually impossible for
any occidental race, living in reasonable comfort, to compete with
Japanese labour.
As in the study of India and China, it will be well for the student of
Japanese history to make himself familiar with the Britannica’s full
material on native religion: see Vol. 15, p. 222, noting especially that
in the section on Shinto it is said: “The grandson of the sun goddess
was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descendants have ruled the
land in unbroken succession ever since.”
[Sidenote: Foreign intercourse]
In Japanese history two main topics of study present themselves—foreign
intercourse and domestic or internal history—the former naturally the
more attractive to the foreign student, and of additional interest both
because of its picturesque and romantic early detail and by reason of
its explaining the sudden emergence of Japan as a power in world
politics. Portuguese shipwrecked in Japan in 1542 or 1543 opened the
country to Portuguese trade and in 1549 landed the great Jesuit
missionary, FRANCISCO DE XAVIER: see the article by K. G. Jayne, author
of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_. The contest between Spain and
Portugal for Eastern trade and between Jesuits and Franciscans for
Japanese converts to Christianity and the other factors that resulted in
the suppression of Christianity in 1614 and the consequent persecutions
of converts and missionaries are told in the article JAPAN—and so also
is the story of the foothold that Dutch and English traders got before
the Japanese practically excluded them also, as Christians rather than
as foreigners or traders. From the middle of the 17th to the beginning
of the 19th century Japan was practically untouched by Western
civilization. The part of the United States navy in opening the country
to trade in 1853 is described in the article JAPAN (pp. 237–238) and in
the article MATTHEW CALBRAITH PERRY. The article JAPAN also devotes much
space (p. 238) to the work done by another American, Townsend Harris,
who was less known than Perry, but who carried through the immensely
important first commercial treaty.
[Sidenote: Recent Wars]
The remainder of the story of Japan’s foreign relations is given in the
main article JAPAN, but the student should read besides the articles
CHINO-JAPANESE WAR, MANCHURIA, and RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. The last of these
would be equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide; it is accompanied by the
following plans: _General Dispositions after Nanshan_, _Liao-Yang_,
_Port Arthur_, and _Mukden_: and it is a remarkable critical summary of
the military operations of the war. Read also the biographies of
KATSURA, KODAMA, KUROKI, NOGI, NOZU, OKUMA, OYAMA, TOGO, YAMAGATA.
[Sidenote: Domestic History]
As for domestic history, it is important to note that early Japanese
history is more purely mythical and legendary, and is chronologically
untrustworthy for a longer period than is Chinese history. The
conventionally accepted date of the establishment of the Empire is 660
B. C.; and from this year all dates are reckoned; but Japanese annals
are self-contradictory and are proved faulty by Chinese and Korean
records. Even the famed Japanese invasion of Korea in 200 is possibly
apocryphal, and there are few trustworthy recorded facts before 400 A.D.
or dates before 500 A.D. In the middle of the 6th century Chinese
influence, through Korea, became strong, and in 552 Buddhism was
introduced from Korea. A century later legislative government and
administrative reform began.
On the Japanese feudal system beginning in the 12th century see: the
article BUSHIDO; in the article JAPAN the account of the earlier army;
and the articles SHOGUN and MIKADO. The more important separate articles
for the later period are: TOKUGAWA and ARISUGAWA for the rival families
of the 17th–19th centuries; MUTSU HITO; SANJO; OKUBO TOSHIMITSU; SAIGO;
MUTSU; IWAKURA MATSUKATA, the financier; KATO; KOMURA; ITO; ENOMOTO;
ITAGAKI, “the first to organize and lead a political party in Japan”;
INOUYE; OKUMA; YAMAGATA; HAYASHI.
CHAPTER XLVIII
ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
Many topics in the field of economics and social science are treated
with some detail in other parts of this Guide. For public finance, for
instance, see the chapter _For Bankers and Financiers_. Tariffs, trusts,
labour questions and the problems of population (such as immigration,
eugenics, aliens and race-conflict, the liquor traffic, penal and
charitable institutions) are among the topics presented in the course on
_Questions of the Day_. In this chapter is a brief outline of the entire
subject, including these special topics.
The key article, equivalent to 35 pages in this Guide, is ECONOMICS,
(Vol. 8, p. 899), by W. A. S. Hewins, formerly director of the London
School of Economics, secretary of the tariff commission.
[Sidenote: Great Economists]
For the history of economic theory in biographies of great
economists, see JEAN BODIN; THOMAS MUN; HOBBES; SIR WILLIAM PETTY;
SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE; SIR JOSIAH CHILD; VAUBAN; SIR DUDLEY NORTH;
FÉNELON; CHARLES DAVENANT; PIERRE BOISGUILBERT; MONTESQUIEU;
FRANÇOIS QUESNAY; BENJAMIN FRANKLIN; ANTONIO GENOVESI; SIR JAMES
STEUART; JOSIAH TUCKER; VICTOR MIRABEAU; COUNT OF CARLI-RUBBI;
JUSTUS MÖSER; PEDRO RODRIGUEZ; ADAM SMITH; ANNE ROBERT JACQUES
TURGOT; FERDINANDO GALIANI; BECCARIA-BONESANA; DU PONT DE NEMOURS;
GASPAR MELCHOR DE JOVELLANOS; GAETANO FILANGIERI; ALEXANDER
HAMILTON; HENRY THORNTON; THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS; MELCHIORRE GIOJA;
JEAN BAPTISTE SAY; DAVID RICARDO; JEAN C. L. DE SISMONDI; JAMES
MILL; THOMAS TOOKE; RICHARD JONES; ROBERT TORRENS; FRIEDRICH LIST;
J. R. M’CULLOCH; NASSAU W. SENIOR; KARL HEINRICH RAU; HENRY CHARLES
CAREY; AUGUSTE COMTE; FREDERIC BASTIAT; HARRIET MARTINEAU; JOHN
STUART MILL; BONAMY PRICE; W. T. THORNTON; EMILE DE LAVELEYE; J. E.
CAIRNES; J. E. THOROLD ROGERS; J. K. INGRAM; WALTER BAGEHOT; T. E.
CLIFFE LESLIE; DAVID AMES WELLS; W. STANLEY JEVONS; HENRY GEORGE;
FRANCIS AMASA WALKER; W. G. SUMNER; L. J. BRENTANO; WILLIAM
CUNNINGHAM; EUGEN BOEHM VON BAWERK; ARNOLD TOYNBEE; R. T. ELY; A. T.
HADLEY; D. R. DEWEY; F. W. TAUSSIG; W. J. ASHLEY; E. W. BEMIS; and
E. R. A. SELIGMAN.
For the chief branches of economic theory read:
[Sidenote: Economic Theory]
VALUE (Vol. 27, p. 867) by Dr. J. S. Nicholson, professor of political
economy, Edinburgh University, author of _Principles of Political
Economy_, etc. This article, equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide,
distinguishes between utility and value—to be valuable a “thing must
have some utility; and there must be some difficulty in its attainment.”
There are three laws of value—supply and demand, in the discussion of
which monopoly-values and competition-values are considered; that of
cost of production, in which cost of raw material and wages are obvious
factors; and that of increasing cost with increased quantity of
production,—upon which depends the theory of rent.
WEALTH (Vol. 28, p. 437) is by the same author, who adopts the
definition of wealth connected with the name of Adolf von Held, based on
a study of _consumption_, _production_ and _distribution_ of
wealth,—“consumable utilities which require labour for their production
and can be appropriated and exchanged.”
CONSUMPTION (Vol. 7, p. 23) is the “destruction of utilities.”
PRODUCTION (Vol. 22, p. 423) is the creation of utilities.
CAPITAL (Vol. 5, p. 278) is accumulated wealth available for earning
interest and producing fresh wealth. “It is not antithetical to labour,
but ... the accumulated savings of labour and of the profits accruing
from the savings of labour.” The “importance of ability or brain-work,
as against much of modern theorizing against capitalism,” must not be
overlooked.
WAGES (Vol. 28, p. 229), also by Dr. Nicholson, is equivalent to 17
pages in this Guide. It distinguishes between nominal and real wages,
describes the economic wages fund theory, and deals with such topics as
state regulation of wages, factory legislation, trades unions and wages,
effects of machinery on wages.
Further information, more particularly in the field of finance, will be
found in:
BANKS AND BANKING (Vol. 3, p. 334), with a special treatment of American
banking by Charles A. Conant, formerly treasurer of the Morton Trust
Co., New York City, and author of _History of Modern Banks of Issue_,
and with the general description by Sir Robert Palgrave, director of
Barclay & Co., Ltd., and editor of the _Dictionary of Political
Economy_.
TRUST COMPANY (Vol. 27, p. 329) is by C. A. Conant, late treasurer of
the Morton Trust Co., New York.
MONEY (Vol. 18, p. 694) and FINANCE (Vol. 10, p. 347) are by Prof.
Charles Francis Bastable, University of Dublin, author of _Public
Finance_, etc.
See also the articles on GOLD, SILVER, BIMETALLISM, and MONETARY
CONFERENCES.
On “Ideal” social systems, see these four groups of articles:
[Sidenote: Anarchism, Socialism, etc.]
ANARCHISM (Vol. 1, p. 914), by Prince Kropotkin, author of _Modern
Science and Anarchism_, and a contributor to the Britannica on Russian
geography; and NIHILISM (Vol. 19, p. 686), by Sir Donald Mackenzie
Wallace, author of _Russia_, and _The Web of Empire_; and biographies of
WILLIAM GODWIN, PROUDHON, BAKUNIN, CLÉMENCE LOUISE MICHEL, KROPOTKIN,
MOST, RECLUS (like Kropotkin, well known as a geographer), TOLSTOY, and
on “anarchist” outrages see CHICAGO (Vol. 6, p. 125), MCKINLEY,
ALEXANDER II of Russia, M. F. S. CARNOT, ELIZABETH of Austria (Vol. 9,
p. 285), and HUMBERT.
COMMUNISM (Vol. 6, p. 791), and see also ROBERT OWEN, NEW HARMONY,
AMANA, SHAKERS, FOURIER, BROOK FARM, CONSIDERANT, CABET, SAINT-SIMON and
ONEIDA COMMUNITY; and on Plato’s “Republic,” PLATO (especially pp.
818–819, Vol. 21); on More’s “Utopia,” the article SIR THOMAS MORE
(especially p. 825, Vol. 18); on Bacon’s “New Atlantis,” the article
FRANCIS BACON (especially p. 144, Vol. 3); on Hobbe’s “Leviathan,” the
article HOBBES (especially p. 547, Vol. 13); on Campanella’s “Civitas
Solis” or “City of the Sun,” the article CAMPANELLA (Vol. 5, p. 121);
SAMUEL BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 887) for “Erewhon” and “Erewhon Revisited”;
and EDWARD BELLAMY (Vol. 3, p. 694) for “Looking Backward,” the latest
of the well-known literary pictures of an ideal commonwealth.
CO-OPERATION (Vol. 7, p. 82), by Aneurin Williams, chairman of
executive, International Co-Operative Alliance, and author of
_Twenty-eight Years of Co-operation at Guise_; and BUILDING SOCIETIES
(Vol. 4, p. 766) and FRIENDLY SOCIETIES (Vol. 11, p. 217), both
collaborative articles by Sir Edward William Brabrook, late chief
registrar of friendly societies, and Dr. Carroll D. Wright, late United
States Commissioner of Labor; and for the different co-operative
experiments, see, in addition to the articles mentioned under Communism
above: ROCHDALE, GUISE, JEAN BAPTISTE, ANDRÉ GODIN, E. V. NEALE,
RAIFFEISEN and SCHULZE-DELITZSCH for German co-operative banks and rural
credit, IRELAND (especially p. 749, Vol. 14), FRANCE (especially p. 782,
Vol. 10), ITALY (especially p. 14, Vol. 15), RUSSIA (especially p. 887,
Vol. 23, on the _Artel_); and for American approaches to co-operation
the articles HOPEDALE, PULLMAN and MORMONS (especially p. 846, Vol. 18).
SOCIALISM (Vol. 25, p. 301), by James Bonar, author of _Philosophy and
Political Economy_; and supplement this by the articles ROBERT OWEN;
KARL MARX, by Edward Bernstein, author of _Theorie and Geschichte des
Socialismus_ and formerly a Socialist member of the Reichstag and a
leader of the German Socialist movement away from Marx; RODBERTUS;
LASSALLE; KETTLER; BEBEL; LIEBKNECHT; SCHMOLLER; JAURES; MILLERAND;
HENRY GEORGE; WILLIAM MORRIS; H. G. WELLS; BERNARD SHAW; JOHN BURNS; and
local articles, especially NEW ZEALAND and FINLAND.
[Sidenote: Tariffs, Trusts, etc.]
Among the more interesting general economic topics are tariffs and
trusts, matters of constant and great importance both in politics and
business. See the articles: TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 422), by Dr. F. W.
Taussig, professor at Harvard, and author of _The Tariff History of the
United States_; FREE TRADE (Vol. 11, p. 88), by Dr. William Cunningham,
archdeacon of Ely, author of _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_.
PROTECTION (Vol. 22, p. 464), by E. J. James, president of the
University of Illinois, author of _History of American Tariff
Legislation_, etc.
For the history of tariff legislation in the United States, the articles
ALEXANDER HAMILTON, HENRY CLAY, FEDERALIST PARTY, ANTI-FEDERALIST PARTY,
DEMOCRATIC PARTY, WHIG PARTY, REPUBLICAN PARTY, J. S. MORRILL, MCKINLEY,
etc., and UNITED STATES HISTORY (Vol. 27) especially § 113 (p. 689), §
151 (p. 694), § 195 (p. 701), § 241 (p. 708), § 297 (p. 716), § 314 (p.
718), § 354 (p. 728), § 370 (p. 728), § 373 (p. 729), etc.
And for the English tariff legislation in the last hundred years, the
articles CORN LAWS, JOHN BRIGHT, COBDEN, JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN, etc.
The article TRUSTS (Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof. J. W. Jenks of New York
University should be supplemented by the article GILDS (Vol. 12, p. 14),
contributed by the late Professor Charles Gross of Harvard University,
and for American Trust Legislation, by the articles INTERSTATE COMMERCE
(Vol. 14, p. 711) and UNITED STATES, _History_ (Vol. 27), especially
pages 725–726, 729, 734. See also under separate state headings.
[Sidenote: Labour and Wages]
The article on Gilds just referred to will serve as an introduction to
the subject of labour and labour organizations. The most important
articles on modern conditions are TRADE UNIONS (Vol. 27, p. 140);
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS (Vol. 25, p. 1024); and LABOUR LEGISLATION (Vol.
16, p. 7), all with American sections by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S.
Commissioner of Labor. On labour legislation see the special article
EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY (Vol. 9, p. 356) and the sections on legislation
and miscellaneous laws in separate state articles.
[Sidenote: Statistics, Population, etc.]
One of the great branches of economics is the study of statistics.
Advisedly we say “_study_ of statistics” and in the Britannica the
student will find comparatively few statistical tables, but much
analysis both of statistics and of their meaning. For statistics of
population see, for instance, the section on population in the article
UNITED STATES or in any one of the state or city articles. Under
_Population and Social Conditions_ in the article UNITED STATES (Vol.
27, pp. 634–638) are treated: growth of the nation geographically and in
population, with special consideration of immigration; changes in
localities; urban and rural population; interstate migration; sexes;
vital statistics—death rate, marriage, families, birth-rate, illiteracy;
religious statistics; occupations; national wealth. And the state
articles give: total population at each census; foreign-born and of
foreign parentage,—often with analysis and historical outlines of
immigration and its variation and character and amount; religious
statistics; negroes and whites, Indians, Asiatics, etc.; urban
population, with list of larger cities and population of each. In
articles on American cities and towns population figures are given from
the last census; comparisons are made between native and foreign-born
and the foreign-born are classified, and, where there is a predominant
element, like the Germans in Cincinnati and St. Louis, an estimate of
the influence of this element.
One of the problems of population peculiar to the United States,
particularly the Southern states, is the negro. See the article NEGRO
(Vol. 19, p. 344), especially the part dealing with the United States,
which is by Walter F. Willcox, professor of social science and
statistics in Cornell University and chief statistician of the U. S.
Census Bureau. This article and that on DIVORCE (Vol. 8, p. 334)—another
urgent American problem—are remarkable examples of the treatment of a
social question from the point of view of a statistician in a most
interesting and illuminating manner, although based on dry statistics,
and in a manner all the more satisfying and accurate because it has
carefully analyzed figures at the back of it.
The status of the negro in different states is described in the separate
state articles, and there, too, the reader will find a summary of local
divorce laws.
Other articles coming under the head of population are INFANTICIDE,
ILLEGITIMACY, LEGITIMACY and LEGITIMATION.
[Sidenote: Social Legislation]
In the chapter in this Guide on _Questions of the Day_ attention is
called to the increasing tendency of the state to control and regulate
matters which a generation or so ago were considered outside the sphere
of government. Two particular economic questions—“social evils” we
sometimes call them—are foremost in this category and on these the
student of economics should read in the Britannica:
The article PROSTITUTION (Vol. 22, p. 457), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell,
member of the Council of the Epidemiological Society and author of
_Industrial Efficiency and Drink_, _Temperance and Legislation_, and the
articles LIQUOR LAWS (Vol. 16, p. 759) and TEMPERANCE (Vol. 26, p. 578),
also by Dr. Shadwell. These should be supplemented by accounts of local
legislation against liquor, as for example in the articles MAINE,
KANSAS, SOUTH CAROLINA, etc. On the Gothenburg system of Sweden and
Norway see Vol. 16, pp. 769 and 780, and Vol. 26, p. 587, where, we
learn that the essence of this method of conducting the retail traffic
is that the element of private gain is eliminated. See besides
biographies of temperance reformers—e.g., THEOBALD MATHEW, NEAL DOW,
JOHN B. GOUGH, etc.
Another great problem which the state and the municipality are
attempting to solve, or to help solve, by means of legislation is that
of housing. See the article HOUSING (Vol. 13, p. 814), which comprises
not only the topic of city housing and its faults due to overcrowding,
excessive value of land in great cities, etc., but the subject of rural
housing, and the experiments in garden cities, model towns, etc. See
also the article OCTAVIA HILL (Vol. 13, p. 465), and for American model
towns, HOPEDALE, PULLMAN, etc.
[Sidenote: Social Welfare]
Many movements for social welfare are of a very different character and
are based on an entirely different principle from that of repressive or
controlling legislation. Charities, education, care of insane, training
of defectives, prison reform—such are a few of these topics, and the
student will quickly learn that these burdens have been borne quite as
much by the individual as by the State, and that in many instances
individual initiative has by long and laborious effort succeeded in
reforming in this field abuses which had flourished under government
care.
[Sidenote: Charity]
Of prime importance to the student is the elaborate article on CHARITY
AND CHARITIES (Vol. 5, p. 860), by Dr. Charles Stewart Loch, secretary
to the council of the London Charity Organization Society and author of
_Charity Organization_, _Methods of Social Advance_, etc. This article,
equivalent in contents to 100 pages of this Guide, is made up of an
introduction and six parts, as follows:
Introduction: “Charity,” as used in New Testament, means love and
mercy—an ideal social state.
Part I.—Primitive Charity—highly developed idea of duty to guest or
stranger, whether beggar or vagrant.
Part II.—Charity among the Greeks. “In Crete and Sparta the citizens
were wholly supported out of the public resources.” In Athens, charity
by: legal enactment for release of debts; assisted emigration; gifts of
grain; poor relief for infirm and for orphans of soldiers; pay for
public service; private charity; loan societies.
Part III.—Charity in Roman Times. “The system obliged the hard-working
to maintain the idlers, while it continually increased their number.”
“The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce generally,
was ruinous.”
Part IV.—Jewish and Christian Charity. In Christianity a fusion of
Jewish and Greco-Roman practice. Summary of Hebrew Charity. “To mark the
line of development, we compare: 1. The family among Jews and in the
early Christian church. 2. The sources of relief and the tithe, the
treatment of the poor and their aid, and the assistance of special
classes of poor. 3. The care of strangers; and, lastly, we would
consider the theory of alms giving, friendship or love, and charity.”
Part V.—Medieval Charity and its Development. St. Francis and his
influence. St. Thomas Aquinas. Medieval endowed charities.
Part VI.—After the Reformation. “The religious life was to be
democratic—not in religious bodies, but in the whole people; and in a
new sense—in relation to family and social life—it was to be moral. That
was the significance of the Reformation.” Organization of municipal
relief. Poor relief acts and statutory serfdom. Progress of thought in
18th and 19th century: influence of Rousseau, of Law, of Howard, of
Bentham, of Nonconformists, particularly Friends in England; Society for
Bettering the Condition of the Poor (1796). The Poor Law. Movement for
Old Age Pensions. Charity Organization. Hospitals.
American charities and their peculiar problems.
Other articles bearing on the subject are:
POOR LAW (Vol. 22, p. 74), for the British system, and Dr. T. A.
Ingram’s articles UNEMPLOYMENT (Vol. 27, p. 578) and VAGRANCY (Vol. 27,
p. 837).
[Sidenote: Prisons]
One of the earliest and most important definite charitable movements was
prison reform. On this subject see in the Britannica the articles,—all
by Major Arthur Griffiths, British inspector of prisons,—PRISON, CRIME,
CRIMINOLOGY, CHILDREN’S COURTS, POLICE, JUVENILE OFFENDERS, DEPORTATION,
FINGER PRINTS, IDENTIFICATION. This series of articles shows both the
improvements in methods of treating criminals, in itself a means of
protecting society, and the better methods of defense and of police.
[Sidenote: Insane]
On the treatment of the insane and feeble-minded, on the gradual
assumption of responsibility for them by governments, and on the
transition from the prison-like asylum to the modern hospital, see the
article INSANITY, particularly part III (Vol. 14, p. 616), on Hospital
Treatment, by Dr. Frederick Peterson, professor of psychiatry, Columbia
University, author of _Mental Diseases_, etc.
[Sidenote: Deaf and Blind]
As great as the change in treatment of the insane has been that in the
treatment of the deaf and blind. On this subject read the articles;
BLINDNESS (Vol. 4, p. 59), by Sir Francis J. Campbell, principal of the
Royal Normal College for the Blind; and DEAF AND DUMB (Vol. 7, p. 880),
by the Rev. Arnold Hill Payne, chaplain of the Oxford Diocesan Mission
to the Deaf and Dumb. Both these authors have had experience in teaching
in the United States as well as in Great Britain,—one of the many
striking instances of the wisdom displayed in the choice of contributors
to the Britannica. And see the articles on GALLAUDET (Vol. 11, p. 416),
the great teacher of the deaf, and S. G. HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 837), the
educator of the blind.
[Sidenote: Biographies]
The following list, arranged for the most part in chronological order,
gives some of the names of reformers and philanthropists about whom
there are separate articles. These biographical sketches will be of
great value for the study of the history and development of charitable
work for the public welfare.
John Kyrle
Thomas Guy
Thomas Coram
Adam Anderson
Gen. Booth
John Howard
Tuke (family)
Baron de Montyon
Granville Sharp
Johann Beckmann
Sir Thomas Bernard
Robert Owen
François Charles Marie Fourier
George Birkbeck
Elizabeth Fry
Sir M. H. Montefiore
Sir Thomas F. Buxton
Theobald Mathew
Lucretia Mott
Joseph Sturge
Sir Rowland Hill
B. N. M. Appert
Gerrit Smith
Framjee Nasarwanjee Patel
Victor P. Considerant
E. Vansittart Neale
Baroness Burdett-Coutts
Grace Horsley Darling
J. B. A. Godin
John B. Gough
George Jacob Holyoake
Madhowdas Vurjcevandas
Clara Barton
Louis Adolphe Bertillon
Henri Cernuschi
Mary Ashton Livermore
Sir Francis Galton
Geo. Thorndike Angell
Sir D. M. Petit
George Smith of Coalville
M. E. L. Walras
Emily Faithfull
Lyman Judson Gage
Octavia and Miranda Hill
A. Carnegie
Baron Rowton
J. D. Rockefeller
Benjamin Waugh
Frances E. Willard
F. A. Bebel
Charles Booth
Gabriel Tarde
Laurence Gronlund
Samuel Gompers
Sidney Webb
Jane Addams
Helen Gould
CHAPTER XLIX
HEALTH AND DISEASE
You may have happened to glance at one of the text-books written for the
use of medical students and of doctors, and found that you could hardly
understand a word of it. And yet you have found, when you consulted a
specialist, and he wanted to explain to you just what was wrong with
some part of your body, that he could make it all quite clear to you.
The six hundred articles on health and disease in the Britannica are
written by specialists, most of them, indeed, by professors in the
leading medical schools; and these contributors to the Britannica are
also the authors of many of the best text-books that practising
physicians and surgeons habitually use. But in the Britannica the
specialists were writing for the general public; and for that reason
they have taken care not to be too technical either in their point of
view or in the language they use.
[Sidenote: Right and Wrong Way to Read]
In this present chapter of the Reader’s Guide, the subject of health and
disease is treated just as the Guide treats any other department of
knowledge. You may want to learn something about it because it is one of
the most wonderful branches of science, just as you would take up the
course of reading on astronomy. Or you may feel that you ought to know
more than you do about your own body, about the way you should live in
order to preserve your health, and about the causes of the diseases to
which you are exposed. Some people will tell you that it is unwise to
read about the subject at all. That is absurd. There are no doubt
exceptional people, with unsound nerves, who will imagine they must take
every patent medicine they see advertised, and who long to try every
newly discovered serum that the newspapers tell them about.
[Sidenote: The Danger of “Doctoring” Yourself]
Again, you may be told that if you try to learn something about health
and disease, you will be tempted to think you know as much as the
doctor; and so neglect to go to him when you need his advice. But this
objection, again, applies only to people who lack good sense. For
example, if you read the article on DENTISTRY, by Dr. E. C. Kirk, dean
of the Dental Faculty of the University of Pennsylvania, it will help
you to understand whatever your dentist may be doing for you. But it
will certainly not give you the idea that you could fill your own teeth.
When you find your watch has stopped, you wind it. Then, if it does not
start, you take it to the watchmaker. If, instead of doing that, you
tried to tinker with it yourself, you would soon be in trouble. On the
other hand, it would be ridiculous to go to the watchmaker without first
finding out whether the watch merely wanted winding, and a man ought to
know enough about his watch to connect the fact that it has stopped with
the probability that he has forgotten to wind it. The daily winding is
his work, not the watchmaker’s. The chemical and mechanical work that is
going on within you is as complicated as anything in a watch or anything
that you could see in a laboratory or factory. It is your business (_and
your most important business, for if you neglect it, you will not be
able to do anything properly, for yourself or for anybody else_) to keep
this machinery running, and to do that is not so simple as to wind a
watch. Your body needs food and warmth. It very probably gets too much
of both. Furthermore, the food is often unwholesome, and the warmed air
is often bad air. But unless you are a millionaire invalid, you do not
have a private doctor with you at all hours to watch the food put on
your plate and to ventilate your room.
[Sidenote: The Kind of Knowledge You Need]
The average watch is better treated than the average human body, and
when the average body goes wrong, through the average man’s
thoughtlessness, he proceeds, without in the least knowing what is
wrong, to take violent medicines, or to experiment with some fad about
diet or underclothing or gymnastics, and to make matters very much
worse. The knowledge he can gain from the Britannica will tend to keep
him from being careless, and also from trying to doctor himself when he
needs professional care. Whether you undertake a complete course of
medical reading or not, it is certainly worth your while to read the
first group of articles mentioned in this chapter—those which have to do
with the healthy routine of life.
[Sidenote: Eating and Drinking]
You will find the best introduction to the subject of diet in general in
a section (Vol. 26, p. 799) of the article THERAPEUTICS, by Sir Lauder
Brunton. He is one of the most famous consulting physicians in the
world, and he gives you advice which your own doctor will certainly
confirm when he tells you that the way to avoid indigestion is to
masticate your food well and sip half a pint of hot water four times a
day—when you go to bed, when you get up, and again about an hour before
luncheon and dinner, instead of drinking anything with any meal except
your breakfast. If you try that treatment for a week, you will be glad
that you looked at this chapter of the Guide. NUTRITION (Vol. 19, p.
920), by Prof. Noel Paton and Dr. Cathcart, describes the process of
nourishment and shows how important it is to chew the food thoroughly,
not only in order to break it up, but also in order to combine with it a
sufficient supply of the chemical juices which come from the glands in
the mouth. DIETETICS (Vol. 8, p. 214) shows what use your body makes of
each kind of food that you eat. This article, by the late Dr. Atwater of
the United States Department of Agriculture, who conducted the famous
government investigation of diet, and R. D. Milner, also of the
Department, contains tables showing the amount of nourishment required
by persons who are doing light or heavy muscular work, as well as by
those who lead a sedentary life. It will interest you to see (p. 218)
how the food of an American business man compares with that of an
American working in a lumber camp. The article DIETARY (Vol. 8, p. 212),
describing the food given to prisoners, soldiers and sailors in various
parts of the world, contains some striking information as to the
possibilities of the simple life. In Sweden prisoners get only two meals
a day, and those consisting chiefly of porridge or gruel; and the
“punishment diet” in English prisons is one pound of bread a day, and
nothing else but water. The article WATER SUPPLY (Vol. 28, p. 387), by
G. F. Deacon, deals with the storage and distribution of water, and
shows how it should be filtered for drinking. SEWERAGE (Vol. 24, p. 735)
describes the sanitary systems which prevent the pollution of streams
and wells. MINERAL WATERS (Vol. 18, p. 517) describes the great variety
of springs from which the table-waters in general use are obtained.
Their medicinal values are also indicated, and in the table which
classifies thirty of the most important American springs it is curious
to see that nearly all of them lie in the Appalachian Mountain chain.
[Sidenote: Hurtful Foods]
VEGETARIANISM (Vol. 27, p. 967), by Dr. Josiah Oldfield, describes the
various systems of diet which reject flesh, the most extreme of which
exclude everything but nuts, fruit and cereals, all to be eaten raw.
COOKERY (Vol. 7, p. 74) shows how the digestibility of food is
influenced by methods of cooking, and unhesitatingly condemns the
general practice of baking meat. ADULTERATION (Vol. 1, p. 218), by Dr.
Otto Hehner, describes the dangers to health which arise from the use of
preservatives as well as substitutes. For the use of boracic acid, which
has been proved to be slightly unwholesome, but not really dangerous,
there is at any rate the excuse that it keeps food from spoiling, but
the article has nothing but blame for the “coppering” of vegetables.
“Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook found that green vegetables
like peas or spinach, when cooked in a copper pan, by preference a dirty
one, showed a far more brilliant colour than the same vegetable cooked
in earthenware or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like
peas in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook
obtained by the wilful addition of a substance known to be injurious to
health, namely, sulphate of copper.” FOOD PRESERVATION (Vol. 10, p. 612)
also shows the risks of using carelessly canned goods. TEMPERANCE (Vol.
26, p. 578), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, tells the story of the reforms that
have been effected since the 18th century days when London bars used to
put up signs inviting customers to get “drunk for one penny” or “dead
drunk for twopence;” and LIQUOR LAWS (Vol. 16, p. 759) describes
temperance legislation in all parts of the world, with a most
interesting section on prohibition in the United States. DRUNKENNESS
(Vol. 8, p. 601) deals specifically with the effects of excess on the
health.
ALIMENTARY CANAL (Vol. 1, p. 663), by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, describes
all the organs of the body that deal with food. DIGESTIVE ORGANS (Vol.
8, p. 262), by Dr. Andrew Gillespie, shows how indigestion arises, and
DYSPEPSIA (Vol. 8, p. 786) describes the symptoms caused by habitual
indigestion. METABOLIC DISEASES (Vol. 18, p. 195), by Dr. Noel Paton,
covers all the maladies arising from defective nutrition. CORPULENCE
(Vol. 7, p. 192) tells about the reduction of superfluous fat, while
FASTING (Vol. 10, p. 193) and HUNGER AND THIRST (Vol. 13, p. 931)
discuss the intentional or accidental cutting down of the usual food
supply. FAMINE (Vol. 10, p. 166) gives a most interesting account of the
disasters with which crop failures still threaten Asiatic countries. The
feeding of young children is, of course, a distinct subject, and is
treated in great detail in the article INFANCY (Vol. 14, p. 513), by Dr.
Harriet Hennessy.
[Sidenote: Sleep and the Want of it]
SLEEP (Vol. 25, p. 238), by Prof. McKendrick, is an elaborate study of
the curious changes in the action of the brain and other organs which
take place during slumber. INSOMNIA (Vol. 14, p. 644) is a practical
article on the causes and treatment of sleeplessness. Between absolutely
lying awake and obtaining a really good night’s rest there are many
intermediate stages, and the article DREAM (Vol. 8, p. 558) contains a
great deal of curious information about disturbed sleep. SOMNAMBULISM
(Vol. 25, p. 393) shows that when dreams are vivid enough to produce
sleepwalking there must be nervous trouble calling for immediate
treatment. NARCOTICS (Vol. 19, p. 239) describes the dangers of the
drugs to produce sleep; and in HYPNOTISM (Vol. 14, p. 201) and
SUGGESTION (Vol. 26, p. 48) there is a full account of the treatment
frequently used for sleeplessness and other nervous disorders.
[Sidenote: The Right Kind of Air]
The effect of climates upon health is the subject of a special section
(Vol. 6, p. 526) of the article CLIMATE. VENTILATION (Vol. 27, p. 1008)
shows how to secure fresh air in the house without draughts. DUST (Vol.
8, p. 713), by Dr. Aitken, the inventor of the ingenious machine for
counting the particles of dust floating in the atmosphere, gives a very
full account of the impurities in the air. HEATING (Vol. 13, p. 160)
contains descriptions and diagrams of the best methods of warming
houses, and there is at the end of the article an account of the system
of steam heating employed at Lockport, N. Y., where buildings anywhere
within three miles of the central plant are heated at a very moderate
cost.
[Sidenote: General Hygiene]
BATHS (Vol. 3, p. 514), and HYDROPATHY (Vol. 14, p. 165), and
BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS (Vol. 3, p. 284) describe all the bathing treatments
in which water, steam and hot air are employed. Electric baths are
described in ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS (Vol. 9, p. 249), and AEROTHERAPEUTICS
deals with compressed air baths. MASSAGE (Vol. 17, p. 863), by Dr.
Arthur Shadwell, describes all the systems of rubbing. GYMNASTICS (Vol.
12, p. 752) gives an account of the Swedish and other systems of
hygienic exercise; and out-door exercises of every kind are described in
the articles mentioned in the chapter of _Readings in Connection with
Recreations and Vacations_. Two other articles which relate to general
hygiene are DISINFECTANTS (Vol. 8, p. 312) and ANTISEPTICS (Vol. 2, p.
146). The proper care of the hair is indicated in the article BALDNESS
(Vol. 3, p. 243), where prescriptions for lotions are given.
[Sidenote: Various Diseases]
The articles already named cover very fully the application of medical
science to the ordinary routine of life, and will help you to regulate
wisely your habits in regard to eating, sleeping and to the general care
of your body. It may be the case that you wish, for your own sake, or
for the sake of some member of your family, to carry your reading
further in respect to some one disease or some one part of the body. In
the list of articles at the end of this chapter you will find more than
two hundred, each of which deals with one disease, such as rheumatism,
catarrh, malaria or neuralgia. In the case of a very simple trouble you
will find directions for treatment, as for example in the article CORN,
where you are advised to use a solution of salicylic acid in collodion,
or, for a soft corn, to paint it with spirits of camphor. Where the
trouble is anything more serious, you should of course consult a doctor,
but you will understand what he tells you all the better, and worry
less, if you have read an article, which describes the usual course of
the disease.
[Sidenote: Parts of the Body]
Again, you may have a special reason for wishing to learn all you can
about some one part of the body: the eye, the ear, or the heart. There
are fifty articles, in the list below, each dealing with some one organ
or part of the body. The illustrations in these articles will help you
to understand the exact position of any trouble which you have read
about in the article on a disease affecting that particular part.
Another set of articles divides the body into groups of organs, one
dealing with the NERVOUS SYSTEM, another with the MUSCULAR SYSTEM,
another with the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, and so on. Then you have the five
general articles: ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, THERAPEUTICS and
SURGERY, which outline all medical science. The article MEDICINE gives a
complete history of medical science, and its section on _Modern
Progress_ reviews all that has been accomplished within recent years.
[Sidenote: More Advanced Study]
Beginning with the six articles just mentioned, and then taking the more
detailed articles in the groups into which their subjects divide them,
it is quite possible to follow in the Britannica a complete course of
reading on medicine and surgery, and you may desire to do that, just as
someone else likes to read about geology or astronomy. But do not forget
that no amount of reading can give you more than a theoretical
knowledge. When your doctor discovers what is the nature of your illness
(which is much the most difficult part of his work), and when he gives
you the treatment you need, his eye is comparing what it sees in your
case, and his hand is comparing what it touches in your case, with the
thousands of observations that he has made in the wards and in the
operating theatre of the hospital. Without going through the course that
he has gone through in the dissecting room, and studying the living body
as he has studied it, you can never know what he knows. But you will be
a more understanding patient, and a better nurse, if occasion brings
nursing for you to do, if you have learned something of medical science
from the Britannica.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA RELATING
TO MEDICAL SCIENCE
Abattoir
Abdomen
Abortion
Abscess
Abscission
Acne
Aconite
Acromegaly
Actinomycosis (Streptotrichosis)
Acupressure
Acupuncture
Adam’s Apple
Addison’s Disease
Adenoids
Adulteration
Aerotherapeutics
Ague
Ala
Albuminuria
Alienist
Alimentary Canal
Amaurosis
Ambulance
Anaemia
Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics
Anatomy
Aneurysm, or Aneurism
Angina Pectoris
Animal Heat
Ankle
Ankylosis, or Anchylosis
Ankylostomiasis
Anodyne
Antiseptics
Aphasia
Aphemia
Apnoea
Aponeurosis
Apophysis
Apoplexy
Apothecary
Appendicitis
Apyrexia
Araroba Powder
Arm
Arnica
Arteries
Arthritis
Articulation
Arytenoid
Asafetida
Ascites
Asphyxia
Asthma
Athetosis
Atrophy
Auscultation
Autopsy
Bacteriology
Baldness
Balneotherapeutics
Balsam
Baths
Bedsore
Belladonna
Beriberi
Bhang
Bibirine
Bilharziosis
Blackwater Fever
Bladder
Bladder and Prostate Diseases
Blindness
Blister
Blood
Blood-letting
Boil
Bone
Bow-leg
Brain
Breast
Bright’s Disease
Bronchiectasis
Bronchitis
Bronchotomy
Bunion
Burns and Scalds
Caesarean Section
Caisson Disease
Cajaput Oil
Calabar Bean
Cancer, or Carcinoma
Cantharides
Capsicum
Carbuncle
Cartilage
Castor Oil
Catalepsy
Catarrh
Caul
Chicken-pox
Chilblains
Chirurgeon
Cholera
Chamomile, or Camomile Flowers
Climacteric
Cleft Palate and Hare-Lip
Clinic
Club-foot
Cod-Liver Oil
Coelom and Serous Membranes
Colic
Colon
Coma
Connective Tissues
Constipation
Convulsions
Corn
Corpulence or Obesity
Cramp
Cremation
Cretinism
Croton Oil
Croup
Cubebs
Cupping
Delirium
Dengue
Dentistry
Diabetes
Diaphoretics
Diaphragm
Diarrhoea
Dietary
Dietetics
Digestive Organs
Digitalis
Dilatation
Dill
Diphtheria
Dipsomania
Disinfectants
Diuretics
Dropsy
Drowning and Life Saving
Drug
Drunkenness
Ductless Glands
Dysentery
Dyspepsia
Ear
Eczema
Elaterium
Elbow
Electrotherapeutics
Elephantiasis
Emetics
Emphysema
Enteritis
Epilepsy
Epistaxis
Epithelial, Endothelial and Glandular Tissues
Equilibrium
Ergot, or Spurred Rye
Erysipelas
Eucalyptus
Euphorbium
Excretion
Eye
Face
Fauces
Favus
Fever
Fibrin
Filariasis
Finger
Fistula
Food
Foot
Frostbite
Fumigation
Galangal
Galbanum
Gall
Gamboge
Gangrene
Gastric Ulcer
Gastritis
Gelsemium
Ginseng
Goitre
Gout
Guaco, Huaco, or Guao
Guaiacum
Guarana
Guinea-Worm
Gynaecology
Haematocele
Haemophilia
Haemorrhage
Haemorrhoids
Hammer-toe
Hand
Hashish
Hay Fever, or Summer Catarrh
Head
Heart
Heel
Hernia
Herpes
Hip
Homoeopathy
Hospital
Humane Society, Royal
Hunger and Thirst
Hydrocele
Hydrocephalus
Hydropathy
Hydrophobia, or Rabies
Hygiene
Hypertrophy
Hypnotism
Hypochondriasis
Hysteria
Icthyosis or Xeroderma
Imbecile
Infancy
Influenza
Insanity
Insomnia
Intestinal Obstruction
Intestine
Intoxication
Ipecacuanha
Jaborandi
Jalap
Jaundice
Jaw
Joints
Kámalá
Kala-Azar
Kidney Diseases
Kino
Knee
Kousso
Laryngitis
Laudanum
Lead Poisoning
Leg
Leontiasis Ossea
Leprosy
Lethargy
Lichen
Ligament
Lip
Liver
Lobe
Locomotor Ataxia
Lumbago
Lung
Lupus
Lymph
Lymphatic System
Malaria
Malta Fever
Mammary Gland
Massage
Matrix
Measles
Medicine
Medical Education
Medical Jurisprudence
Ménière’s Disease
Meningitis
Metabolic Diseases
Midwife
Mineral Waters
Morphine
Mortification
Mouth and Salivary Glands
Mumps
Muscle and Nerve
Muscular System
Myelitis
Myxoedema
Naevus
Narcotics
Navel
Necrosis
Nepenthes
Nerve
Nervous System
Nettlerash, or Urticaria
Neuralgia
Neurasthenia
Neuritis
Neuropathology
Nose
Nosology
Nostalgia
Nursing
Nutrition
Nux Vomica
Obstetrics
Oesophagus
Officinal
Olfactory System
Ophthalmology
Opium
Ovariotomy
Pain
Palate
Pancreas
Paralysis or Palsy
Paranoia
Parasitic Diseases
Pathology
Pediculosis
Pellagra
Pelvis
Pemphigus
Pepsin
Peritonitis
Perspiration
Phagocytosis
Pharmacology
Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacy
Pharyngitis
Pharynx
Phlebitis
Phrenology
Phthisis
Physiology
Picrotoxin
Pinto
Pityriasis Versicolor
Placenta
Plague
Pleurisy or Pleuritis
Pneumonia
Podophyllin
Poison
Polypus
Poultice
Prognosis
Pruritus
Psoriasis
Psorospermiasis
Ptomaine Poisoning
Puberty
Public Health, Law of
Puerperal Fever
Purpura
Pulse
Quarantine
Quassia
Quinine
Quinsy
Raynaud’s Disease
Relapsing Fever
Reproductive System
Respiratory System
Rhamnus Purshiana
Rhatany, or Krameria Root
Rheumatism
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rhubarb
Rickets
Ringworm
St. Vitus’ Dance, or Chorea
Salep
Salicin, Salicinum
Sanatorium
Sandalwood
Sandarach
Santonin
Sarsaparilla
Scabies, or Itch
Scalp
Scarlet Fever
Sciatica
Scrofula, or Struma
Scurvy
Sea-Sickness
Seborrhoea
Senega
Senna
Sepsis
Sewerage
Shock or Collapse
Shoulder
Sinew
Skeleton
Skin and Exoskeleton
Skin Diseases
Skull
Slaughter-house
Sleep
Sleeping-sickness
Smallpox
Sneezing
Somnambulism
Spinal Cord
Spleen
Sprue
Squill
Stammering or Stuttering
Starvation
Stethoscope
Stomach
Stramonium
Strychnine
Sumbul, or Sumbal
Sunstroke
Supra-renal Extract
Surgery
Surgical Instruments
Sweating-sickness
Sweetbread
Sympathetic System
Syncope
Taraxacum
Teeth
Temperance
Tetanus
Therapeutics
Thorax
Throat
Thyroid
Tongue
Tonsillitis
Toxicology
Tracheotomy
Trachoma
Trichinosis
Tuberculosis
Tumour
Typhoid Fever
Typhus Fever
Ulcer
Upas
Urinary System
Vaccination
Valerian
Varicose Veins
Vascular System
Vegetarianism
Veins
Venereal Diseases
Viburnum
Vivisection
Voice
Wart
Water-supply
Whitlow
Whooping-Cough
Windpipe
Wound
Wrist
Wry-neck
X-Ray Treatment
Yaws
Yellow Fever
Zymotic Diseases
CHAPTER L
GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION
[Sidenote: A Library of Geography]
The Britannica devotes nearly one fourth of all its space to
geographical subjects. You may miss the full significance of this
statement; therefore let us put it differently. The matter in the
Britannica on geography is equivalent to more than 100 ordinary volumes
each containing 100,000 words, which, put on shelves about 5 feet long,
would fill a section in your library 5 shelves high. But by the use of
new India paper, this same material on geography, combined with three
times as much on other subjects of importance, occupies in the
Britannica less than 3 feet of shelf space. The unity of plan and
treatment and the high authority of the Britannica in these articles are
far beyond comparison with that you could get in the most wisely and
carefully selected hundred volumes on Geography that would give an
equivalent number of words.
[Sidenote: A Science as well as a Body of Facts]
Geographical information is so useful that the student is likely to
overlook the scientific importance of geography in itself. The articles
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica described in this chapter, besides
giving the fullest information on countries, cities, towns, rivers,
mountains, etc., trace the development of the science from its
beginning; and the gradual increase of geographical knowledge, as told
in the Britannica, is a story of fine out-of-door adventure, of just the
kind of spirited action that has supplied the theme of the most popular
works of fiction.
This chapter will suggest an outline course of reading in geography,
systematically grouping the more important articles in the Britannica.
The starting point for this course of study is the article GEOGRAPHY
(Vol. 11, p. 619), equivalent in length to 70 pages of this Guide,
written by Hugh R. Mill, author of _Hints on the Choice of Geographical
Books_, etc. The story that it tells us is a most interesting one.
[Sidenote: What Early Writers Taught about the Earth]
The early Greeks thought of the earth as a flat disk, circular or
elliptical in outline; and even in Homeric times this supposition had
“acquired a special definiteness by the introduction of the idea of the
ocean river bounding the whole.” Hecataeus recognized two continents on
the circular disk. Herodotus, traveler and historian both (see the
article HERODOTUS Vol. 13, p. 381, by George Rawlinson and Edward M.
Walker), who knew only the lands around the roughly elliptical
Mediterranean Sea, was certain that the earth was not a circle because
it was longer from east to west than from north to south, and he
distinguished _three_ continents, adding Africa to Europe and Asia. “The
effect of Herodotus’s hypothesis that the Nile must flow from west to
east before turning north in order to balance the Danube running from
west to east before turning south lingered in the maps of Africa down to
the time of Mungo Park.” Aristotle (see also the article ARISTOTLE, Vol.
2, p. 501, by Thomas Case, president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
and author of _Physical Realism_, etc.,) was the real founder of
scientific geography. “He demonstrated the sphericity of the earth by
three arguments, two of which are important ... only a sphere could
always throw a circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse; and that
the shifting of the horizon and the appearance of new constellations ...
as one travelled from north to south, could only be explained on the
hypothesis that the earth was a sphere.... He formed a comprehensive
theory of the variations of climate with latitude and season ...
speculated on the differences in the character of races of mankind
living in different climates, and correlated the political forms of
communities with their situation on a seashore, or in the neighborhood
of natural strongholds.” The article PTOLEMY (Vol. 22, p. 618),
equivalent to 27 pages of this Guide, by the late Sir Edward Herbert
Bunbury, the historian of ancient geography, and Dr. C. R. Beazley,
author of _The Dawn of Modern Geography_, etc., should be studied in
conjunction with the summary, in the article _Geography_, of Ptolemy’s
achievements. “He concentrated in his writings the final outcome of all
Greek geographical learning,” but his great aim was to collect and
compare all existing determinations of latitude and estimates of
longitude, and to solve the problem of representing the curved surface
of the earth on the flat surface of a map.
[Sidenote: Geography in the Middle Ages]
The science of geography was at a low ebb in Christendom during the
Middle Ages, when verbal interpretation of the Scriptures led the Church
to oppose the spherical theory and also the theory of the motion of the
earth. But among the Arabs, geography was kept alive—especially by
Al-Mamun (see the article MAMUN) (Vol. 17, p. 533), who had Ptolemy
translated into Arabic.
[Sidenote: New World: New Geography]
The story of the great discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries is
outlined later in the article GEOGRAPHY. The effect on geographical
theory was enormous.
The old arguments of Aristotle and the old measurements of Ptolemy
were used by Toscanelli and Columbus in urging a westward voyage to
India; and mainly on this account did the crossing of the Atlantic
rank higher in the history of scientific geography than the laborious
feeling out of the coast-line of Africa. But not until the voyage of
Magellan shook the scales from the eyes of Europe did modern geography
begin to advance. Discovery had outrun theory; the rush of new facts
made Ptolemy practically obsolete in a generation, after having been
the fount and origin of all geography for a millennium.
In the century and a half after the discovery of America important
theoretical work was done by Peter Apian, Sebastian Münster, Philip
Cluwer, Nathanael Carpenter and Bernhard Varenius, for which see the
biographical articles. The next century (1650–1760) saw little worth
mentioning in geographical theory or method. Then, with the sudden burst
of activity that so often follows scientific hibernation, came the
important work of Torbern Bergman, a Swedish chemist and a pupil of the
great botanist Linnaeus, and the lectures delivered at Königsberg after
1765 by the German philosopher Kant. They both put new stress on
physical geography—see the articles on BERGMAN (Vol. 3, p. 774) and KANT
(Vol. 15, p. 662). Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Ritter (see the
articles on both) in the first half of the 19th century supported, the
one the unity of nature, and the other the comparative method, thus
preparing the way for Darwin’s evolutionary theory, which “has become
the unifying principle in geography.” Since the adoption of this theory,
some of the more important names in geographical theory—each the subject
of an article in the Britannica which the student should read—are: Baron
von Richthofen, Hermann Wagner, Elisée Reclus and A. de Lapparent.
[Sidenote: Geographical Discovery]
Early travel and exploration is a story of varied interest even when we
approach it from the only side on which we have material—that is to say
“geographical exploration from the Mediterranean centre.”
Early conquest of outlying peoples by the warlike kings of Egypt and
Assyria may have momentarily increased geographical knowledge, but it is
unimportant in the large story. The first great explorers were the
earliest traders, the Phoenicians and their African colonists, the
Carthaginians, who traded throughout the Mediterranean, possibly on the
east coast of Africa and in the northern seas, and almost certainly on
the west coast of Africa. For details supplementing the outline in the
article GEOGRAPHY (p. 623, Vol. 11), see the articles PHOENICIA (Vol.
21, pp. 454–455), SIDON, TYRE, OPHIR, CARTHAGE, and HANNO, the African
explorer. On the only Greek explorer of eminence see the article on
PYTHEAS of Marseilles (Vol. 22, p. 703), who, about 330 B.C., explored
the British coast and the Baltic, and may have gone as far north as
Iceland. Alexander the Great (see the biographical article) and his
successors explored the East, “thus opening direct intercourse between
Grecian and Hindu civilization.”
The Romans were poor seamen and accomplished little as explorers. It has
often been pointed out that the Greeks spoke of the “watery ways” of the
sea, considering it a highway, but that the Romans, centuries later too,
called the sea “dissociable,” that is “preventing and hindering
intercourse.”
[Sidenote: The Arabs and Northmen]
The Arabs were the leading geographers of the Middle Ages, and among
their great travelers on whom there are separate articles in the
Britannica are MASUDI, IBN HAUKAL, IDRISI, and in the 14th century IBN
BATUTA. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Norseman Ohthere rounded the
North Cape and saw the midnight sun; Iceland was colonized from Norway;
Eric the Red discovered Greenland; and his son Leif Ericsson sailed
along a part of the North American coast: see the articles ICELAND,
GREENLAND, VINLAND, LEIF ERICSSON and THORFINN KARLSEFNI.
The crusades made Europe a little more familiar with the East and opened
the way for travel and pilgrimage. In general see the summary _Results
of the Crusades_ (p. 546, Vol. 7) at the close of the article CRUSADES;
and particularly see BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (Vol. 3, p. 739) for a Jewish
traveler of the 12th century who went as far east as the frontiers of
China.
[Sidenote: 13th Century]
Before the new age of real exploration began, in the 15th century, there
was an age of travel, especially in Asia during the 13th century, which
did much to rouse popular curiosity about the ends of the earth. Though
these travelers were not scientifically trained, modern research shows a
remarkable proportion of fact in their stories. The great names of this
era: Joannes de Plano Carpini, a friend of St. Francis of Assisi and
head of a Catholic mission to Mongolia; William of Rubruquis, a Fleming
who went to Tartary under orders from Louis IX of France; Hayton, King
of Armenia, who traveled in Mongolia about the middle of the century;
Odoric, a Catholic friar of the 14th century; and Marco Polo,
the first to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming
and describing kingdom after kingdom which he had seen; the first to
speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at
Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and
to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet
than its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China,
of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the archipelago,
of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of
India but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in
medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian
Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and
to speak, however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant
Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region
of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears
and reindeer-riding Tunguses.
See the articles CARPINI, RUBRUQUIS, HAYTON, ODORIC, and POLO, by C. R.
Beazley, author of _The Dawn of Modern Geography_, and Sir Henry Yule,
author of _Cathay and the Way Thither_ and _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_.
A little later were the Spaniard Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo who traveled to
Samarkand; the Italians Nicola de’Conti whose travels in India were
written by Poggio Bracciolini, secretary to Pope Eugene IV, and Ludovico
di Varthema, who made the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1503. See the articles
CLAVIJO, CONTI, POGGIO, himself a traveler, and VARTHEMA.
[Sidenote: Portuguese Explorers]
The construction of the mariner’s compass gave a new impulse to
navigation and discovery. “Portugal took the lead along this new path,
and foremost among her pioneers stands Prince Henry the Navigator
(1394–1460).... The great westward projection of the coast of Africa and
the islands to the north-west of that continent, were the principal
scene of the work of mariners sent out at his expense; but his object
was to push onward and reach India from the Atlantic.” The account of
Portuguese discoveries in the article GEOGRAPHY (p. 625) should be
supplemented by the articles HENRY OF PORTUGAL (Vol. 13, p. 296), by C.
R. Beazley, author of _Prince Henry the Navigator_ and _The Dawn of
Modern Geography_: DIOGO GOMEZ and BARTOLOMEU DIAZ DE NOVAES (Vol. 8, p.
172), also by C. R. Beazley, PERO DE COVILHAM, VASCO DA GAMA, PRESTER
JOHN, by Sir Henry Yule, and FERNÃO MENDES PINTO, by Edgar Prestage,
lecturer in Portuguese, University of Manchester.
[Sidenote: Columbus and America]
We have now come to a point in the story where it begins to be more
familiar to us all. “The Portuguese, following the lead of Prince Henry,
continued to look for the road to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The
same end was sought by Christopher Columbus, following the suggestion of
Toscanelli, and under-estimating the diameter of the globe, by sailing
due west.” The discovery and early exploration of America are told in
the following articles, selected from a long list—see also the chapter
in this Guide on _American History_:—
COLUMBUS and VESPUCCI, both by C. R. Beazley; PINZON, dealing with the
three members of the family; CABOT, by H. P. Biggar, author of _The
Voyages of the Cabots to Greenland_; PIZARRO; BALBOA; CORTEZ; SOTO;
AVILES; CARTIER, by H. P. Biggar; RIBAULT; HAKLUYT, by C. R. Beazley and
C. H. Coote, formerly of the map department, British Museum; and for
exploration in the Pacific, MAGELLAN, by C. R. Beazley, DRAKE, THOMAS
CAVENDISH, JOHN DAVIS, SIR RICHARD HAWKINS, etc.
[Sidenote: Recent American Exploration]
Exploration in the United States, particularly as connected with
westward expansion may be studied to advantage in the Britannica. See
especially the articles DANIEL BOONE, RUFUS PUTNAM, GEORGE ROGERS CLARK,
WILLIAM CLARK, MERIWETHER LEWIS, ZEBULON M. PIKE, STEPHEN AUSTIN, MARCUS
WHITMAN, JOHN C. FREMONT, F. V. HAYDEN, J. W. POWELL, and B. L. E.
BONNEVILLE; and also the earlier part of the historical section in each
article on a state of the Union.
[Sidenote: The Far East]
In the Orient the principal explorers mentioned in the article GEOGRAPHY
and treated each in a separate article are: the Englishmen, SIR JAMES
LANCASTER, THOMAS CORYATE, SIR ANTHONY SHIRLEY, SIR THOMAS HERBERT and
SIR THOMAS ROE; the German ENGELBRECHT KAEMPFER; and, among many great
Dutch navigators, ABEL JANSZOON TASMAN. On this period see also INDIA
(especially pp. 404–406, Vol. 14); JAPAN, _Foreign Intercourse_ (p. 224,
et seqq., Vol. 15); FRANCISCO DE XAVIER; MALAY ARCHIPELAGO (p. 469, Vol.
17); TASMANIA; NEW GUINEA, etc.
[Sidenote: Missionaries]
The geographical work of missionaries has been remarkable—perhaps none
of it more so than the survey of China by Jesuit missionaries. “They
first prepared a map of the country round Peking, which was submitted to
the emperor Kang-hi, and, being satisfied with the accuracy of the
European method of surveying, he resolved to have a survey made of the
whole empire on the same principles. This great work was begun in July,
1708, and the completed maps were presented to the emperor in 1718. The
records preserved in each city were examined, topographical information
was diligently collected, and the Jesuit fathers checked their
triangulation by meridian altitudes of the sun and pole star and by a
system of remeasurements. _The result was a more accurate map of China
than existed, at that time, of any country in Europe_.”
There was some 18th century exploration of importance in Arabia: see the
article KARSTEN NIEBUHR; in Africa: see the articles JAMES BRUCE; JOHN
LEDYARD, an American; and MUNGO PARK; and in South America: see C. M. DE
LA CONDAMINE, PIERRE BOUGUER, etc. But the Pacific was the great field
of exploration in this century and “the three voyages of Captain James
Cook form an era in the history of geographical discovery.” See the
articles JAMES COOK, COMTE DE LA PEROUSE, JOSEPH-ANTOINE BRUNI
D’ENTRECASTEUX, WILLIAM BLIGH, GEORGE VANCOUVER, and local articles like
HAWAII, TAHITI, etc.
[Sidenote: Arctic Exploration]
The story of Polar exploration is told in brief in the article GEOGRAPHY
(p. 629) but there are more detailed accounts in the article POLAR
REGIONS, by H. R. Mill and Fridtjof Nansen, the polar explorer, which is
illustrated with maps of the North Polar and South Polar regions. This
should be further supplemented by the following biographical sketches:
PYTHEAS, CABOT, CORTE-REAL, WILLOUGHBY, STEVEN BOROUGH, FROBISHER, JOHN
DAVIS, BARENTS, HUDSON, BAFFIN, SCORESBY, BERING, JAMES COOK, JOHN
FRANKLIN, SIR W. E. PARRY, SIR JOHN ROSS, JOHN RAE, SIR R. J. L. M.
MCCLURE, SIR F. L. MCCLINTOCK, SIR E. A. INGLEFIELD, E. K. KANE, CHARLES
HALL, NORDENSKIÖLD, NARES; SIR C. R. MARKHAM, DELONG, A. W. GREELY,
NANSEN, PEARY, etc., and on antarctic exploration the articles DUMONT
D’URVILLE, CHARLES WILKES, SIR JAMES C. ROSS, etc. The article POLAR
REGIONS includes an elaborate account of the physiography of the Arctic
region (p. 954, Vol. 21) and of the Antarctic (p. 969 of same Vol.),
dealing with geology, climate, pressure, flora, fauna, people, ocean
depths, temperature and salinity, and marine biological conditions, etc.
[Sidenote: Maps]
The student of geography should read with great care the article MAP
(Vol. 17, p. 629), equivalent to 110 pages of this Guide, written by
Lieut. Col. Charles Frederick Close, author of _Text-Book of
Topographical Surveying_, Alexander Ross Clark, lately in charge of the
trigonometrical operations of the British Ordnance Survey, and Dr.
Ernest George Ravenstein, author of _A Systematic Atlas_, etc. The
article has 59 illustrations and it deals with: classification, scale,
delineation of ground, contours, selection of names and orthography;
measurement on maps; relief maps; globe; map printing; history of
cartography (equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide), with reproductions
of many early maps; topographical surveys, summarizing the work done in
different parts of the world; and map projections.
The maps in the Britannica are of the utmost value. They include nearly
150 full-page maps, many of them in colours, all prepared especially for
this edition, and in accordance with the principles laid down in the
article MAP.
[Sidenote: Physiographic Articles]
Of articles on physiographic topics possibly the most important are
those on the several continents, each accompanied by a map in colours
from the great German cartographic establishment of Justus Perthes,
Gotha. Of particular importance to the American reader are the
contributions of Prof. W. M. Davis of Harvard on physiography in the
articles AMERICA and NORTH AMERICA, and of J. C. Branner, now president
of Leland Stanford University, on SOUTH AMERICA. Then read the article
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY, by Dr. Otto Krümmel, professor of geography at
Kiel and author of _Handbuch der Ozeanographie_, and H. R. Mill, editor
of _The International Geography_. This single article is equivalent to
65 pages of this Guide. Then study the articles on the different
seas—for instance, ATLANTIC OCEAN, by H. N. Dickson, author of _Papers
on Oceanography_, etc.; PACIFIC OCEAN, by the same author, with a
section on its islands, and with a map in colours; Dr. Dickson’s article
on the MEDITERRANEAN SEA; the article GREAT LAKES, the separate article
on each of these lakes, GREAT SALT LAKE, etc., and the article LAKE, by
Sir John Murray, the famous British geographer, which contains
statistical tables of the important lakes.
Two important general articles are: CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY, with 2
plates, 13 figures and several tables, by R. DeCourcy Ward, professor of
climatology, Harvard; and METEOROLOGY, by Dr. Cleveland Abbe, professor
of meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau. These articles, both by Americans,
deal with these subjects with particular attention to American
conditions. They should be supplemented by a study of the articles: SKY;
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY; CLOUDS, illustrated with remarkably fine
pictures of the different cloud-types; and the separate articles on
meteorological instruments.
[Sidenote: The Britannica Gazetteer]
What has already been said, although it suggests rather than exhausts
the subject of geography in the Britannica, will show that the student
will find in it a text-book of geography which is unparalleled elsewhere
in size, scope, authority and interest. Besides, the Britannica contains
the equivalent of a great gazetteer and atlas. Place-names are so
entered in the Index (Vol. 29) that their location on maps may be
discovered immediately and the articles on towns, villages, cities,
states, etc., are full and authoritative. The reader who turns to an
article in the Britannica on some small town or city with a population
of 5,000 or less finds there within the limits of a few lines of print
the results of elaborate research and laborious correspondence with
local authorities. Such articles give not merely location, population,
railway service, commercial and manufacturing information, description
of buildings, etc., but a historical sketch of the place, in which every
date and detail has been verified with no sparing of expense or pains.
[Sidenote: The Britannica as a Guide Book]
The Encyclopaedia Britannica is not merely a geographical text-book and
gazetteer, however. It is an excellent guide book. The same care in
details that makes it valuable as a gazetteer makes it a wonderful
companion for the traveler, full of literary charm and readableness.
Such articles as NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, BOSTON, SAN FRANCISCO and ST.
LOUIS contain valuable sketches of the culture, literary and artistic,
of these cities. The world’s “show” and vacation spots have elaborate
treatment—for instance the English LAKE DISTRICT, RIVIERA, CATSKILLS,
LAKE GEORGE, YOSEMITE, GRAND CANYON, etc.
Besides the student can turn immediately in the Britannica, as he could
in no book purely geographical, from the description of a locality, say
Mount Vernon, Stockbridge, Cooperstown, Tarrytown or Salem, to the
biographies that these articles make him need,—Washington, Jonathan
Edwards, Cooper, Irving and Hawthorne. See the last chapter in this
Guide for an illustration of this use of the Britannica.
The following list of _general_ articles on geography will give the
reader an idea of the great scope of the Britannica in geographical
literature. If this list included all the geographical articles in the
Britannica it would be nearly 60 times as long. For a complete list
classified by different continents and countries see the Index Volume,
beginning on p. 895.