By the 17th century the development of painting had passed through all

its stages, and the picture was no longer a mere silhouette or a

transcript of objects against a flat background, but rather an

enchanted mirror of the world, in which might be reflected space

beyond space in infinite recession. With this transformation of the

picture there was connected a complete change in the relation of the

artist to nature. Throughout all the earlier epochs of the art the

painter had concerned himself not with nature as a whole, but with

certain selected aspects of nature that furnished him with his

recognized subjects. These subjects were selected on account of their

intrinsic beauty or importance, and as representing intrinsic worth

they claimed to be delineated in the clearest and most substantial

fashion. In the 17th century, not only was the world as a whole

brought within the artist’s view, but it presented itself as worthy in

every part of his most reverent attention. In other words, the art of

the 17th century, and of the modern epoch in general, is democratic,

and refuses to acknowledge that difference in artistic value among the

aspects of nature which was at the basis of the essentially

aristocratic art of the Greeks and Italians.... The artist who was the

first to demonstrate convincingly this principle of modern painting

was Rembrandt.... Rembrandt in his later work attended to the

pictorial effect alone, and practically annulled the objects by

reducing them to pure tone and color. Things are not there at all, but

only the semblance or effect, or “impression” of things. Breadth is in

this way combined with the most delicate variety, and a new form of

painting, now called “impressionism,” has come into being.

See: RUBENS, by Henri Hymans, author of _Rubens: sa vie et son œuvre_,

and P. G. Konody; REMBRANDT, by John Forbes White and P. G. Konody; and

FRANS HALS, by P. G. Konody. These were the leaders of the great 17th

century school—the Dutch. For the more immediate followers of Rembrandt

see the articles: DOUW, EECKHOUT, FLINCK, MAES, HOOCH, MEER. For Rubens’

great pupil and rival and his successors, the articles VAN DYCK and

TENIERS, both by Henri Hymans and P. G. Konody, SNYDERS and the great

animal painter FYT. See BROUWER for Hals’ pupil and assistant. For the

genre painters, the articles: TER BORCH, METSU, STEEN, WOUWERMANN, and

the OSTADE family, by Sir J. A. Crowe and P. G. Konody. On the

landscapists see the articles: KONINCK, GOYEN, NEER, by Sir J. A. Crowe

and P. G. Konody; RUYSDAEL, HOBBEMA, by Sir J. A. Crowe, and BERCHEM;

and, for animal and landscape, A. VANDEVELDE, CUYP, by Sir J. A. Crowe,

and POTTER, by P. G. Konody. The other important articles for the Dutch

school of the 17th century are: HEEM, HEDA, HONDECOETER, WEENIX and

HUYSUM, painters of still life, etc.; W. VANDEVELDE and BACKHUYSEN,

marine painters; and at the close of the period, or marking its decline,

MIERIS and NETSCHER.

In the article on PAINTING this summary follows the outline of the

general development of painting through the 17th century:

[Sidenote: Kinds of Painting]

The fact that the Dutch painters have left us masterpieces in so many

different walks of painting, makes it convenient that we should add

here some brief notes on characteristic modern phases of the art on

which they stamped the impress of their genius. The normal subject for

the artist, as we have seen, up to the 17th century, was the

figure-subject, generally in some connexion with religion. The

Egyptian portrayed the men and women of his time, but the pictures,

through their connexion with the sepulchre, had a quasi-religious

significance.

_Portraiture_ is differentiated from this kind of subject-picture

through stages which it would be interesting to trace, but the

portrait, though secular, is always treated in such a way as to exalt

or dignify the sitter. Another kind of figure-piece, also

differentiated by degrees from the subject-picture of the loftier

kind, is the so-called _Genre Painting_, in which the human actors and

their goings-on are in themselves indifferent, trivial, or mean, and

even repellent; and in which, accordingly, intrinsic interest of

subject has disappeared to be replaced by an artistic interest of a

different kind. _Landscape_, in modern times so important a branch of

painting, is also an outcome of the traditional figure-piece, for at

first it is nothing but a background to a scene in which human figures

are prominent. _Marine Painting_ is a branch of landscape art

differentiated from this, but supplied at first in the same way with

figure-interest. The origin of _Animal Painting_ is to be sought

partly in figure-pieces, where, as in Egypt and Assyria, animals play

a part in scenes of human life, and partly in landscapes, in which

cattle, &c., are introduced to enliven the foreground. The _Hunting

Picture_, combining a treatment of figures and animals in action with

landscape of a picturesque character, gives an artist like Rubens a

welcome opportunity, and the picture of _Dead Game_ may be regarded as

its offshoot. This brings us to the important class of _Still-life

Painting_, the relation of which to the figure-piece can be traced

through the genre picture and the portrait.

The article then proceeds to sketch the history and development of

different kinds of painting:

_Portraiture_:

It is Gentile and Giovanni Bellini ... who may be regarded as the

fathers of modern portrait painting. Venetian art was always more

secular in spirit than that of the rest of Italy, and Venetian

portraits were abundant.... Some of the finest portraits in the world

are the work of the great Venetians of the 16th century, for they

combine pictorial quality with an air of easy greatness which later

painters find it hard to impart to their creations. Though greatly

damaged, Titian’s equestrian portrait of Charles V. at Madrid (fig.

26, Plate VIII.) is one of the very finest of existing works of the

kind. It is somewhat remarkable that of the other Italian painters who

executed portraits the most successful was the idealist Raphael, whose

papal portraits of Julius II. and Leo X. are masterpieces of firm and

accurate delineation. Leonardo’s “Monna Lisa” is a study rather than a

portrait proper.

The realistic vein, which, as we have seen, runs through northern

painting, explains to some extent the extraordinary merit in

portraiture of Holbein, who represents the culmination of the efforts

in this direction of masters like Jan van Eyck and Dürer.... Frans

Hals of Haarlem, one of the most brilliant painters of the

impressionist school that he did much to found, achieved remarkable

success in the artistic grouping of a number of portraits.... As

portraitists the other great 17th-century masters fall into two sets,

Rembrandt and Velazquez contrasting with Rubens and his pupil Van

Dyck.... In the 18th century, though France produced some good limners

and Spain Goya, yet on the whole England was the home of the best

portraiture. Van Dyck had been in the service of Charles I., and

foreign representatives of his style carried on afterwards the

tradition of his essentially courtly art, but there existed at the

same time a line of native British portraitists of whom the latest and

best was Hogarth. One special form of portraiture, the _miniature_

(_q.v._), has been characteristically English throughout....

_Genre_:

Probably the most excellent painters of genre are Ter Borch, Metsu and

Brouwer, the two first painters of the life of the upper classes, the

last of peasant existence in some of its most unlovely aspects. The

pictures of Brouwer are among the most instructive documents of modern

painting.... He is best represented in the Munich Pinacotek, from

which has been selected fig. 30, Plate IX. Hardly less admirable are

Teniers in Flanders; De Hooch, Ver Meer of Delft, Jan Steen, A. van

Ostade, in Holland, while in more modern times Hogarth, Chardin, Sir

David Wilkie, Meissonier, and a host of others carry the tradition of

the work down to our own day (see Table VIII.)....

_Landscape and Marine Painting_:

Several of the Dutch masters, even before the time of Rembrandt,

excelled in the truthful rendering of the scenes and objects of their

own simple but eminently paintable country; but it was Rembrandt, with

his pupil, de Koningk, and his rival in this department Jacob

Ruysdael, who were the first to show how a perfectly natural and

unconventional rendering of a stretch of country under a broad expanse

of sky might be raised by poetry and ideal feeling to the rank of one

of the world’s masterpieces of painting. Great as was Rembrandt in

what Bode has called “the landscape of feeling,” the “Haarlem from the

Dunes” of Ruysdael (fig. 31, Plate IX.) with some others of this

artist’s acknowledged successes, surpass even his achievement....

Among Turner’s chief titles to honour is the fact that he portrayed

the sea in all its moods with a knowledge and sympathy that give him a

place alone among painters of marine....

_Animal Painting_:

In Holland, in the 17th century, the animal nature presented itself

under the more contemplative aspect of the ruminants in the lush

water-meadows. True to their principle of doing everything they

attempt in the best possible way, the Dutch paint horses (Cuyp,

Wouwerman) and cattle (Cuyp, Adrian Vandevelde, Paul Potter) with

canonical perfection, while Hondekoeter delineates live cocks and

hens, and Weenix dead hares and moor-fowl, in a way that makes us feel

that the last word on such themes has been spoken. There is a large

white turkey by Hondekoeter in which the truth of mass and of texture

in the full soft plumage is combined with a delicacy in the detail of

the airy filaments, that is the despair of the most accomplished

modern executant.

But animals have been treated more nobly than when shown in Flemish

agitation or in Dutch phlegmatic calm. Leonardo da Vinci was specially

famed for his horses, which he may have treated with something of the

majesty of Pheidias....

_Still-Life Painting_:

There is no finer Rembrandt for pictorial quality than the picture in

the Louvre representing the carcase of a flayed ox in a flesher’s

booth. As illustrating the principle of modern painting this form of

the graphic art has a value and importance which in itself it could

hardly claim.... The way was prepared for it as has been noticed, by

the minute and forcible rendering of accessory objects in the

figure-pieces and portraits of the early Flemish masters, of Dürer,

and above all of Holbein. The painting of flower and fruit pieces

without figure interest by Jan Breughel the younger, who was born in

1601, represents a stage onward, and contemporary with him were

several other Dutch and Flemish specialists in this department, among

whom Jan David de Heem, born 1603, and the rather older Willem Klaasz

Heda may be mentioned. Their subjects sometimes took the form of a

luncheon table with vessels, plate, fruit and other eatables; at other

times of groups of costly vessels of gold, silver and glass, or of

articles used in art or science, such as musical instruments and the

like; and it is especially to be noted that the handling stops always

short of any illusive reproduction of the actual textures of the

objects, while at the same time the differing surfaces of stuffs and

metal and glass, of smooth-rinded apples and gnarled lemons, are all

most justly rendered.... In this form of painting the French

18th-century artist Chardin, whose impasto was fuller, whose colouring

more juicy than those of the Dutch, has achieved imperishable fame

(see fig. 33, Plate X.); and the modern French, who understand better

than others the technical business of painting, have carried on the

fine tradition which has culminated in the work of Vollon. The Germans

have also painted still-life to good result, but the comparative

weakness in technique of British painters has kept them in this

department rather in the background.

[Sidenote: National Schools of Painting]

The history of painting since the 17th century may best be studied in

the Britannica in the order in which “recent schools” are treated (Vol.

20, pp. 497–518), and this plan will be followed here in a brief

outline, giving only a few out of many articles for each country.

[Sidenote: British]

British art in the 17th and 18th centuries is dependent largely on

foreign and particularly Flemish influences—Van Dyck in especial. See

Rossetti’s articles on LELY and KNELLER, who, like Holbein and Van Dyck,

were importations, but, unlike them, were pretty thoroughly Anglicized.

For the first purely English painter see Austin Dobson’s article HOGARTH

(Vol. 13, p. 566). For “the most prominent figure in the English school

of painting” whose _Discourses_ largely affected English notions of

aesthetics, see SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS; also the article on his rival

GEORGE ROMNEY. And read Rossetti’s article GAINSBOROUGH; and those on

the portrait painters RAEBURN and SIR THOMAS LAWRENCE. On the Norwich

school of landscapists see the articles CROME, COTMAN and GEORGE

VINCENT. For foreign influences on landscape painting see RICHARD WILSON

(Vol. 28, p. 695) for French influence, and JOHN CONSTABLE (Vol. 6, p.

982), by C. J. Holmes, author of _Constable and His Influence on

Landscape Painting_, for German. With the article on the greatest of

English landscapists J. M. W. TURNER (Vol. 27, p. 474), by Sir George

Reid, the student should read Frederic Harrison’s article on JOHN

RUSKIN, himself an exquisite draughtsman, although unable to compose a

picture, whose championship of Turner and general theories of art so

strongly influenced British painting. See also the articles on the

subject painter THOMAS STOTHARD and the landscapist GIRTIN; and on the

genre painters, SIR DAVID WILKIE, by J. Miller Gray, late curator of the

Scottish National Portrait Gallery, MULREADY, WILLIAM COLLINS, and

FRITH. See the article WILLIAM BLAKE, by J. W. Comyns-Carr, author of

_Essays on Art_, for an appreciation of that remarkable genius, who in

his combination of painting and poetry may be reckoned a forerunner of

the Pre-Raphaelites. On the P. R. Brotherhood see the articles: D. G.

ROSSETTI, by F. G. Stephens, former art-critic to the _Athenaeum_ and,

for Rossetti’s literary work, Theodore Watts-Dunton; SIR J. E. MILLAIS

and W. HOLMAN HUNT, by Cosmo Monkhouse, the poet and critic; and FORD

MADOX BROWN, by W. M. Rossetti, himself a member of the Brotherhood—see

the article on ROSSETTI. Of much the same school were several later men.

See, for instance, the articles: LORD LEIGHTON, by Cosmo Monkhouse;

WILLIAM MORRIS, by Arthur Waugh; BURNE-JONES, by Lawrence Binyon, poet

and author of monographs on Blake, Crome, etc.; GEORGE FREDERICK WATTS,

by Malcolm Bell, biographer of Burne-Jones; WALTER CRANE. On the

“Newlyn” school, see the article NEWLYN; on the etchers, WHISTLER, by

Frederick Wedmore, author of _Whistler’s Etchings_, and WILLIAM STRANG

and SIR F. S. HADEN, by Sir Charles Holroyd, artist and critic; on

figure painters, SIR JOHN GILBERT, ALBERT MOORE, JOHN PETTIE, G. H.

BOUGHTON, ALMA-TADEMA, SIR E. J. POYNTER and SIR W. B. RICHMOND; for

painters of sentiment, MARCUS STONE, SIR LUKE FILDES and SIR HUBERT VON

HERKOMER; among portrait painters, J. J. SHANNON, and C. W. FURSE; the

decorator FRANK BRANGWYN; the realistic landscapists, H. W. B. DAVIS,

DAVID MURRAY, SIR E. A. WATERLOW, VICAT COLE; the more imaginative and

romantic painters of landscape, ALFRED W. HUNT, CECIL GORDON LAWSON,

JOHN LINNELL, G. H. MASON, FREDERICK WALKER, SIR ALFRED EAST, J. BUXTON

KNIGHT, GEORGE CLAUSEN; the “subjective landscapist” B. W. LEADER; the

marine painters HENRY MOORE, C. NAPIER HEMY, JAMES CLARKE HOOK; the

animal-painters BRETON, RIVIERE, J. M. SWAN, and, for the earlier

period, LANDSEER; the Scottish artists ORCHARDSON, by Sir Walter

Armstrong, director of National Gallery of Ireland; JOHN PETTIE, THOMAS

FAED, DAVID MURRAY, ARTHUR MELVILLE, JOHN LAVERY, ROBERT BROUGH, SIR

JAMES GUTHRIE, and SIR GEORGE REID, of whom we have already spoken as a

contributor to the Britannica; and the water colorists SIR JOHN GILBERT,

by F. G. Stephens, former art critic of the _Athenaeum_, HENRY MOORE,

ALBERT MOORE, GEORGE CLAUSEN, E. J. GREGORY, BIRKET FOSTER, HAAG, KATE

GREENAWAY, by M. H. Spielmann, biographer of Kate Greenaway. On English

illustrators, besides those already named, Hogarth and Blake notably,

see the articles THOMAS BEWICK, BARTOLOZZI, FLAXMAN, by Sir Sidney

Colvin, CATTERMOLE, SAMUEL PROUT, JAMES WARD, GILLRAY, BUNBURY,

ROWLANDSON, CRUIKSHANK, JOHN LEECH, RICHARD DOYLE, TENNIEL, SIR JOHN

GILBERT, AUBREY BEARDSLEY, by E. F. Strange, THOMAS CRESWICK, DU

MAURIER, C. S. KEENE, FREDERICK WALKER, G. J. PINWELL, R. CALDECOTT,

HARRY FURNISS, SIR F. C. GOULD, E. LINLEY SAMBOURNE, PHIL MAY, LEONARD

RAVEN-HILL.

[Sidenote: French]

On French painting of the 17th century read: on landscape, POUSSIN, and

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE (Vol. 6, p. 463), by W. M. Rossetti; the historical

and religious painters LE BRUN and LE SUEUR; and the portraitist

PHILIPPE DE CHAMPAIGNE. For the 18th century: the articles WATTEAU and

FRAGONARD, by P. G. Konody; FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, LANCRET, VERNET the

eldest, RIGAUD, CHARDIN, and GREUZE, by Lady Dilke, author of _French

Painters of the 18th Century_.

In the 19th century came a classical reaction: see the article on its

leader JACQUES LOUIS DAVID and his pupils and imitators J. B. REGNAULT,

GIRODET, BARON GUÉRIN, PRUD’HON; then a mediate movement, on which see

INGRES, by Lady Dilke, and GROS; and then a Romantic revolt—see

DELACROIX, GÉRICAULT, ISABEY. Other important names are ZIEM, MEISSONIER

and ROSE BONHEUR, both by Henri Frantz of the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_,

CABANEL, BAUDRY, GÉRÔME, BOUGUEREAU, BENJAMIN CONSTANT, CORMON, BONNAT

and HENNER. On the Barbizon school, see the articles BARBIZON, THEODORE

ROUSSEAU, DAUBIGNY, COROT, and DIAZ, by D. Croal Thomson, author of _The

Barbizon School_, J. F. MILLET, by Lady Dilke; DUPRÉ, FRANÇAIS and

HARPIGNIES. Ranking with Corot and Millet in influence is COURBET; see

the article on Courbet, by Henri Frantz of the Paris _Gazette des Beaux

Arts_, and on Courbet’s followers, LEGROS, FANTIN-LATOUR, RIBOT, by

Frederick Wedmore, CAROLUS-DURAN. Contrasted with these nature-lovers

are the more mystic MOREAU, RICARD, DELAUNAY, FROMENTIN and CAZIN.

The later names we may classify: the decorative painter—PUVIS DE

CHAVANNES, by Henri Frantz; the impressionists—see the article

IMPRESSIONISM (Vol. 14, pp. 343–346), by D. S. MacColl, keeper of the

Tate Gallery, and author of _Nineteenth Century Art_, and in the article

PAINTING the discussion on pp. 473–474 of Vol. 20—MANET, by Henri

Frantz, MONET, DEGAS, RENOIR; the plein-airists JULES BRETON,

BASTIEN-LEPAGE, by Henri Frantz; ROLL, GERVEX; the symbolist GUSTAVE

MOREAU; the military painters ALPHONSE DE NEUVILLE and DETAILLE; and the

“neo-evangelist” CAZIN.

[Sidenote: Belgium and Holland]

The art of Belgium and Holland in the 19th century is to be studied in

Prof. Muther’s sections on these two countries (pp. 506–509) in the

article PAINTING, and in such separate articles as LEYS, ALFRED STEVENS

(to be distinguished from the English sculptor), BRAEKELEER, WILLEMS,

CLAYS, PORTAELS, WAUTERS, CONSTANTIN MEUNIER, VERLAT, the DE VRIENDTS,

KHNOPFF, already mentioned as a critic and a contributor to the

Britannica,—all these are Belgians; and, in Holland, ISRAËLS, MARIS,

MAUVE.

[Sidenote: Germany]

Going back to the close of the 18th century for German painters

influenced by Winckelmann, the important articles are MENGS and

CARSTENS. See OVERBECK, by J. Beavington Atkinson for the German

“pre-Raphaelite” movement—and the articles, PETER VON CORNELIUS, by W.

Cave Thomas, author of _Mural or Monumental Education_; the SCHADOWS, by

J. B. Atkinson; VEIT, and SCHNORR. The other more important names before

1870 are: BETHEL, SCHWIND, ACHENBACH and PRELLER. The glorification of

the Empire and of Prussia is the theme of the new historical school: see

particularly MENZEL. The study of the old masters is to be seen in

KAULBACH and LENBACH. Among the members of a more modern school are:

LIEBERMANN, KALCKREUTH, KELLER, UHDE; of another reaction, FEUERBACH,

THOMA, and BÖCKLIN, by Henri Frantz; and of a sculptural order _Klinger_

and _Stuck_.

[Sidenote: Austria-Hungary]

As for Austria-Hungary, we may here mention only three articles: MAKART,

PETTEKOFEN, and MUNKACSY, by E. F. Strange.

[Sidenote: Italy]

In Italy since the great days of the 17th century, we may mention

TIEPOLO, CANALE and GUARDI before the 19th century, and in that era

SEGANTINI, GIOVANNI COSTA, and MUZZIOLI.

[Sidenote: Spain]

The art of Spain has not been touched heretofore in this summary. For

the 16th century see the articles COELLO, BECERRA, VINCENTE JOANES,

NAVARRETE, EL GRECO; and for the 17th, _the_ Spanish century, HERRERA,

his great pupil VELAZQUEZ, by J. Forbes White and P. G. Konody; CANO,

and ZURBARAN and MURILLO, both by W. M. Rossetti. In the 18th century

the only great Spanish artist was GOYA Y LUCIENTES, painter and etcher.

On the 19th century see: FORTUNY, by Alfred Lys Baldry, art critic of

the London _Globe_; PRADILLA; BENLLIURE Y GIL; SOROLLA Y BASTIDA;

MADRAZO Y KUNT; ZULOAGA.

[Sidenote: Other European Countries]

To the other countries of Europe, fully as their painting is treated in

the Britannica, we can devote little space here. It may suffice to

mention the Norwegian HANS DAHL and the Russians REPIN and VERESCHAGIN.

[Sidenote: The United States]

On painting in the United States, see the section in the article

PAINTING, by Prof. J. C. Van Dyke of Rutgers College (Vol. 20, pp.

518–519); and the articles J. S. COPLEY, BENJAMIN WEST, JOHN TRUMBULL,

GILBERT STUART, JOHN VANDERLYN, WASHINGTON ALLSTON, REMBRANDT PEALE, J.

W. JARVIS, THOMAS SULLY, THOMAS COLE, ASHER B. DURAND, J. F. KENSETT, F.

E. CHURCH, CHESTER HARDING, HENRY INMAN, WILLIAM PAGE, G. P. A. HEALY,

DANIEL HUNTINGTON, W. S. MOUNT, W. M. HUNT, JOHN LA FARGE, GEORGE

FULLER, EASTMAN JOHNSON, ELIHU VEDDER, LEONARD OCHTMAN, WINSLOW HOMER,

A. H. WYANT, GEORGE INNESS, HOMER D. MARTIN, SWAIN GIFFORD, the MORANS,

JERVIS MCENTEE, D. W. TRYON, ALBERT BIERSTADT, W. H. BEARD, BLASHFIELD,

J. W. ALEXANDER, W. M. CHASE, DUVENECK, CECILIA BEAUX, W. H. LOW, H. S.

MOWBRAY, H. O. TANNER, E. C. TARBELL, R. W. VONNOH,—and the Americans

who have made their home and their fame in Europe, like WHISTLER,

SARGENT, E. A. ABBEY and J. J. SHANNON, and those whose work is

Continental, or even purely Parisian in tone, like W. T. DANNAT, GEORGE

HITCHCOCK, GARI MELCHERS, C. S. PEARCE, E. L. WEEKS and WALTER GAY. On

illustrators, see the articles: HOWARD PYLE, FREDERICK REMINGTON, C. S.

REINHART, W. T. SMEDLEY, ROBERT BLUM, CHARLES DANA GIBSON, W. HAMILTON

GIBSON, the wood-engraver TIMOTHY COLE, the etcher JOSEPH PENNELL; and

for caricature the article THOMAS NAST and the section on the United

States in M. H. Spielmann’s article CARICATURE (Vol. 5, pp. 334–335).

For a fuller list of articles on painting, drawing, engraving, etc.,

with articles on sculpture, see the end of the next chapter _Sculpture_.

CHAPTER XXXIV

SCULPTURE

[Sidenote: The Main Article]

The Britannica article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 488; equivalent to 90

pages of this Guide) is a complete treatise on the technique and history

of this branch of art by J. H. Middleton, late professor of Fine Art,

Cambridge, M. H. Spielmann, former editor of the _Magazine of Art_, P.

G. Konody, art critic of the _Observer_ and _Daily Mail_, and, for

French sculpture, Léonce Bénédite, keeper of the Luxembourg Museum and

author of _Histoire des Beaux Arts_. It is illustrated with 10 full page

plates as follows: I and II. _Medieval_, etc., with examples of the work

of Jacopo della Quercia, Donatello (2), Andrea Pisano, Michelangelo,

Verrocchio and Leopardo, Luca della Robbia, Benvenuto Cellini, Peter

Vischer, Bernini, Goujon, Canova, Houdon, Coysevox; III. IV. V. _Modern

British_—Alfred Stevens, Sir George Frampton, Lord Leighton, Harry

Bates, H. H. Armstead, G. F. Watts (2), A. Gilbert, F. W. Pomeroy, E.

Onslow Ford, W. Hamo Thornycroft (2), Alfred Drury, F. Derwent Wood,

Bertram Mackennal, Albert Toft, Havard Thomas, W. Goscombe John, W. R.

Colton (2), Sir Charles Lawes-Wittewronge, Sir J. Edgar Boehm, Thomas

Brock; VI. _American_—J. Q. A. Ward, D. C. French and E. C. Potter,

Augustus St. Gaudens, Frederick MacMonnies; VII. VIII. and IX. _Modern

French_—Falguière, Barrias, Delaplanche, Idrac, Becquer, L. Gérôme,

Marqueste, Longepied, Frémiet, Guillaume, Puech, Saint-Marceaux, Mercié,

Rodin, Michel, Dalou, Aubé, Chapu, Bloche, Gardet, Bartholomé; and X.

_Other Foreign Countries_—Sinding, Begas, Ximenes, Querol, Antokolski,

Lambeaux, Meunier.

[Sidenote: Other General Articles]

This article opens with an account of technical methods of sculpture

which should be supplemented by other articles, which deal also with

history and criticism: WOOD-CARVING (Vols. 28, p. 791), by Franklyn

Arden Crallan, author of _Gothic Wood-carving_, with four plates and

with descriptions not merely of Gothic and Renaissance work in Europe,

but of Coptic, Mahommedan, Persian, Indian and Burmese, Chinese and

Japanese, and the carving done by savage races; IVORY (Vol. 15,

especially pp. 95–98, with 5 illustrations), by A. Maskell, author of

_Ivories_; CHRYSELEPHANTINE; METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), (with 9 text

cuts and 2 full page plates), by Prof. J. H. Middleton, Cambridge, and

John Starkie Gardner, author of _Armour in England_ and _Iron Work_; GEM

(Vol. 11, p. 560; with 2 full page plates containing 76 illustrations,

mostly of antique gems, besides 10 cuts in the text) by Alexander Stuart

Murray, author of _History of Greek Sculpture_, _Terra Cotta

Sarcophagi_, etc., and Arthur Hamilton Smith, keeper of Greek and Roman

Antiquities, British Museum; CAMEO; INTAGLIO; SEALS (Vol. 24, p. 539;

with 9 illustrations), by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, late director British

Museum; NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, p. 869; equivalent to 120 pages of this

Guide; with 6 plates—20 Greek coins, 27 Greek and Roman coins, 23 Roman

and Medieval coins, 22 Oriental coins, 8 modern coins and medals, and 4

Italian medals—and 11 cuts illustrating modern coins) by Reginald Stuart

Poole, formerly keeper department coins and medals, British Museum,

Herbert Appold Grueber, keeper of the same department in 1906–1912, and

George Francis Hill, assistant keeper of this department; MEDAL (Vol.

18, especially pp. 1 and 2, with 2 plates, showing 32 medals), by M. H.

Spielmann; TERRA COTTA (Vol. 26, p. 652, with 2 plates, 12

illustrations), by William Burton, author of _English Stoneware and

Earthenware_ and H. Beauchamp Walters, assistant keeper Greek and Roman

antiquities, British Museum; PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789; with 31

illustrations), by H. R. H. Hall, author of _The Oldest Civilization of

Greece_, H. Stuart Jones, author of _The Roman Empire_, and E. Alfred

Jones, author of _Old English Gold Plate_, etc.; ALTO-RELIEVO;

BASSO-RELIEVO; RELIEF and REPOUSSÉ, by M. H. Spielmann; WAX FIGURES;

EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL, by the late Charles Boutell, author of _A Manual

of British Archaeology_, and M. H. Spielmann.

[Sidenote: History of Sculpture]

Early sculpture is separately treated. For “Classical” sculpture see the

articles GREEK ART by Percy Gardner and ROMAN ART by H. Stuart Jones,

both elaborately illustrated and devoting particular attention to

statuary, plate; etc. See also the illustrations in the articles

mentioned in the last paragraph,—especially GEM, NUMISMATICS, TERRA

COTTA; and those in the article ARCHITECTURE and subsidiary articles

mentioned in the chapter of this Guide _For the Architect_. And on Greek

art see the article PERGAMUM and the sketches of the great sculptors of

Greece:

AGASIAS

AGESANDER

AGORACRITUS

ALCAMENES

ANTENOR

APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES ARCHERMUS

BATHYCLES

BOETHUS

BRYAXIS

BUPALUS AND ATHENIS

BUTADES

CALAMIS

CALLIMACHUS

CANACHUS

CEPHISODOTUS

CHARES

CRESILAS

CRITIUS AND NESIOTES

DAMOPHON

DEMETRIUS

DIPOENUS AND SCYLLIS

ENDOEUS

EUTYCHIDES

LEOCHARES

LYSIPPUS

LYSISTRATUS

MYRON

ONATAS

PAEONIUS

PASITELES

PHEIDIAS

POLYCLITUS

PRAXIAS AND ANDROSTHENES

PRAXITELES

RHOECUS

SCOPAS

SILANION

STRONGYLION

THRASYMEDES

TIMOTHEUS

See also the article BYZANTINE ART; and for sculpture elsewhere the

sections _Art_ in the articles EGYPT, CHINA, JAPAN.

[Sidenote: Medieval]

For medieval sculpture, almost entirely an adjunct to architecture and

particularly ecclesiastical architecture, see, besides the treatment in

the historical part of the article SCULPTURE (pp. 490–496), the articles

ARCHITECTURE and EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL, comparing with the latter the

article BRASSES, MONUMENTAL (with 13 illustrations).

[Sidenote: Renaissance]

The close of the medieval period and the beginning of the more

individualistic Renaissance are marked by the occurrence of the names of

great individual artists, whose biographies are the best summary of the

sculpture of the period.

See on Italy: the articles NICCOLA PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 648); VITTORE

PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 649); ANDREA PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 647) and the

article immediately following on his son, GIOVANNI PISANO; each of these

four with an illustration; VITTORE PISANO or Pisanello; AGOSTINO and

AGNOLO DA SIENA (Vol. 1, p. 381); ORCAGNA, “the last great master of the

Gothic period,” by J. H. Middleton; DELLA QUERCIA, who “heralds ... the

boldest and most original achievements of two generations hence,” by E.

T. Strange, assistant keeper, South Kensington; GHIBERTI, “the first of

the great sculptors of the Renaissance”; DONATELLO, by P. G Konody;

MICHELOZZO; DELLA ROBBIA family (with 3 illustrations), by J. H.

Middleton and William Burton, author of _English Stoneware and

Earthenware_; LEONARDO, by Sir Sidney Colvin; VERROCCHIO, by J. H.

Middleton; LEOPARDO; POLLAIUOLO; MICHELANGELO, by Sir Sidney Colvin;

BANDINELLI; AMMANATI; and in the 16th century period of decline GIOVANNI

DA BOLOGNA, LOMBARDO family, CELLINI, by W. M. Rossetti and E. Alfred

Jones, author of _Old English Gold Plate_, etc.

On the Renaissance in France: JEAN GOUJON, SARRAZIN.

—In Germany: VEIT STOSS, ADAM KRAFFT, the VISCHERS.

—In England: the Italian TORRIGIANO.

—In Spain: ALONZO CANO, MONTAÑES, PEDRO DE MENA, ZARCILLO.

[Sidenote: 17th and 18th Century]

Some of the names just mentioned are those of 17th century artists. But

the rococo character of the period is best seen in Italy: see the

articles BERNINI, ALGARDI, and, for France, GIRARDON and PUGET. With the

18th century came a classical revival for which the great names are

CANOVA and THORWALDSEN: see the articles on these sculptors, that on

Canova being by W. M. Rossetti. See also the articles on Thorwaldsen’s

followers, SERGEL, BYSTRÖM and FOGELBERG. The more important articles on

French sculpture in this period are PIGALLE and HOUDON, the latter known

to Americans by his portraits of our Revolutionary worthies. For English

sculpture in the 17th and 18th centuries see: NICHOLAS STONE, ROUBILIAC,

by M. H. Spielmann, SCHEEMAKERS, NOLLEKENS, JOHN BACON, and, possibly

most important, JOHN FLAXMAN, by Sir Sidney Colvin. For Germany: ANDREAS

SCHLÜTER.

[Sidenote: 19th Century and Modern Schools]

On the 19th century in Germany see the articles: SCHADOW, RAUCH,

RIETSCHEL, DANNECKER, SCHWANTHALER, and marking a sharp reaction,

REINHOLD BEGAS, and the younger men, known also as painters, FRANZ STUCK

and MAX KLINGER.

On modern British sculpture see the articles: JOHN GIBSON, E. H. BAILY,

THOMAS BANKS, SIR RICHARD WESTMACOTT, and ALFRED STEVENS; and, for the

last thirty years, JULES DALOU, LORD LEIGHTON, better known as a

painter, E. ONSLOW FORD and ALFRED GILBERT, the most influential and

important factors in the awakening, and THOMAS WOOLNER, MAROCHETTI, SIR

EDWIN LANDSEER, SIR J. E. BOEHM, J. H. FOLEY, H. H. ARMSTEAD, THOMAS

BROCK, W. HAMO THORNYCROFT, JOHN M. SWAN, HARRY BATES, G. F. WATTS.

Scores of others are criticized and their work summarized on pp. 501–508

in the article SCULPTURE.

[Sidenote: France]

The 19th century in France opened with a pseudo-Roman school, and among

the names of this period are PRADIER, RUDE, P. J. DAVID, ETEX, and

CARPEAUX and BARYE, by Henri Frantz, who mark a transition. For the more

modern period see GUILLAUME, DUBOIS, FALGUIÈRE, MERCIÉ, FRÉMIET, GUSTAVE

CRAUCK, DALOU, RODIN.

[Sidenote: Other European Countries]

In addition to the discussion of modern Belgian sculptors in the section

on Belgium of the article SCULPTURE there are separate articles on PAUL

DE VIGNE, VAN DER STAPPEN, JEF LAMBEAUX, JULIEN DILLENS, and CONSTANTIN

MEUNIER. For Italian sculpture in the 19th century see BARTOLINI, and

the summary in the article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 513). Separate

articles on Spanish sculptors are JOSE ALVAREZ and MANUEL ALVAREZ.

[Sidenote: American Sculpture]

In the United States there was little sculpture of native origin, and

virtually none of the slightest merit, before the 19th century. The

following list of articles in rough chronological order will supplement

the outline in the article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 516): HORATIO

GREENOUGH, HIRAM POWERS, THOMAS CRAWFORD, HENRY KIRKE BROWN, WILLIAM

RIMMER, E. D. PALMER, THOMAS BALL, L. W. VOLK, HARRIET G. HOSMER, J. Q.

A. WARD, LAUNT THOMPSON, LARKIN G. MEAD, G. E. BISSELL, OLIN L. WARNER,

W. R. O’DONOVAN, JONATHAN S. HARTLEY, AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS, D. C.

FRENCH, J. J. BOYLE, C. H. NIEHAUS, LORADO TAFT, W. O. PARTRIDGE, CYRUS

E. DALLIN, A. P. PROCTOR, CHARLES GRAFLY, F. W. MACMONNIES, GEORGE GRAY

BARNARD, P. W. BARTLETT, HERMON A. MACNEIL, KARL BITTER, BORGLUM.

[Sidenote: Summary]

This chapter, and the one before, outline courses on these arts in the

Britannica, but there are many articles on these topics to which no

reference has been made in these pages. It may, therefore, be

interesting to the student of these forms of art to have before him a

list, fairly complete, of articles in the Britannica dealing with

painting and sculpture. The following is such a list in alphabetical

arrangement. The student should remember that the absence from the

list—or from any similar list in the Guide—of a topic on which he wishes

information does not mean that there is no information on the subject in

the Britannica, but merely that there may be no separate article on the

subject. In such cases let him turn to the general index (Vol. 29).

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES DEALING WITH THE FINE ARTS

Abati, N.

Abbey, E. A.

Abildgaard, N. A.

Achenbach, Andreas

Acroliths

Adam, L. S.

Adams, Herbert

Aertszen, Pieter

Aetion

Agasias

Agatharchus

Ageladas

Agesander

Agoracritus

Agostino and Agnolo da Siena

Agricola, C. L.

Aikman, William

Albani, Francesco

Albertinelli Mariotto

Alcamenes

Aldegrever, Heinrich

Alexander, Francis

Alexander, John White

Alfani, Domenico

Algardi, Alessandro

Allan, David

Allan, Sir William

Allori, Alessandro

Allston, Washington

Alma-Tadema, Sir L.

Altdorfer, Albrecht

Alto-Relievo

Alvarez, Don José

Alvarez, Don Manuel

Amalteo, Pomponio

Amman, Jost

Ammanati, Bartolomeo

Amsler, Samuel

Andrea del Sarto

Andreani, Andrea

Andrieu, Bertrand

Angelico, Fra

Anguier, François and Michel

Angussola, Sophonisba

Anichini, Luigi

Anna, Baldasarre

Ansdell, Richard

Antenor

Antiphilus

Antonello da Messina

Apelles

Apollodorus

Apollonius of Tralles

Appiani, Andrea

Aquarelle

Aquatint

Archermus

Aristides of Thebes

Armstead, H. H.

Asper, Hans

Asselyn, Hans

Audran (family)

Bacon, John

Backhuysen, Ludolf

Badalocchio, Sisto

Baer, William Jacob

Bagnacavallo, B.

Baily, E. H.

Baldinucci, Filippo

Baldovinetti, Alessio

Ball, Thomas

Bandinelli, B.

Banks, Thomas

Barbieri, G. F.

Barbizon

Barnard, G. G.

Barocci, Federigo

Barry, James

Bartels, Hans von

Bartlett, P. W.

Bartolini, Lorenzo

Bartolommeo di Pagholo, Fra

Bartolozzi, Francesco

Barye, A. L.

Bassano, Jacopo da Ponte

Basso-Relievo

Bastien-Lepage, Jules

Bates, Harry

Bathycles

Batoni, P. G.

Baudry, P. J. A.

Beard, William H.

Beardsley, Aubrey V.

Beaux, Cecilia

Beccafumi, Domenico di Pace

Becerra, Gaspar

Beck, David

Beckwith, J. C.

Beechey, Sir William

Begas, Karl

Begas, Reinhold

Bellini (family)

Bellows, Albert F.

Benlliure y Gil, José

Benson, F. W.

Berchem, Nicolaas

Bernini, G. L.

Besnard, P. A.

Beverley, W. R.

Bewick, Thomas

Bierstadt, Albert

Bissell, G. E.

Bitter, K. T. F.

Blackburn, Jonathan

Blake, William

Blakelock, R. A.

Blanche, J. E.

Blashfield, E. H.

Bloemaert, Abraham

Bloemen, J. F. van

Blum, R. F.

Böcklin, Arnold

Boehm, Sir J. E.

Boethus

Bologna, Giovanni

Bone, Henry

Bonfigli, Benedetto

Bonheur, Rosa

Bonnat, L. J. F.

Bordone, Paris

Borglum, S. H.

Borgognone, Ambrogio

Bosch, Jerom

Bossi, Giuseppe

Botticelli, Sandro

Bouchardon, Edme

Boudin, François

Boudin, Eugène

Boughton, G. H.

Bouguereau, A. W.

Boulanger (family)

Boulogne

Boursse, Esaias

Boyle, John J.

Bracquemond, Felix

Bradford, William

Braekeleer, H. J. A. de

Brangwyn, Frank

Brascassat, J. R.

Bredael, J. F. van

Breton, Jules A. A. L.

Breughel, Pieter

Bridgman, F. A.

Brierly, Sir O. W.

Bril, Paul

Briosco, Andrea

Brock, Thomas

Bronzino, Il

Brough, Robert

Brouwer, Adrian

Brown, Ford Madox

Brown, Henry Kirke

Brown, John George

Browne, Hablôt Knight

Brush, G. de Forest

Bry, T. (Dirk) de

Bryaxis

Bunbury, H. W.

Bupalus and Athenis

Burckhardt, Jakob

Burgkmair, Hans

Burne-Jones, Sir E. B.

Burton, Sir F. W.

Busch, Wilhelm

Butadeo

Byström, Johan Niklas

Cabanel, Alexandre

Calamis

Calcar (Kalcker), de

Caldecott, Randolph

Callcott, Sir A. W.

Callimachus

Callot, Jacques

Calvart, Denis

Calvert (3 artists)

Cambiasi, Luca

Camphausen, Wilhelm

Camphuysen, D. R.

Campi, Guilio

Camuccini, Vincenzo

Canachus

Canale, A. (Canaletto)

Canini, G. A.

Cano, Alonzo

Canova, Antonio

Cantarini, Simone

Caracci, Lodovico, Agostino and Annibale

Caran d’Ache

Caravaggio, M. A. da

Caravaggio, P. C. da

Carducci, Bartolommeo

Caricature

Carolus-Duran

Carpaccio, Vittorio

Carpeaux, J. B.

Carpi, Girolamo da

Carpi, Ugo da

Carstens, A. J.

Cartoon

Carving

Cassana, Niccolo

Castagno, Andrea del

Castello, Bernardo

Castello, G. B.

Castello, Valerio

Castiglione, G. B.

Cattermole, George

Cavallini, Pietro

Cavedone, Jacopo

Cazin, J. C.

Cephisodotus

Cesari, Giuseppe

Cespedes, Pablo de

Chalmers, G. P.

Chambers, George

Champaigne, Philippe de

Chantrey, Sir F. L.

Chardin, J. S.

Chares

Charlet, N. T.

Chase, W. M.

Chassériau, Theodore

Chiaroscuro

Chodowiecki, D. N.

Chryselephantine

Church, F. E.

Cibber, C. G.

Cicognara, Count Leopoldo

Cignani, Carlo

Cigoli, L. C. da

Cimabue, Giovanni

Cimon of Cleonae

Cipriani, G. B.

Civerchio, Vincenzo

Clarke, T. S.

Claude of Lorraine

Clausen, George

Clays, Paul Jean

Clouet, François

Clouet, Jean

Clovio, G. G.

Cockx, Hieronymus

Coello, A. S.

Cole, Thomas

Cole, Timothy

Cole, Vicat

Colin, Alexandre

Collaert, Hans

Collins, William

Colman, Samuel

Colman, Sidney

Conca, Sebastiano

Conder, Charles

Constable, John

Constant, Benjamin

Conway, Sir W. Martin

Cooper, Abraham

Cooper, Alexander

Cooper, Samuel

Cooper, Thomas Sidney

Copley, John Singleton

Coques (Cocx), Gonzales

Corenzio, Belisario

Cormon, Fernand

Cornelius, P. von

Corot, J. B. C.

Correggio

Cort, Cornelius

Costa, Giovanni

Costa, Lorenzo

Cosway, Richard

Cotman, J. S.

Cottet, Charles

Courbet, Gustave

Courtois, Jacques and Guillaume

Cousin, Jean

Cousins, Samuel

Coustou (family)

Couture, Thomas

Cox, David

Cox, Kenyon

Coxcie, Michael

Coypel

Coysevox, C. A.

Cranach, Lucas

Crane, Walter

Crauck, Gustave

Crawford, Thomas

Crayer, Gaspard de

Crayon

Credi, Lorenzo di

Cresilas

Crespi, Daniele

Crespi, Giovanni B.

Crespi, Giuseppe M.

Creswick, Thomas

Critius and Nesiotes

Crivelli, Carlo

Crome, John

Cropsey, J. F.

Crowe, Sir J. A.

Cruikshank, George

Cuyp

Dahl, Hans

Dahl, J. C.

Dahl, Michael

Dallin, Cyrus E.

Dalou, Jules

Damophon

Danby, Francis

Daniell, Thomas

Dannat, William T.

Dannecker, J. H. von

Daubigny, C. F.

Daumier, Honoré

David, Gerard

David, J. L.

David, Pierre Jean

Davis, C. H.

Davis, H. W. B.

De Camp, Joseph

Decamps, A. G.

Degas, H. G. E.

De Haas, M. F. H.

De Keyser, Thomas

Delacroix, F. V. E.

Delaroche, H. (Paul)

Delaunay, Elie

Della Bella, Stefano

Della Colle, Raffaellino

Della Quercia, Jacopo

Della Robbia

De Loutherbourg, P. J.

Demetrius

Desiderio da Settignano

Detaille, J. B. E.

Dewing, T. W.

De Wint, Peter

Diamante, Fra

Diaz, N. V.

Dielmann, Frederick

Diepenbeck, A. van

Dies, C. A.

Dietrich, C. W. E.

Dillens, Julien

Dipoenus and Scyllis

Dobson, William

Dolci, Carlo

Domenichino, Zampieri

Donatello

Doré, L. A. Gustave

Douw, Gerhard

Downman, John

Doyen, G. F.

Doyle, Richard

Drawing

Drouais, J. G.

Dubois, Paul

Du Maurier, G. L. P. B.

Dumont (family)

Dumont, François

Duncan, Thomas

Dupré, Jules

Durand, Asher Brown

Dürer, Albrecht

Duveneck, Frank

Dyce, William

Eakins, Thomas

Earle, Ralph

Earlom, Richard

East, Alfred

Eastlake, Sir C. L.

Eaton, Wyatt

Eckersberg, Kristoffer

Edelinck, Gerard

Eeckhout, G. van den

Effigies, Monumental

Egg, A. L.

Encaustic Painting

Endoeus

Engleheart, George

Engraving

Enneking, J. J.

Etching

Etex, Antoine

Etty, William

Euphranor

Euphronius

Eupompus

Eutychides

Everdingen, Allart van

Eyck, Van

Faed, Thomas

Faithorne, William

Falcone, Aniello

Falconet, E. M.

Falguière, J. A. J.

Fantin-Latour, I. H. T.

Farinato, Paolo

Feltre, Morto da

Fernow, K. L.

Ferrari, Gaudenzio

Ferri, Ciro

Feuerbach, Anselm

Fielding, A. V. Copley

Fildes, Sir Luke

Finden, William

Fiorenzo di Lorenzo

Fiorillo, J. D.

Fisher, Alvan

Flandrin, J. Hippolyte

Flaxman, John

Flinck, Govert

Floris, Frans

Fontana, Lavinia

Fontana, Prospero

Fogelberg, B. E.

Foley, J. H.

Foppa, Vincenzo

Forain, J. L.

Ford, E. Onslow

Forster, François

Fortuny, M. J. M. B.

Foster, M. Birket

Foucquet, Jean

Fragonard, J. H.

Français, F. L.

Franceschi, Piero de’

Franceschini, Baldassare

Francia

Franciabigio

Franck

Francken (family)

Frèmiet, Emmanuel

French, Daniel C.

Frère, P. E.

Fresco

Fresnoy, C. A. du

Frith, W. P.

Fromentin, Eugène

Frost, W. E.

Fruytiers, Philip

Führich, Joseph von

Fuller, George

Furniss, Harry

Furse, C. W.

Fuseli, Henry

Fyt, Johannes

Gaddi (family)

Gainsborough, Thomas

Gallait, Louis

Gauermann, Friedrich

Gaul, G. W.

Gavarni

Gay, Walter

Geddes, Andrew

Geikie, Walter

Genelli, G. B.

Genga, Girolamo

Gentile da Fabriano

Gentileschi, Artemisia and Orazio de’

Gérard, Baron F.

Gérard, J. I. I.

Géricault, J. L. A. T.

Gérôme, Jean Léon

Gervex, Henri

Ghiberti, Lorenzo

Ghirlandajo, Domenico

Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo

Gibson, C. Dana

Gibson, John

Gibson, W. H.

Gifford, R. S.

Gifford, S. R.

Gilbert, Alfred

Gilbert, Sir John

Gillot, Claude

Gillray, James

Giordano, Luca

Giorgione

Giottino

Giotto

Girardon, François

Girodet de Roussy, A. L.

Girtin, Thomas

Giulio Romano

Giunta Pisano

Giusto da Guanto

Gleyre, M. C. G.

Goes, Hugo van der

Goldschmidt, Hermann

Goltzius, Hendrik

Gordon, Sir J. W.

Gouache

Goujon, Jean

Gould, Sir F. C.

Goya y Lucientes, F.

Goyen, J. J. Van

Gozzoli, Benozzo

Grafly, Charles

Granet, F. M.

Grant, Sir Francis

Gray, Henry Peters

Greco, El

Green, Valentine

Greenaway, Kate

Greenough, Horatio

Gregory, Edward John

Greuze, J. B.

Grimaldi, G. F.

Grisaille

Gros, Antoine Jean

Grün, Hans Baldung

Grünewald, Mathias

Guardi, Francesco

Guariento (Guerriero)

Guérin, J. B. P.

Guérin, P. N.

Guido of Siena

Guido Reni

Guillaume, J. B. C. E.

Guthrie, Sir James

Haag, Carl

Haden, Sir F. Seymour

Hals, Frans

Hamerton, P. G.

Hamon, Jean Louis

Harding, Chester

Harding, J. D.

Harpignies, Henri

Harrison, T. A.

Hart, William

Hartley, Jonathan S.

Harvey, Sir George

Hassam, Childe

Haydon, B. R.

Hayter, Sir George

Head, Sir E. W.

Healy, G. P. A.

Heda, Willem Claasz

Heem, Jan Davidsz van

Heemskerk, M. J.

Heim, F. J.

Helst, B. van der

Hemy, C. Napier

Hennequin, P. A.

Henner, J. J.

Henry, E. L.

Herkomer, Sir H. von

Herlen, Fritz

Herrera, Francisco

Hersent, Louis

Hess (family)

Heusch, Willem

Heyden, Jan van der

Hildebrandt, Eduard

Hildebrandt, Theodor

Hilliard, Lawrence

Hilliard, Nicholas

Hilton, William

Hiroshige

Hitchcock, George

Hobbema, Meyndert

Hoefnagel, Joris

Hogarth, William

Hokusai

Holbein, Hans (elder)

Holbein, Hans (younger)

Holl, Frank

Hollar, Wenzel

Holroyd, Sir Charles

Homer, Winslow

Hondecoeter, M. d’

Hone, Nathaniel

Honthorst, Gerard van

Hooch, Pieter de

Hoogstraten, S. D. van

Hook, James Clarke

Hoppner, John

Horsley, J. C.

Hoskins, John

Hosmer, Harriet G.

Hotho, Heinrich G.

Houbraken, Jacobus

Houdon, J. A.

Hovenden, Thomas

Huchtenburg (family)

Humphry, Ozias

Hunt, Alfred William

Hunt, William Henry

Hunt, William Holman

Hunt, William Morris

Huntington, Daniel

Hurlstone, F. Y.

Huysmans (family)

Huysum, Jan van

Illuminated MSS.

Illustration

Impressionism

Ingham, C. C.

Ingres, J. A. D.

Inman, Henry

Inness, George

Isabey, Jean Baptiste

Israëls, Josef

Ivory

Jackson, Mason

Jameson, George

Janssen, Cornelius

Janssens, V. H.

Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham

Jarvis, J. W.

Joanes, Vicente

Johnson, Eastman

Jordaens, Jacob

Jouvenet, Jean

Kalckreuth, Leopold von

Kauffmann, Angelica

Kaulbach, Wilhelm von

Kay, John

Keene, C. S.

Keller, Albert

Kensett, J. F.

Khnopff, F. E. J. M.

Klinger, Max

Kneller, Sir Godfrey

Knight, D. R.

Knight, John Buxton

Koninck, Philip de

Korin, Ogata

Krafft, Adam

Kyosai, Sho-fu

Laer, Pieter van

La Farge, John

Lafosse, Charles de

Lagrenée, L. J. F.

Lahire, Laurent de

Lambeaux, Jef

Lancret, Nicolas

Landon, C. P.

Landseer, Sir E. H.

Lantara, S. M.

Lanzi, Luigi

Largillière, Nicolas

Lathrop, Francis

La Tour, Quentin de

Lavery, John

Lawrence, Sir Thomas

Lawson, Cecil Gordon

Leader, B. W.

Léandre, C. L.

Lear, Edward

LeBrun, Charles

Leech, John

Legros, Alphonse

Leighton, Baron Frederick

Lejeune, Baron L. F.

Lely, Sir Peter

Lemoyne, J. B.

Le Nain

Lenbach, Franz von

Leochares

Leonardo da Vinci

Leopardo, Alessandro

Leslie, C. R.

Le Sueur, Eustache

Leutze, Emanuel

Lewis, J. F.

Leys, Hendrik

Liebermann, Max

Limousin, Léonard

Line Engraving

Linnell, John

Linton, W. J.

Liotard, J. E.

Lippi

Lockwood, Wilton

Lombardo (family)

Longhi, Pietro

Lotto, Lorenzo

Low, Will Hicok

Lucas, J. Seymour

Leyden, Lucas van

Luini, Bernardino

Lysippus

Lysistratus

Mabuse, Jan

MacCulloch, Horatio

Macdonald, Lawrence

McEntee, Jervis

Maclise, Daniel

MacMonnies, F. W.

Macnee, Sir Daniel

MacNeil, Hermon A.

Madou, J. B.

Madrazo y Kunt, Don F. de

Maes, Nicolas

Makart, Hans

Mander, Carel van

Manet, Edouard

Manson, George

Mantegna, Andrea

Marcantonio

Maris, Jacob

Marochetti, Baron Carlo

Marr, Carl

Martin, Homer Dodge

Martin, John

Martini, Simone

Masaccio

Masolino da Panicale

Mason, G. H.

Matsys, Quintin

Mauve, Anton

May, Phil

Mead, Larkin G.

Meer, Jan van der

Meissonier, J. L. E.

Melanthius

Melchers, Gari

Melozzo da Forli

Melville, Arthur

Memling, Hans

Mena, Pedro de

Mengs, Anthony Raphael

Menzel, A. F. E. von

Mercié, M. J. A.

Merian, Matthew

Méryon, Charles

Metcalf, W. L.

Metsu, Gabriel

Meulen, A. F. van der

Meunier, Constantin

Mezzotint

Michel, Claude

Michelangelo

Michelozzo di Bartolommeo

Micon

Mierevelt, M. J. van

Mieris (family)

Mignard, Pierre

Mignon, Abraham

Milanesi, Gaetano

Millais, Sir J. E.

Miller, William

Millet, Francis Davis

Millet (Milé), Jean François

Millet, Jean François

Miniature

Mino di Giovanni (da Fiesole)

Minor, Robert C.

Models, Artists’

Monet, Claude

Montañes, J. M.

Moore, Albert J.

Moore, Henry

Mora, José

Moran, Edward

Moran, Thomas

Moreau, Gustave

Morelli, Giovanni

Moretto, Il

Morghen, R. S.

Morland, George

Moro, Antonio

Moroni, Giambattista

Mosler, Henry

Mount, W. S.

Mowbray, H. S.

Müller, W. J.

Mulready, William

Munkacsy, Michael von

Murillo, B. E.

Murphy, John Francis

Murray, David

Muziano, Girolamo

Muzzioli, Giovanni

Myron

Nanteuil, Robert

Nasmyth, Alexander

Nast, Thomas

Nattier, J. M.

Navarrete, J. F.

Neal, D. D.

Neer, van der

Netscher, Gaspar

Neuville, Alphonse M. de

Newlyn

Niehaus, C. H.

Nicholson, William

Nicias

Nicomachus

Nollekens, Joseph

Northcote, James

Oberlander, A. A.

Ochtman, Leonard

O’Donovan, W. R.

Oliver, Isaac

Oliver, Peter

Onatas

Opie, John

Orcagna

Orchardson, Sir W. Q.

Orley, Bernard von

Ostade

Oudiné, E. A.

Overbeck, J. F.

Pacchia, Girolamo del, and Pacchiarotto, Jacopo

Pacheco, Francisco

Paeonius

Page, William

Painting

Pajou, Augustin

Palette

Palma, Jacopo

Palmer, E. D.

Palmer, Samuel

Palomino, de Castro y Velasco

Pamphilus

Panaenus

Panorama

Pareja, Juan de

Parmigiano

Parrhasius

Partridge, J. Bernard

Partridge, W. O.

Pasiteles

Pastel

Paton, Sir J. Noel

Paul Veronese

Pausias

Peale, C. W.

Peale, Rembrandt

Pearce, C. S.

Pennell, Joseph

Penni, Gianfrancesco

Perino del Vaga

Perkins, C. C.

Perugino, Pietro

Peruzzi, Baldassare

Petitot, Jean

Petitot, Jean Louis

Pettenkofen, A. von

Pettie, John

Pheidias

Phillip, John

Phillips, Thomas

Picknell, W. L.

Piero di Cosimo

Pigalle, J. B.

Piloty, Karl von

Pinturicchio

Pinwell, G. J.

Piranesi, G. B.

Pisano, Andrea

Pisano, Giovanni

Pisano, Niccola

Pisano, Vittore

Pissarro, Camille

Plimer, Andrew

Plimer, Nathaniel

Plumbago Drawings

Pollaiuolo (family)

Polyclitus

Polygnotus

Pontormo, Jacopo da

Poole, Paul Falconer

Pordenone, Il

Portaels, J. F.

Porter, B. C.

Portraiture

Poster

Potter, Paul

Poussin, Nicolas

Powers, Hiram

Poynter, Sir E. J.

Pradier, James

Pradilla, Francisco

Praxias and Androsthenes

Praxiteles

Predella

Preller, Friedrich

Prieur, Pierre

Prinsep, V. C.

Proctor, A. P.

Protogenes

Prout, Samuel

Prud’hon, Pierre

Puget, Pierre

Puvis de Chavannes

Pythagoras

Pyle, Howard

Raeburn, Sir Henry

Raffaellino del Garbo

Raffet, D. A. M.

Raimbach, Abraham

Ramsay, Allan

Ranger, H. W.

Raoux, Jean

Raphael Sanzio

Raven-Hill, Leonard

Rauch, C. D.

Redgrave, Richard

Regnault, Henri

Regnault, J. B.

Reid, Sir George

Reid, Robert

Reinhart, C. S.

Reinhart, J. C.

Relief

Rembrandt

Remington, Frederick

Renoir, F. A.

Repin, I. J.

Restout, Jean

Rethel, Alfred

Reynolds, Sir Joshua

Rhoecus

Ribera, Giuseppe

Ribot, Théodule

Ricard, L. G.

Ricciarelli, Daniele

Richards, W. T.

Richmond, Sir W. B.

Richter, A. L.

Rietschel, E. F. A.

Rigaud, Hyacinthe

Rimmer, William

Riviere, Briton

Robert, Hubert

Robert, L. L.

Robert-Fleury, J. N.

Roberts, David

Robinson, Theodore

Rodin, Auguste

Rogers, John

Roll, A. P.

Romney, George

Rops, Félicien

Rosa, Salvator

Rosenthal, T. E.

Rosselli, Cosimo

Rossellino, Antonio

Rossetti, D. G.

Roubiliac, L. F.

Rousseau, Jacques

Rousseau, P. E. T.

Rowlandson, Thomas

Rubens, Peter Paul

Rude, François

Runciman, Alexander

Russell, John

Ruysdael, Jacob van

Ryder, A. P.

Ryland, W. W.

Sacchi, Andrea

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus

Sambourne, E. Linley

Sandby, Paul

Sandrart, Joachim von

Sandys, Frederick

Sansovino, Andrea C. del Monte

Sansovino, Jacopo

Santerre, J. B.

Sargent, J. S.

Sarrazin, Jacques

Sartain, John

Satterlee, Walter

Sayer, James

Schadow

Schadow, J. G. and R.

Schalcken, Godfried

Scharf, Sir George

Scheemakers, Peter

Scheffer, Ary

Schetky, J. C.

Schiavonetti, Luigi

Schirmer, Friedrich W.

Schirmer, Johann W.

Schlüter, Andreas

Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Schongauer, Martin

Schreyer, Adolf

Schwanthaler, L. M.

Schwartze, Teresa

Schwind, Moritz von

Scopas

Scott, David

Scott, William Bell

Sculpture

Sebastiano del Piombo

Seddon, Thomas

Segantini, Giovanni

Sequeira, D. A. de

Sergel, Johan Tobias

Severn, Joseph

Shannon, C. H.

Shannon, J. J.

Sharp, William

Shee, Sir M. A.

Sherwin, J. K.

Short, F. J.

Sigalon, Xavier

Signorelli, Luca

Silanion

Simon, Abraham

Simon, Thomas

Simmons, E. E.

Simson, William

Sisley, Alfred

Slodtz, René Michel

Smart, John

Smedley, W. T.

Smillie, J. D.

Smirke, Robert

Smith, Colvin

Smith, John Raphael

Smybert, John

Snyders, Franz

Sodoma, Il

Solario, Antonio

Sorolla y Bastida, J.

Spagna, Lo

Spinello, Aretino

Stanfield, W. C.

Stannard, Joseph

Stark, James

Steen, Jan Havicksz

Steer, P. Wilson

Stevens, Alfred

Stevens, Alfred

Stewart, Julius L.

Stillman, W. J.

Stone, Frank

Stone, Marcus

Stone, Nicholas

Stoss, Veit

Stothard, C. A.

Stothard, Thomas

Strang, William

Strange, Sir Robert

Strongylion

Stuart, Gilbert

Stuck, Franz

Subleyras, Pierre

Sully, Thomas

Swan, J. M.

Taft, Lorado

Tait, A. F.

Tanner, H. O.

Tarbell, Edmund C.

Tempera

Teniers (family)

Tenniel, Sir John

Ter Borch, Gerard

Terra Cotta

Thayer, Abbott H.

Theon of Samos

Thoma, Hans

Thompson, Launt

Thomson, John

Thornhill, Sir James

Thornycroft, W. Hamo

Thorwaldsen, Bertel

Thrasymedes

Tiepolo, G. B.

Tiffany, L. C.

Timanthes

Timomachus

Timotheus

Tintoretto

Tisio, Benvenuto

Tissot, J. J. J.

Titian

Torrigiano, Pietre

Triptych

Troy, J. F. de

Troyon, Constant

Trumbull, John

Tryon, D. W.

Turner, Charles

Turner, J. M. W.

Uhde, F. K. H. Von

Utamaro

Vanderlyn, John

Van der Stappen, C.

Van der Weyden, R.

Vandevelde, Adrian

Vandevelde, William

Van Dyck, Sir Anthony

Vanloo, C. A.

Vanloo, J. B.

Varley, Cornelius

Varley, John

Vasari, Giorgio

Vedder, Elihu

Veit, Philipp

Velazquez, D. R. de Silva y

Verboeckhoven, E. J.

Vereshchagin, V. V.

Verlat, M. M. C.

Vernet (family)

Verrocchio, Andrea del

Vertue, George

Vien, J. M.

Vierge, Daniel

Vigée-Lebrun, M. A. E.

Vigne, Paul de

Vincent, George

Vinton, F. P.

Vischer (family)

Vischer, F. T.

Vivarini (family)

Volk, L. W.

Vonnoh, R. W.

Vouet, Simon

Vrancx, Sebastian

Vriendt, J. J. de and A. F. L. de

Waagen, G. F.

Waldo, S. L.

Walker, Frederick

Walker, H. O.

Walker, Horatio

Walker, Robert

Wappers, E. C. G.

Ward, James

Ward, E. M.

Ward, J. Q. A.

Ward, William

Warner, Olin Levi

Waterhouse, J. W.

Waterlow, Sir E. A.

Watteau, Antoine

Watts, G. F.

Wauters, Emile

Wax Figures

Webster, Thomas

Weeks, E. L.

Weenix, J. B.

Weir, R. W.

Werner, A. A. von

West, Benjamin

Westall, Richard

Westmacott, Sir R.

Wheatley, Francis

Whistler, J. A. McN.

White, Robert

Wiles, I. R.

Wilkie, Sir David

Willems, F. J. M.

Willette, L. A.

Willmore, J. T.

Wilson, Richard

Wohlgemuth, Michael

Wolf, Joseph

Woodbury, C. H.

Wood Carving

Wood Engraving

Woollett, William

Woolner, Thomas

Wouwerman, Philip

Wright, Joseph

Wyant, A. H.

Wylie, Robert

Yosai

Zarcillo y Alcaraz, F.

Zeuxis

Ziem, F. F. G. P.

Zoffany, Johann

Zuccarelli, Francesco

Zuccaro, Taddeo

Zuccaro, Federigo

Zuloaga, Ignacio

Zurbaran, Francisco

CHAPTER XXXV

LANGUAGE AND WRITING

[Sidenote: Evolution]

One of the most interesting subjects of scientific study developed

during the last century is that of primitive culture and the gradual

advancement of primitive man from a state of savagery to comparative

civilization. For this study there are no historical documents in the

ordinary use of the words “historical” and “document.” The story must be

arrived at by analysis, deduction, even by guess-work, supplementing the

studies of travelers among tribes which now are in the lowest stages of

development and farthest from civilization, and therefore most resemble

our remotest human ancestors. Almost the very earliest of writers on

evolution, the Roman poet LUCRETIUS (Vol. 17, p. 107), who died in 55

B.C., sketched general outlines of the development of this primitive

civilization in much the same way as do modern ethnologists. But his

description was imaginary and was fashioned to fit his and Epicurus’s

evolutionary theories.

The article CIVILIZATION (Vol. 6, p. 403) in the Britannica makes the

development of speech the mark of the first period when mankind was in

the lower stages of savagery. “Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a

necessarily restricted tropical territory and subsisted upon raw nuts

and fruit.” The next higher period in the progress of civilization began

with the knowledge of the use of fire (p. 404).

This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its

habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular

fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests and

wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less

enervating than those to which he had previously been confined.

Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly

equipped for hunting.... Primitive races of Australia and Polynesia

had not advanced beyond this middle status of savagery when they were

discovered a few generations ago.

The next great ethnical discovery was that of the bow and arrow, a truly

wonderful instrument.

The possessor of this device could bring down the fleetest animal and

could defend himself against the most predatory. He could provide

himself not only with food, but with materials for clothing and for

tent-making, and thus could migrate at will back from the seas and

large rivers.... The meat diet, now for the first time freely

available, probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate,

to increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage,

thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless, many tribes

came thus far, and no further, as witness the Athapascans of the

Hudson’s Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley of the Columbia.

After the use of fire and the discovery of the bow and arrow came the

invention of pottery, the domestication of animals, and the smelting of

iron, all successive stages in man’s history which “in their relation to

the sum of human progress, transcend in relative importance all his

subsequent works,”—and this is even truer if there is included in this

period the development of a system of writing, which may be reckoned

either the end of the primitive period or the beginning of the period of

_civilization proper_. These two great steps in the story of

civilization, language and writing, are closely connected in our minds,

though so far separated in time of origin; and their story as told in

the Britannica by the world’s greatest authorities, English, American,

German, French, Italian, Danish, etc., is an interesting one for the

general reader, while the articles are invaluable to the specialist in

linguistic study.

[Sidenote: Philology]

The starting point for a course of reading is the article PHILOLOGY

(Vol. 21, p. 414; equivalent to 80 pages in this Guide), of which the

first part, a general treatment, is by the greatest of American

philologists, William Dwight Whitney, editor-in-chief of _The Century

Dictionary_, and author of _Life and Growth of Language_, one of the

most important scientific contributions to the subject. The second part,

on the comparative philology of the Indo-European languages, is by Prof.

Eduard Sievers of Leipzig and Prof. Peter Giles of Cambridge. Both these

names are well known to students of the subject, the former as that of

the author of numerous valuable works on Germanic phonetics and metric,

and the latter as a writer on Greek language and as the author of _A

Short Manual of Comparative Philology_.

The article begins with a definition of “philology,” the science of

language, and of “comparative philology,” the comparison of one language

with another, in order to bring out their relationships, their

structures, and their histories. Prof. Whitney shows how much the recent

development of linguistic science owes to the general scientific

movement of the age. “No one,” he says, “however ingenious and

entertaining his speculations, will cast any real light on the earliest

history of speech.” But he notes the obvious analogy between speech and

writing, and he puts stress on the “sociality” of man as the prime

factor in his development of speech. Other topics in this part of the

article are:

Instrumentalities of expression—gesture, grimace, and voice;

“language” means “tonguiness”—a mute would call it “handiness”;

advantages of voice over gesture.

Imitation as a factor in development of language and of writing;

onomatopoetic origin of words.

Development of sign-making: “Among the animals of highest intelligence

that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a certain

amount of sign-making expressly for communication is not to be denied;

the dog that barks at a door because he knows that somebody will come

and let him in is an instance of it; perhaps, in wild life, the

throwing out of sentinel birds from a flock, whose warning cry shall

advertise their fellows of the threat of danger, is as near an

approach to it as is anywhere made.”

Brute speech and human speech: “Those who put forward language as the

distinction between man and the lower animals, and those who look upon

our language as the same in kind with the means of communication of

the lower animals, only much more complete and perfect, fail alike to

comprehend the true nature of language, and are alike wrong in their

arguments and conclusions. No addition to or multiplication of brute

speech would make anything like human speech; the two are separated by

a step which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other

hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those institutions

the development of which has constituted human progress.”

Language and culture: “Differences of language, down to the possession

of language at all, are differences only in respect to education and

culture.”

Development of language signs: the beginning slow, acceleration

cumulative.

The root-stage: first signs must have been “integral, significant in

their entirety, not divisible into parts.”

Earliest phonetic forms: the simplest syllabic combination a single

consonant with a following vowel. See the article HAWAII (Vol. 13, p.

88) for a similar language even now in existence: “Every syllable is

open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be constructed

wholly of vocalic sounds.”

Character of early speech: “first language-signs must have denoted

those physical acts and qualities which are directly apprehensible by

the senses.... We are still all the time drawing figurative

comparisons between material and moral things and processes, and

calling the latter by the names of the former.”

Development of language as illustrated in Indo-European speech.

Laws of growth and change: internal growth by multiplication of

meanings; phonetic change—the principle of economy (euphony);

borrowing and mixing of vocabularies.

Classification of languages by structural types: isolating (Chinese);

agglutinative (Turkish, etc.); inflective (Indo-European); or—a more

elaborate classification:

[Sidenote: Indo-European Languages]

Indo-European: on which see part II of the article PHILOLOGY and the

article INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 495; equivalent to 20 pages

of this Guide), by Prof. Peter Giles,—especially interesting for the

attempt on a linguistic basis to reconstruct the original civilization

and to discover the home of the ancestors of this language-stock which

now occupies nearly all of Europe and is so intimately connected with

the civilization of the last 2500 years. See:

GREEK LANGUAGE (Vol. 12, p. 496), by Professor Giles, and articles HOMER

(Vol. 13, p. 626); DORIANS (Vol. 8, p. 423), etc.; but the main

treatment of different Greek dialects is in the article GREEK LANGUAGE

(Vol. 12, p. 496), to which the student should refer for Arcadian and

Cyprian, Aeolic, Ionic-Attic, and Doric dialects.

LATIN LANGUAGE (Vol. 16, p. 244), by Dr. A. S. Wilkins, late professor

of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, and Dr. Robert S. Conway, professor

of Latin, University of Manchester, with a peculiarly valuable summary

of _The Language as Recorded_, which is a linguistic critique of the

style and vocabulary of the great Roman authors and a comparison (p.

253) of Latin and Greek prose. And see the articles on the dialects of

ancient Italy: ITALY, _Ancient Languages and People_; ETRURIA,

_Language_; LIGURIA, _Philology_; SICULI; POMPEII, _Oscan Inscriptions_;

SABINI; FALISCI; VOLSCI; OSCA LINGUA; IGUVIUM; BRUTII; UMBRIA; PICENUM;

SAMNITES, etc., by Prof. Conway, which will serve the student as a

foundation for this subject, with more recent revision of all that is

known than there is in Prof. Conway’s books, in the works of C. D. Buck,

or in other authorities.

[Sidenote: Romance Languages]

For the descendants of Latin, the article ROMANCE LANGUAGES (Vol. 23, p.

504), by Dr. Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, Professor of romance philology in the

University of Vienna; and the following separate articles:

ITALIAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 14, p. 888), by Graziadio I. Ascoli, professor of

comparative grammar at the University of Milan, and Carlo Salvioni,

professor of Romance languages in the same university, with a valuable

summary of the dialects of modern Italy.

FRENCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 103), by Henry Nicol and Paul Meyer,

professor at the Collège de France; particularly interesting because

treated comparatively with constant reference to English and French

influence on English.

PROVENÇAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 22, p. 491), by Prof. Paul Meyer.

SPAIN: _Language_ (Vol. 25, p. 573), by Alfred Morel-Fatio, professor of

Romance languages at the Collège de France, and James Fitzmaurice-Kelly,

professor of Spanish, Liverpool University; describing the Catalan as

well as the Castilian and the Portuguese.

RUMANIA: _Language_ (Vol. 23, p. 843).

[Sidenote: Teutonic Languages]

The general articles SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 291), by Dr.

Adolf Noreen, professor in the University of Upsala, with sections on

Icelandic, Norwegian or Norse, Swedish, and Danish, and the Scandinavian

dialects; and TEUTONIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 673), by Hector Munro

Chadwick, Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge.

More in detail on the Teutonic languages are the articles:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE (Vol. 9, pp. 587–600; equivalent to 45 pages of this

Guide), by Sir James A. H. Murray, editor-in-chief of the (Oxford) _New

English Dictionary_, and Miss Hilda Mary R. Murray, lecturer on English

at the Royal Holloway College.

DUTCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 8, p. 717), by Prof. Johann Hendrik Gallée of the

University of Utrecht.

GERMAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 777), Dr. Robert Priebsch, professor of

German philology, University of London, which deals with modern and

ancient, new, middle, and old, high and low German.

For Indo-Iranian languages, see:

[Sidenote: Persia and India]

PERSIA: _Language and Literature_ (Vol. 21, p. 246), by Dr. Hermann

Ethé, professor of Oriental languages, University College, Wales,

dealing with Zend, and Old, Middle and New Persian and modern dialects

of Persian.

INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 487), by George Abraham Grierson,

formerly in charge of the Linguistic survey of India, who treats in this

article the relations of Pisaca, Prakrit and Sanskrit, and contributes

the separate articles PISACA LANGUAGES, PRAKRIT, BENGALI, BIHARI,

GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI, HINDOSTANI, KASHMIRI, and MARATHI. More

important than these minor dialects are SANSKRIT LANGUAGE (Vol. 24, p.

156), by Dr. Julius Eggeling, professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh

University,—an article equivalent in length to 90 pages of this Guide;

and PALI (Vol. 20, p. 630), by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester

University, president of the Pali Text Society.

ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (Vol. 2, p. 571), by Dr. F. C.

Conybeare, author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle_, etc.

LITHUANIANS AND LETTS, _Language and Literature_ (Vol. 16, p. 790);

SLAVS: _Language_ (Vol. 25, p. 233), by Ellis Hovell Minns, Lecturer in

palaeography, Cambridge, with a table of alphabets; and supplementary

information in the articles RUSSIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA, POLAND, BOHEMIA,

CROATIA-SLAVONIA, SLOVAKS, SLOVENES, SORBS, KASHUBES, POLABS.

ALBANIA, LANGUAGE (Vol. 1, p. 485), by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of

_The Times_ (London) in South-eastern Europe.

[Sidenote: Semitic]

The material on the Semitic group is principally in the article SEMITIC

LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 617), by Theodor Nöldeke, late professor of

Oriental languages at Strassburg. This article deals with:

Assyrian—see also CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629);

Hebrew—see also HEBREW LANGUAGE (Vol. 13, p. 167), by Arthur Ernest

Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford;

Phoenician—see also PHOENICIA (Vol. 21, p. 449), by the Rev. Dr. George

Albert Cook, author of _Text Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, etc.;

Aramaic—and see the separate article ARAMAIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 2, p. 317);

Arabic, Sabaean, Mahri and Socotri, Ethiopic, Tigre and Tigrina,

Amharic, Harari and Gurague.

And see the article SYRIAC LANGUAGE (Vol. 26, p. 309), by Norman McLean,

lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.

[Sidenote: Hamitic]

The article HAMITIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 12, p. 893) is by Dr. W. Max Müller,

professor in the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. See also the

article EGYPT, _Language and Writing_ (Vol. 9, p. 57), by Dr. Francis

Llewelyn Griffith, reader in Egyptology, Oxford; and the articles:

ETHIOPIA (Vol. 9, p. 845), by Dr. D. S. Margoliouth, professor of

Arabic, Oxford; BERBER, _Language_ (Vol. 3, p. 766) and KABYLES (Vol.

15, p. 625) for the Libyan group of the Hamitic languages.

[Sidenote: Other Tongues]

On the mono-syllabic languages see CHINA, _Language_ (Vol. 6, p. 216),

by Dr. H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Cambridge, and Lionel Giles,

assistant Oriental Department, British Museum;

JAPAN, _Language_ (Vol. 15, p. 167), by Captain Frank Brinkley, late

editor of the Japan _Mail_; and

TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 928), by Dr. Sten Konow, professor

in the University of Christiania.

The article URAL-ALTAIC (Vol. 27, p. 784), by Dr. Augustus Henry Keane,

late professor of Hindustani, University College, London, gives a

general account of the relationship of Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and

Manchu; and is supplemented by the articles TURKS, _Language_ (Vol. 27,

p. 472), by Sir Charles Eliot, vice-chancellor of Sheffield University;

FINNO-UGRIAN (Vol. 10, p. 388), on language of Finns, Lapps and

Samoyedes, HUNGARY _Language_ (Vol. 13, p. 924), on Magyar, both by Sir

Charles Eliot; and MONGOLS, _Language_ (Vol. 18, p. 719), by Dr.

Bernhard Jülg, late professor at Innsbruck.

On the non-Aryan languages of Southern Africa see the article TAMILS

(Vol. 26, p. 388), by Dr. Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal

Asiatic Society.

For languages of Malay-Polynesia and other Oceanic peoples see MALAYS,

_Language_ (Vol. 17, p. 477), by Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, colonial

secretary of Ceylon, and joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay

Language_; and the articles POLYNESIA, SAMOA, JAVA, HAWAII, etc.

On the Caucasian language see GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 758) and CAUCASIA

(Vol. 5, p. 546).

On other European languages see BASQUES (Vol. 3, p. 485), by the late

Rev. Wentworth Webster, author of _Basque Legends_, and Julien Vinson,

author of LE BASQUE ET LES LANGUES MEXICAINES; and for the Etruscan

language ETRURIA (Vol. 9, p. 854), by Professor R. S. Conway.

On African languages see BANTU LANGUAGES (Vol. 3, p. 356), by Sir H. H.

Johnston; BUSHMEN (Vol. 41, p. 871) and HOTTENTOTS (Vol. 13, p. 805);

and, for the intermediate group, the article HAUSA (Vol. 13, p. 69).

On the languages of the North American Indians see the article INDIANS,

NORTH AMERICAN (especially p. 457 of Vol. 14), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain,

professor of anthropology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts.

[Sidenote: Alphabet]

This list of articles will serve the student as a guide for the purely

linguistic articles. Besides the general treatment in the article

PHILOLOGY from which we started, he should read articles on such general

subjects as PHONETICS (Vol. 21, p. 458), by Dr. Henry Sweet, author of

_A Primer of Phonetics_, _A History of English Sounds since the Earliest

Period_, etc. This leads to a study of the article ALPHABET (Vol. 1, p.

723), equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide, written by Professor Peter

Giles of Cambridge and illustrated with a plate and various fac-similes

of early alphabets. This article is supplemented by Professor Giles’s

articles on all the letters of the alphabet, which deal with the history

and form of the symbol, the character of the sound it stands for and,

particularly, the development and change of the sound in English and its

dialects. For instance the article on the letter _N_ describes four

different sounds, of which there are two in English—usually

distinguished as _n_ and _ng_; explains that in the early Indo-European

language some _n’s_ and _m’s_ could sometimes be pronounced _as vowels_;

describes the opposite process, the nasalization of vowels, especially

in French; and closes by saying: “It is possible to nasalize some

consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an important part

in the so-called Yankee pronunciation of Americans.”

[Sidenote: Artificial Languages]

From alphabets the student may well turn to ideal languages in the

article UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 27, p. 746), by Professor Henry Sweet,

which criticizes Volapük and Esperanto and the Idiom Neutral as being

unscientific, not really international—even from a European point of

view, and still less when one considers the growing importance of Japan

and China in world-trade and world-history. Their being based on

national languages Dr. Sweet thinks is a disadvantage. But in their

comparative success he sees proof that a universal language is possible.

See also Prof. Sweet’s separate articles VOLAPÜK (Vol. 28, p. 178) and

ESPERANTO (Vol. 9, p. 773).

[Sidenote: Writing]

The article WRITING (Vol. 28, p. 852) deals, chiefly from the

anthropological standpoint, with primitive attempts to record ideas in

an intelligible form, for example with “knot-signs,” “message-sticks,”

picture-writing and the like. The needs, which led to the invention of

these primitive forms of writing, were: mnemonic, recalling that

something is to be done at a certain time—the primitive “tickler” was a

knotted string or thong, like our knotted handkerchief as a reminder,

and these knot-strings were finally used for elementary accountings,

commercial or chronological, like the use of the abacus in little shops,

or of the similar system in scoring games of pool; to communicate with

some one at a distance, for which marked or notched sticks, engraved or

coloured pebbles, wampum belts, etc., were used; and, third, to

distinguish one’s own property or handicraft whence cattle-brands,

trade-marks, etc. In Assyria, Egypt and China picture-writing developed

into conventional signs: on these see EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 60), and CHINA

(Vol. 6, p. 218). All of these are of great interest to the general

reader, but the article CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629) by Dr. R. W. Rogers,

professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Drew Theological

Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, has the sort of entertainment in it that

there is in a good detective story, since it tells how the meaning of

the mysterious wedge-shaped inscriptions on the rocks at Mount Rachmet

in Persia was discovered.

The subject of writing is treated, also, in the articles:

INSCRIPTIONS (Vol. 14, p. 618); _Semitic_, aside from the Cuneiform, by

Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford; _Indian

inscriptions_, by John Faithfull Fleet, author of _Inscriptions of the

Early Gupta Kings_, etc.; _Greek_, by Edward Lee Hicks, Bishop of

Lincoln, author of _Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions_, etc., and

George Francis Hill, author of _Sources for Greek History_, etc.; and

_Latin_, by Emil Hübner, late professor of classical philology at

Berlin, author of _Romische Epigraphik_, etc., and Dr. W. M. Lindsay, of

the University of St. Andrews, author of _The Latin Language_, etc.

PALAEOGRAPHY (Vol. 20, p. 556), equivalent to 75 pages of this Guide, by

Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, late librarian of the British Museum and

author of _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_, etc. The article

is illustrated with 50 fac-similes of typical handwritings.

MANUSCRIPT (Vol. 17, p. 618), equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide, by

the same author, with a description of the various forms of manuscripts,

of the mechanical arrangement of writing in MSS., and of writing

implements and inks. See, also, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, PAPYRUS, PAPER

and other articles mentioned in the chapter in this Guide _For

Printers_.

[Sidenote: Text Criticism]

The student of language and literature and of writing will also find

much valuable information in the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM (Vol. 26, p.

708), equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide, by Professor J. P. Postgate

of the University of Liverpool, well-known to Latinists as the brilliant

editor of Tibullus and Propertius. The article gives examples of the

classes of errors occurring in texts and the methods of restoring true

readings—largely of course by conjecture—and illustrates such errors and

their correction by the very poorly printed first editions of the

English poet Shelley.

In the study of language and writing as in courses on other sciences and

arts, the reader will find an additional interest in supplementing

general and abstract articles by biographical sketches of the great men

in the science.

The following is a partial list of the articles in the Britannica on

great philologists:

Aasen, Ivar

Adelung, J. C.

Ahrens, F. H. L.

Ascoli, G. I.

Baehr, J. C. F.

Baiter, J. G.

Bake, Jan

Barth, Kaspar von

Benfey, Theodor

Bennett, Charles E.

Bentley, Richard

Bernhardy, Gottfried

Bhau Daji

Blass, Friedrich

Bleek, W. H. I.

Bloomfield, Maurice

Böhtlingk, Otto von

Bopp, Franz

Bosworth, Joseph

Bréal, M. J. A.

Brown, Francis

Bücheler, Franz

Buck, C. D.

Bugge, Sophus

Burmann

Burnell, A. C.

Burnouf, Eugène

Buttmann, Philipp Karl

Carey, William

Casaubon

Caspari, K. P.

Castell, Edmund

Castiglione, Count

Castrén, M. A.

Childers, R. C.

Cleynaerts, Nicolas

Cobet, C. G.

Conington, John

Cook, A. S.

Corssen, W. P.

Cotgrave, Randle

Creuzer, G. F.

Csoma de Körös, A.

Darmesteter, J.

Delius, N.

Diez, F. C.

Döbrowsky, J.

Döderlein, J. C. W. L.

Donaldson, J. W.

Drisler, Henry

Dunash

Ebel, H. W.

Egger, Emile

Elias, Levita

Ellis, A. J.

Ellis, Robinson

Erasmus

Erpenius, Thomas

Ettmüller, E. M. L.

Facciolati, J.

Fairuzabadi

Fleckeisen, C. F. W. A.

Fleischer, Heinrich L.

Flügel, G. L.

Flügel, J. G.

Forcellini, Egidio

Freund, Wilhelm

Freytag, G. W. F.

Furnivall, F. J.

Fürst, Julius

Gabelentz, H. C. von der

Gaisford, Thomas

Gayangos y Arce, P. de

Gildersleeve, B. L.

Goeje, M. J. de

Goldstücker, T.

Goldziher, Ignaz

Golius, Jacobus

Goodwin, W. W.

Greenough, J. B.

Grimm, J. L. C.

Grimm, W. C.

Gudeman, Alfred

Gutschmid, Baron von

Hadley, James

Hagen, F. H. von der

Haldeman, S. S.

Hale, W. G.

Halhed, N. B.

Hall, Fitzedward

Hall, Isaac Hollister

Hasden, B. P.

Haug, Martin

Haupt, Moritz

Henry, Victor

Herbelot de Molainville, B. d’

Hervás y Panduro, L.

Hoffmann, J. J.

Hopkins, E. W.

Hottinger, J. H.

Hübner, Emil

Humboldt, K. W. von

Ingram, James

Jauhari

Jawaliqi

Jirecek, Josef

Jonah, Rabbi

Jones, Sir William

Karajich, V. S.

Kern, J. H.

Khalil ibn Ahmad,

Kimbi (family)

Klaproth, H. J.

Kuhn, F. F. A.

Lachmann, Karl

Lanman, C. R.

Lassen, Christian

Legge, James

Leitner, G. W.

Liddell, H. G.

Littré, M. P. E.

Ludolf, Hiob

Madvig, J. N.

Malan, S. C.

March, F. A.

Max Müller, F.

Mayor, J. E. B.

Ménant, Joachim

Meyer, P. H.

Mezzofanti, Giuseppe C.

Miklosich, Franz von

Mohl, Julius von

Monier-Williams, Sir M.

Morris, Richard

Munro, D. B.

Murray, Sir James

Nettleship, Henry

Nöldeke, Theodor

Oppert, Julius

Paley, F. A.

Paris, B. P. G.

Peerlkamp, P. H.

Peile, John

Petrarch

Poggio

Politian

Porson, Richard

Pott, A. F.

Quatremère, E. M.

Rask, R. C.

Reiske, J. J.

Reland, Adrian

Rémusat, J. P. A.

Ribbeck, Otto

Rieu, C. P. H.

Ritsche, F. W.

Rutherford, W. G.

Sale, George

Salesbury, William

Sanders, Daniel

Sayce, A. H.

Schafarik, P. J.

Scheler, J. A. W.

Schiefner, F. A.

Schleicher, August

Schultens (family)

Scott, Robert

Sellar, W. Y.

Skeat, W. W.

Taylor, Isaac

Ten Brink, B. E. K.

Teuffel, W. S.

Thorpe, Benjamin

Wailly, N. F. de

Walker, John

Warren, Minton

Webster, Noah

Whitney, W. D.

Wilkins, Sir Charles

Wordsworth, Christopher

Zarncke, F. K. T.

CHAPTER XXXVI

LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL

[Sidenote: Contributors]

The student of literature, like the student of painting, finds it as

necessary to examine the great examples of the art as to study the laws

which guide the artist, for the history of their development, and he

will find that the articles which discuss literature in the Britannica

are _themselves literature_, models of the form of artistic expression

which they describe. A list of these contributors who deal with literary

topics might, indeed, easily be mistaken for a list of such articles on

the great contemporary writers as the student would most desire to read.

Among these contributors are, for example: Edmund Gosse, Theodore

Watts-Dunton, Swinburne, A. C. Benson, John Morley, Austin Dobson,

Arthur Symons, J. Addington Symonds, Frederic Harrison, Walter Besant,

William Sharp (“Fiona Macleod”), Professor George Saintsbury, Sir Arthur

T. Quiller-Couch (“Q”), William Archer, Israel Gollancz, Robert Louis

Stevenson, Andrew Lang, Sir Leslie Stephen, E. V. Lucas, Arthur Waugh,

Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”), Alice Meynell, Mrs. Humphry Ward,

and—among American names,—George E. Woodberry, Henry Van Dyke, Edward

Everett Hale, T. W. Higginson, Brander Matthews, W. P. Trent, Charles

Eliot Norton, Charles William Eliot, George W. Cable, Lyman Abbott,

Edmund Clarence Stedman, John Burroughs, Thomas Davidson, Horace E.

Scudder, and Charles F. Richardson.

Before discussing the articles in which these and many other

distinguished contributors deal with various aspects of literature,

attention may be directed to the treatment of religious literature in

the Britannica. The Bible is the subject of a separate chapter in this

Guide on _Bible Study_, to which the reader is also referred for the

whole literature of Biblical criticism. Religious literature based upon

the Bible is discussed in the articles LITURGY (Vol. 16, p. 795), by the

Rev. F. E. Warren; SERMON (Vol. 24, p. 673), by Edmund Gosse, and HYMNS

(Vol. 14, p. 181), by Lord Selborne, equivalent to 35 pages of this

Guide. The medieval miracle plays and mysteries, presenting incidents

from Scripture, are described in the section on the _Medieval Drama_

(Vol. 8, p. 497) of the article DRAMA. On the literature of other

religions, see the chapter _For Ministers_.

[Sidenote: General Articles]

The student of literature in general may begin his course of reading

with the article LITERATURE (Vol. 16, p. 783), a concise critical

summary by Dr. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish language

and literature, Liverpool University, best known as the editor of

Cervantes. Read, after the article LITERATURE, the same contributor’s

article TRANSLATION (Vol. 27, p. 183). The student who does not wish to

approach literature from the philosophic side need not read the articles

AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS; but even such a one should read the article

STYLE (Vol. 25, p. 1055), by Edmund Gosse, essayist, poet, biographer

and librarian of the House of Lords, and the article PROSE (Vol. 22, p.

450), by the same contributor.

There is a well-known and perfectly authentic anecdote of Edmund Gosse’s

predecessor as librarian of the House of Lords, who was once asked in

the course of a newspaper symposium on education, “What were the

principal factors in your education?” He replied by putting second only

to his university training “the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica

and in the _Athenaeum_ by Theodore Watts-Dunton.” Certainly the student

will be well repaid by repeated study and analysis of Watts-Dunton’s

article POETRY (Vol. 21, p. 877; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide).

The same author’s articles SONNET (Vol. 25, p. 414), MATTHEW ARNOLD

(Vol. 2, p. 635), and WYCHERLEY (Vol. 28, p. 863) should be studied with

the article POETRY as supplementing his literary philosophy.

The greatest of literary forms is amply represented by the space and the

authority given to it in the Britannica. The article DRAMA (Vol. 8, p.

475; equivalent to 225 pages of this Guide) is mainly the work of Prof.

A. W. Ward, master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, editor of the _Cambridge

History of English Literature_ and of the _Cambridge Modern History_;

but some parts of the article are by William Archer, the dramatic

critic, and by Auguste Filon (“Pierre Sandrié”). This elaborate article

should be supplemented by the short article COMEDY (Vol. 6, p. 759) and

by the biographical and critical sketches of the great dramatists.

Among the many other articles in the Britannica on the forms of

literature are: SATIRE (Vol. 24, p. 228), by Richard Garnett, late

librarian British Museum, with which the student may well combine the

articles HUMOUR and IRONY, the articles BALLADE, BALLADS (Lang),

BUCOLICS, PASTORAL, CENTO, CHANT ROYAL (with Gosse’s first English chant

royal, “The Praise of Dionysus,” transcribed in full), DESCRIPTIVE

POETRY, ELEGY, EPIC POETRY, EPITHALAMIUM, HEROIC VERSE, IDYL, LIMERICK,

LYRICAL POETRY, MACARONICS, NATIONAL ANTHEMS, ODE, OTTAVA RIMA, PANTUN,

RIME ROYAL, RONDEAU, RONDEL, SESTETT, SESTINA, SONG, TRIOLET, VERS DE

SOCIÉTÉ, VILANELLE, VIRELAY, and—a few of the prose forms, BIOGRAPHY,

CONTE, CRITICISM, EPISTLE, ESSAY, EUPHUISM, NOVEL, PAMPHLET, PICARESQUE

NOVEL, ROMANCE, TALE, TRACT,—nearly all these being by Edmund Gosse. Two

articles of the utmost importance are DICTIONARY and ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Read

the general article RHETORIC.

[Sidenote: Periodical Publications]

Periodical publications, especially those in the English and French

languages, have contained a great part of the best literary criticism of

miscellaneous essays published since the first French review appeared in

1665 and since the first English review, consisting wholly of original

matter, was established in London in 1710. The latter was indebted to

France not only for its model, but for its editor, who was a French

Protestant refugee. Benjamin Franklin founded the first American

monthly, the Philadelphian _General Magazine_ in 1741. The article

PERIODICALS (Vol. 21, p. 151), by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the

Athenaeum Club, London, contains separate sections on the reviews and

magazines of _England_, the _United States_, _Canada_, _South Africa_,

_West India and the British Crown Colonies_, _India and Ceylon_,

_France_, _Germany_, _Austria_, _Switzerland_, _Italy_, _Belgium_,

_Holland_, _Denmark_, _Norway_, _Sweden_, _Spain_, _Portugal_, _Greece_,

_Russia_, _Bohemia_, _Hungary_ and _Japan_.

NEWSPAPERS (Vol. 19, p. 544), equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide, is

an article in which the student will find a full account of the most

fertile, if not the most studied, form of modern literature in all parts

of the world. See also the chapter in this Guide _For Journalists and

Authors_.

The reader should note that of the many articles on literary forms and

rhetorical figures, only a few are given above, but they are listed more

fully in the Index Volume, p. 929, where there are more than 350 such

titles. He must remember also that there are more than 3,000

biographical and critical articles on authors in different languages and

different periods. The following are “key” articles on national

literatures:

[Sidenote: National Literatures]

ENGLISH LITERATURE, by Henry Bradley, joint-editor of the _New English

Dictionary_; Prof. J. M. Manly, University of Chicago; Prof. Oliver

Elton, University of Liverpool; Thomas Seccombe, author of _The Age of

Johnson_.

AMERICAN LITERATURE, by G. E. Woodberry, formerly professor in Columbia

University.

GERMAN LITERATURE, by Prof. J. G. Robertson, University of London,

author of _History of German Literature_.

DUTCH LITERATURE │by Edmund Gosse.

FLEMISH LITERATURE │ „

WALLOONS, _Literature_ │ „

BELGIUM, _Literature_ │ „

DENMARK, _Literature_ │ „

SWEDEN, _Literature_ │ „

NORWAY, _Literature_ │ „

ICELAND, _Literature, Classic_, by Prof. Frederick York Powell of

Oxford; _Recent_, by Sigfús Blöndal, librarian of Copenhagen University.

FRENCH LITERATURE, by George Saintsbury.

PROVENÇAL LITERATURE, by Paul Meyer, Director of the École des Chartes,

Paris, and Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, author of a _History of

Provençal Literature_.

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE, by Prof. Louis Brandin of the University of

London.

SPAIN, _Literature_, by Prof. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly of the University of

Liverpool, and A. Morel-Fatio, author of _L’Espagne au XVIe et au XVIIe

siècles_.

PORTUGAL, _Literature_, by Edgar Prestage, editor of _Letters of a

Portuguese Nun_, etc.

ITALIAN LITERATURE, by Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, and Prof. Adolfo

Bartoli of the University of Florence, author of _Storia della

letteratura Italiana_.

SWITZERLAND, _Literature_, by Prof. W. A. B. Coolidge.

HUNGARY, _Literature_, by Emil Reich, author of _Hungarian Literature_,

and E. Dundas Butler, author of _Hungarian Poems and Fables for English

Readers_, etc.

POLAND, _Literature_, by W. R. Morfill, late professor of Slavonic

Languages, Oxford, author of _Slavonic Literature_, etc.

RUSSIA, _Literature_, also by Prof. Morfill.

ARABIA, _Literature_, by the late Prof. M. J. de Goeje, University of

Leiden, and the Rev. G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden College, Sydney,

N. S. W.

PERSIA, _Literature_, by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg University, and

Prof. Hermann Ethé, University College, Wales.

CHINA, _Literature_, by H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Oxford.

JAPAN, _Literature_, by Capt. Brinkley.

HEBREW LITERATURE, by Arthur Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian,

Oxford.

ARMENIAN LITERATURE, by F. C. Conybeare, author of _The Ancient Armenian

Texts of Aristotle_.

SYRIAC LITERATURE, by Norman McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.

HINDOSTANI LITERATURE, by Sir Charles James Lyall.

SANSKRIT, _Literature_, by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh.

CLASSICS, by Dr. J. E. Sandys, Cambridge, author of _History of

Classical Scholarship_.

GREEK LITERATURE: _Ancient_, by Sir R. C. Jebb, author of _Companion to

Greek Studies_; _Byzantine_, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher, editor of

_Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ and _Byzantinisches Archiv_; and _Modern_,

by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of _The Times_ (London) in

South-Eastern Europe.

LATIN LITERATURE, by Prof. A. S. Wilkins, of Owens College, Manchester,

and Prof. R. S. Conway, of the University of Manchester.

CELT, _Literature_, to which W. J. Gruffydd, lecturer in Celtic,

University College, Cardiff, contributes the section on _Welsh_

literature; and E. C. Quiggin, lecturer in Celtic, Cambridge,

contributes the sections on _Irish_, _Manx_, _Breton_ and _Cornish_

literatures.

[Sidenote: Bibliography]

This list of the literatures of many tongues, from each of which

translations have added to the common stock accessible even to those who

can read with ease only one language, indicates the existence of a

bewildering mass of printed matter, and just as each language has its

literature—using the word to signify output, so each subject upon which

men write has its literature—using the word to signify material for any

one branch of study. Bibliographies are the charts by which students are

enabled to navigate these vast seas of knowledge. The articles

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Vol. 3, p. 908), by A. W. Pollard, assistant librarian of

the British Museum, and INDEX (Vol. 14, p. 373) describe the

technicalities of cataloguing and classifying books and their contents.

The Britannica is itself the most complete index to the subjects treated

by books and the most complete bibliographical manual for the student

that could be imagined. The Index of 500,000 entries (Vol. 29) shows to

what class any one of half a million facts belongs, by referring to the

article in which that fact is treated. At the end of the article a list

of the best books on the subject shows the student who desires to

specialize just where to go for further details. No less than 203,000

books are included in these lists appended to Britannica articles and

many of them are, in themselves, substantial contributions to

literature. The Shakespeare bibliography would, for example, fill 30

pages of the size and type of this Guide; the bibliography of English

history, by A. F. Pollard, of the University of London, 13 pages, and

the bibliography of French history, by Prof. Bémont of the École des

Hautes Études, Paris, 8 pages.

A group of articles of great interest to every student of literature

deals with the methods and appliances by which writings are preserved

and circulated. MANUSCRIPT (Vol. 17, p. 618) is by Sir E. Maunde

Thompson, of the British Museum Library; BOOK (Vol. 4, p. 214);

BOOK-COLLECTING (Vol. 4, p. 221) and INCUNABULA (Vol. 14, p. 369) are by

A. W. Pollard, also of the British Museum Library. LIBRARIES (Vol. 16,

p. 545), equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, is by H. R. Tedder,

librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. The articles on printing,

binding, publishing and similar subjects are described in the chapter of

this Guide _For Printers_.

With this chapter to help him the student will have little difficulty in

devising his own course of reading in any one literature—starting with

the general treatment, going from this to the separate biographies of

the great authors mentioned in the general article, and, when there is

in the national literature that he is studying some special development

of a literary _genre_, as of the sermon in the 17th or the satire in the

18th century, turning to the article in the Britannica dealing with this

form of literature, SATIRE, SERMON, or whatever it may be. For example,

what could be more illuminating to the student of 19th century

literature than the following passages-disconnected here—from the

article SATIRE?

Goethe and Schiller, Scott and Wadsworth, are now at hand, and as

imagination gains ground satire declines. Byron, who in the 18th

century would have been the greatest of satirists, is hurried by the

spirit of his age into passion and description, bequeathing, however,

a splendid proof of the possibility of allying satire with sublimity

in his _Vision of Judgment_.... Miss Edgeworth skirts the confines of

satire, and Miss Austen seasons her novels with the most exquisite

satiric traits. Washington Irving revives the manner of _The

Spectator_, and Tieck brings irony and persiflage to the discussion of

critical problems.... In all the characteristics of his genius

Thackeray is thoroughly English, and the faults and follies he

chastises are those especially characteristic of British society. Good

sense and the perception of the ridiculous are amalgamated in him; his

satire is a thoroughly British article, a little over-solid, a little

wanting in finish, but honest, weighty and durable. Posterity must go

to him for the humours of the age of Victoria, as they go to Addison

for those of Anne’s.... In Heine the satiric spirit, long confined to

established literary forms, seems to obtain unrestrained freedom to

wander where it will, nor have the ancient models been followed since

by any considerable satirist except the Italian Giusti. The machinery

employed by Moore was indeed transplanted to America by James Russell

Lowell, whose _Biglow Papers_ represent perhaps the highest moral

level yet attained by satire.

In no age was the spirit of satire so generally diffused as in the

19th century, but many of its eminent writers, while bordering on the

domains of satire, escape the definition of satirist. The term cannot

be properly applied to Dickens, the keen observer of the oddities of

human life; or to George Eliot, the critic of its emptiness when not

inspired by a worthy purpose; or to Balzac, the painter of French

society; or to Trollope, the mirror of the middle classes of England.

If _Sartor Resartus_ could be regarded as a satire, Carlyle would rank

among the first of satirists; but the satire, though very obvious,

rather accompanies than inspires the composition.

CHAPTER XXXVII

AMERICAN LITERATURE

The list in the preceding chapter of the key articles dealing with

national literatures shows that the Britannica separately treats the

literary products of some 30 countries. To outline 30 courses of

reading, mentioning the 3,000 critical and biographical articles, would

make this Guide unwieldy. On pp. 929–937 of Vol. 29 the reader will find

classified lists of these articles, and only four groups are selected

here for detailed treatment: those on American, English, German and

Greek literature. The main article in the literature of each of the

other countries indicates the characteristic forms, the typical works of

the leading writers discussed in special articles, so that courses of

reading as systematic as these four can easily be planned for other

countries by the reader.

_Topic of Study_ _Article and Contributor_

General Summary of the subject, AMERICAN LITERATURE (Vol. 1, p.

with critical appreciation of 831), by George E. Woodberry,

main tendencies and great formerly professor in Columbia

authors. University, biographer of Poe and

Hawthorne, author of _America in

Literature_, etc.

_Colonial Period._

English writers, especially JOHN SMITH (Vol. 25, p. 264), by

historical. Prof. Edward Arber, editor of

_English Garner_, etc.

Colonial writers, especially of MASSACHUSETTS, _History_ (Vol. 17,

Puritan New England. p. 858); CONNECTICUT, _History_

(Vol. 6, p. 954).

Massachusetts governors and WILLIAM BRADFORD (Vol. 4, p. 370);

historical writing. JOHN WINTHROP (Vol. 28, p. 736).

The Clergy as writers of History, JOHN COTTON (Vol. 7, p. 255), by

and of Theology of the Puritan Prof. Williston Walker, Yale,

School. author of _History_ _of the

Congregational Churches in_ _the

United States_; THOMAS HOOKER

(Vol. 13, p. 674).

The Mathers. COTTON, INCREASE, and RICHARD

MATHER (Vol. 17, p. 883).

Apostle to the Indians. JOHN ELIOT (Vol. 9, p. 278), by

Prof. Walker.

Revolt against Puritanism.

Ethical. THOMAS MORTON (Vol. 18, p. 882).

Theological. ROGER WILLIAMS (Vol. 28, p. 682).

New England Verse. MICHAEL WIGGLESWORTH (Vol. 28, p.

626).

The New England Diarist. SAMUEL SEWALL (Vol. 24, p. 733).

The great New England Philosopher JONATHAN EDWARDS (Vol. 9, pp. 3–6),

and Theologian; the first by Prof. Harry Norman Gardiner,

American author with a lasting editor of _Jonathan Edwards—a

and European reputation. Retrospect_, and Riehard Webster.

Edwards’s contemporaries. CHARLES CHAUNCY (Vol. 6, p. 18).

JONATHAN MAYHEW (Vol. 17, p. 935).

Edwards’s followers,—the New JOSEPH BELLAMY (Vol. 3, p. 694).

England theology.

SAMUEL HOPKINS (Vol. 13, p. 685).

The first newspaper in New York. WILLIAM BRADFORD (Vol. 4, p. 370).

A Virginia educator. JAMES BLAIR (Vol. 4, p. 34).

The American Quaker preacher. JOHN WOOLMAN (Vol. 28, p. 817).

A royal governor and historian. THOMAS HUTCHINSON (Vol. 14, p. 13).

A New York statesman and CADWALLADER COLDEN (Vol. 6, p.

philosopher. 663).

The first great American figure in BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 11, p. 24),

secular literature,—essayist, by Richard Webster, late fellow

pamphleteer, politician, Princeton University, editorial

autobiographer. staff, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

_Revolutionary Period._

The patriotic orators and JAMES OTIS (Vol. 20, p. 366).

Pamphleteers.

PATRICK HENRY (Vol. 13, p. 300).

JOHN ADAMS (Vol. 1, p. 176).

JOSIAH QUINCY (Vol. 22, p. 753).

JAMES WILSON (Vol. 28, p. 693).

“Common Sense.” THOMAS PAINE (Vol. 20, p. 456).

James Otis’s Sister. MERCY WARREN (Vol. 28, p. 330).

The Declaration of Independence and INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF (Vol.

its author. 14, p. 372), and THOMAS JEFFERSON

(Vol. 15, p. 301), both by Dr. F.

S. Philbrick.

Prominent Patriots in New Jersey. WILLIAM LIVINGSTON (Vol. 16, p.

813).

JOHN WITHERSPOON (Vol. 28, p. 759).

A Connecticut Educator and Patriot. EZRA STILES (Vol. 25, p. 919).

Opponents of Independence. JOSEPH GALLOWAY (Vol. 11, p. 421).

“A Westchester Farmer.” SAMUEL SEABURY (Vol. 24, p. 531).

In Massachusetts. MATHER BYLES (Vol. 4, p. 896).

In Maryland. JONATHAN BOUCHER (Vol. 4, p. 312).

Patriotic Poetry. JOHN TRUMBULL (Vol. 27, p. 324).

The “Hartford Wits.” TIMOTHY DWIGHT (Vol. 8, p. 741).

Satire and Epic. JOEL BARLOW (Vol. 3, p. 406).

“Battle of the Kegs.” FRANCIS HOPKINSON (Vol. 13, p.

685).

A Western Traveler. JONATHAN CARVER (Vol. 5, p. 437).

_The National Period._

The Constitution and its JAMES MADISON (Vol. 17, p. 284).

Pamphleteers—“The Federalist,”

the greatest application of

elementary principles of

government to practical

administration.

ALEXANDER HAMILTON (Vol. 12, p.

880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and

Hugh Chisholm.

JOHN JAY (Vol. 15, pp. 294–296).

Importance of the early national UNITED STATES, _History_, §106

period on the development of (Vol. 27, p. 688), by the late

American literature. Prof. Alexander Johnson,

Princeton, and C. C. Whinery,

assistant editor, Encyclopaedia

Britannica.

The first professional “man of CHARLES BROCKDEN BROWN (Vol. 4, p.

letters.” 657).

First foreign vogue.

Essay and History: “The American WASHINGTON IRVING (Vol. 14, p.

Goldsmith.” 856), by Richard Garnett, late

librarian British Museum.

Fiction: “The American Scott.” JAMES FENIMORE COOPER (Vol. 7, p.

79), by W. E. Henley, poet,

critic and essayist.

Poetry. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT (Vol. 4, p.

698), by G. W. Cable.

The Knickerbocker School. NEW YORK CITY, _Literature_ (Vol.

19, p. 615).

New York as a literary centre. JAMES KIRKE PAULDING (Vol. 20, p.

958).

FITZ-GREENE HALLECK (Vol. 12, p.

854).

A Southern novelist and poet. W. G. SIMMS (Vol. 25, p. 123).

Cooper’s successor as novelist of HERMAN MELVILLE (Vol. 18, p. 102).

the sea.

Poetesses of the early 19th LYDIA HUNTLEY SIGOURNEY (Vol. 25,

century. p. 82).

ALICE AND PHOEBE CARY (Vol. 5, p.

438).

The “Literati.” N. P. WILLIS (Vol. 28, p. 686).

RUFUS WILMOT GRISWOLD (Vol. 12, p.

610).

The short story. EDGAR ALLAN POE (Vol. 21, p. 875),

by David Hannay.

Traveler, Translator, Poet. BAYARD TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 467).

_New England in the 19th century._

Boston and Cambridge. BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 293).

HARVARD UNIVERSITY (Vol. 13, p.

38).

GEORGE TICKNOR (Vol. 26, p. 936).

History and Scholarship as affected GEORGE BANCROFT (Vol. 3, p. 307),

by European contacts. by Prof. W. M. Sloane, Columbia.

EDWARD EVERETT (Vol. 10, p. 8), by

Edward Everett Hale.

JARED SPARKS (Vol. 25, p. 608), by

Prof. W. L. Corbin, Wells

College.

J. G. PALFREY (Vol. 20, p. 629).

W. H. PRESCOTT (Vol. 22, p. 294).

J. L. MOTLEY (Vol. 18, p. 909).

Unitarianism and its Literary HOSEA BALLOU (Vol. 3, p. 282).

Leaders, Influencing and

Influenced by Transcendentalism.

WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING (Vol. 5, p.

843), by Richard Webster.

JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE (Vol. 6, p.

444), by E. E. Hale.

THEODORE PARKER (Vol. 20, p. 829).

Transcendentalism and the Concord AMOS BRONSON ALCOTT (Vol. 1, p.

School—central figures. 528), by Prof. C. F. Richardson,

Dartmouth College.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON (Vol. 9, p.

332), by Prof. Henry Van Dyke,

Princeton.

HENRY DAVID THOREAU (Vol. 26, p.

877), by William Sharp (“Fiona

Macleod”).

The Dial. MARGARET FULLER (Vol. 11, p. 295).

GEORGE RIPLEY (Vol. 23, p. 363), by

Edward Livermore Burlingame,

editor of _Scribner’s_.

Brook Farm. BROOK FARM (Vol. 4, p. 645), by E.

L. Burlingame.

The author of “Margaret.” SYLVESTER JUDD (Vol. 15, p. 536).

The great New England Novelist. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (Vol. 13, p.

102), by Richard Henry Stoddard,

poet and essayist.

The great New England Poet. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (Vol.

16, p. 977), by Thomas Davidson,

author of _The Philosophical

System of Rosmini_.

Earlier Romanticism. WASHINGTON ALLSTON (Vol. 1, p.

709).

RICHARD HENRY DANA (Vol. 7, p.

792).

_Oratory._

In the North. DANIEL WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 459),

by Everett P. Wheeler, author of

_Daniel Webster_, etc.

RUFUS CHOATE (Vol. 6, p. 258).

WENDELL PHILLIPS (Vol. 21, p. 407),

by Col. T. W. Higginson.

CHARLES SUMNER (Vol. 26, p. 81).

ROBERT CHARLES WINTHROP (Vol. 28,

p. 736).

In the South. HENRY CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 470), by

Carl Schurz, biographer of Clay.

Other Southern Orators. JOHN C. CALHOUN (Vol. 5, p. 1), by

Judge H. A. M. Smith, South

Carolina.

ROBERT YOUNG HAYNE (Vol. 13, p.

114).

The Pulpit Orator of the North. HENRY WARD BEECHER (Vol. 3, p.

639), by Dr. Lyman Abbott, editor

_The Outlook_.

The Abolition Novelist, author of HARRIET ELIZABETH BEECHER STOWE

_Uncle Tom’s Cabin_. (Vol. 25, p. 972), by Horace E.

Scudder, late editor of the

_Atlantic Monthly._

Another anti-slavery authoress. LYDIA MARIA CHILD (Vol. 6, p. 135).

The New England Poets prominent in JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER (Vol. 28,

the Anti-Slavery Movement. p. 613), by Edmund Clarence

Stedman, poet and critic.

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL (Vol. 17, p.

74), by Horace E. Scudder,

biographer of Lowell.

Their Contemporary, the “Autocrat.” OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (Vol. 13, p.

616), by J. T. Morse, biographer

of Holmes.

_The_ American Poet—by the Walt Whitman (Vol. 28, p. 610), by

criterion of foreign standards. John Burroughs, author of

_Whitman, A Study_.

Scholarship and criticism in this FRANCIS JAMES CHILD (Vol. 6, p.

Period and the Next: the 135).

particularly Important Work done

by Americans in Grammar,

Language, Text Criticism, etc.

CORNELIUS C. FELTON (Vol. 10, p.

246).

GEORGE PERKINS MARSH (Vol. 17, p.

768).

WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY (Vol. 28, p.

611), by Benjamin E. Smith,

editor _Century Dictionary_.

RICHARD GRANT WHITE (Vol. 28, p.

601).

HORACE HOWARD FURNESS (Vol. 11, p.

362).

FRANCIS ANDREW MARCH (Vol. 17, p.

688).

BASIL LANNEAU GILDERSLEEVE (Vol.

12, p. 12).

CHARLES ELIOT NORTON (Vol. 19, p.

797).

_The later Poets._