CHAPTER XXVIII_The reader's guide to the Encyclopaedia Britannica

FOR CIVIL SERVICE MEN AND WOMEN AND STUDENTS PREPARING FOR SERVICE

EXAMINATIONS

Federal, state and municipal civil service includes so many specialized

branches that a number of the chapters in Part 1 of this Guide, devoted

to courses of reading adapted to various occupations (such as _For

Teachers_, _For Engineers_, _For Builders and Contractors_) will supply

useful indications. Part 2 of the Guide, containing classified courses

of educational reading, will point to articles especially serviceable to

those who are preparing for examinations and, for that reason, desire to

review the ground they covered at school or college.

Part 4 of the Guide, with its special references to the subjects to

which administration and legislation are chiefly directed, should be

carefully examined. There the reader will find lists of articles dealing

with schools and institutions; the defective classes; crime and alcohol;

revenue and finance; ballot representation and suffrage; trusts,

competition, co-operation and socialism; labour and immigration;

legislation and the administration of justice; foreign relations and the

expansion of the United States.

[Sidenote: International Comparisons]

The present chapter, in order that repetition may be avoided, deals only

with the aspects of federal, state and municipal government which are

most closely related to civil service organization. The article CIVIL

SERVICE (Vol. 6, p. 412) devotes nearly as much space to the British as

to the American service, and its information as to British organization,

examinations, salaries and pensions will greatly interest those to whom

the details needed for an international comparison have not been

elsewhere accessible. Until 1855 all British appointments were by

nomination; and although the service was quite free from the abominable

system of secretly taxing salaries in order to support party funds, that

was about all that can be said for it. There was hardly a pretense of

selection for merit. Influential families and the relatives and personal

friends of ministers of state and of ladies whom kings delighted to

honor monopolized the appointments. Many posts were pure sinecures, and

in many others the work was done by a substitute to whom the nominee

paid less than half the salary or fees he received. Under George III the

system was at its worst, and the discontent that was aroused in the

American colonies by the maladministration of colonial affairs was “one

of the efficient causes of the American revolution.” The reforms begun

in 1855 had by 1870 been so successful that since then open competition

has been the general rule; and where nomination is still required, as in

the Foreign Office and the Education Department, searching examinations

must be passed. Women are employed in the post-office, board of

agriculture, customs, India office, department of agriculture, local

government board and home office (factory inspectors, etc.). The age for

compulsory retirement is 65, but the commissioners may prolong this five

years in exceptional cases. Subjects of examinations, salaries and

pensions are described in the article. Since 1859 there has been a

superannuation pension of ¹⁰⁄₆₀ of the annual salary and emoluments to

any one serving 10 years and less than 11, and an additional sixtieth

for each year’s service more than ten.

[Sidenote: Civil Service in the United States]

In the same article there is an historical treatment of civil service in

the United States and of its gradual reform and extension since 1883.

This may well be supplemented by a study of the American party system of

government and of the “spoils system” under which party loyalty and

personal service to a party machine became the test of a candidate’s

fitness for office. For this the student should refer to the section

(Vol. 27, p. 646) on _Constitution and Government_, of the article

UNITED STATES, written by James Bryce, author of _The American

Commonwealth_ and formerly British ambassador to the United States; see

p. 658–659, especially. There is also much information in the section

_History_ of the same article, especially paragraphs 168, 169 (p. 697)

on the beginnings of the spoils system in Jackson’s time, paragraph 333

(p. 722) on the beginnings of reform under Hayes, and paragraph 343 (p.

724) on Cleveland and civil service reform, etc.; and biographies of

Andrew Jackson, W. L. Marcy and Martin Van Buren (for the spoils system)

and of George William Curtis, E. L. Godkin, Carl Schurz, R. B. Hayes,

Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley and Theodore

Roosevelt.

Information in regard to the civil service systems of states and cities

may be found in separate state and city articles,—in addition to the

material on state and city systems in the articles already mentioned.

[Sidenote: “General Information” Papers]

The wide-awake student who has read this far in this chapter and has

referred to the articles mentioned in the Britannica, will now be saying

to himself: “There is evidently much valuable information in the

encyclopaedia about the history and status of civil service reform, and

this seems as full and complete for the United States as for Great

Britain. If other topics are as fully treated in the Britannica, it will

be invaluable to me in preparation for general information papers for

civil service examinations.” And he will be right. For instance, the

government employe must know more about the government and its machinery

and history than does the average “man in the street”,—and he can learn

this from the Britannica.

As has already been pointed out, the main treatment of the government of

the United States in the Britannica is by James Bryce. This means that

it is authoritative and that it is interesting and that in both these

qualities it is far superior to the usual text book of “civics” or

“civil government.” It occupies pp. 646–661 of volume 27, and is

equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide—so that it is more than a

bare outline. And it is followed by a valuable bibliography of the

subject to guide the student to the best books on any special topic

which he may wish to pursue further.

But this is far from being all the information in the Britannica on the

subject. The contribution of Mr. Bryce is only a part of the article

UNITED STATES. The entire article would take up nearly 400 pages if

printed in the style of this Guide. It treats the physical geography,

geology, climate, fauna and flora, population, industries and commerce,

government, finance, army and history of the country—the equivalent of

225 pages of this Guide is devoted to _History_ alone. All parts of this

article contain valuable information about the country; and this article

is supplemented by hundreds of others:—

(a) Articles on each of the states, arranged much as in the article

UNITED STATES with sections on history and government serving as an

authoritative summary of the salient facts, and making up a complete

course on state “civics,” government and history;

(b) Articles on cities and towns with similar treatment of the

distinctive elements in the government of each, and of the main points

in their history;

other topics in physical geography;

(d) Separate articles on topics in American history and government: such

as NULLIFICATION, STATE RIGHTS, FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, ELECTORAL

COMMISSION; and

(e) Biographies of great Americans, famous in war, politics,

administration, business, science, art, religion,—in short all fields of

activity.

In brief, whether for an examination on general information, on civics,

on history, or on the special branch of the civil service to which the

student wishes to be appointed, no book will give as valuable and

complete information as the Britannica.

CHAPTER XXIX

FOR ARMY OFFICERS

[Sidenote: A New Departure]

It is often said of an article in the Britannica that it is “_the last

word_ on the subject,” so thoroughly has the authority of the book been

recognized. This is quite as true of military articles as of those in

any other field; but of the military articles it may also be said that

they are the _first word_. Of course, there have been, in previous

editions of the Britannica and, to a less degree in minor works of

general reference, articles on military history and biography. But in

the new Britannica, for the first time, all branches of military

knowledge are included, and the spirit of the entire treatment is

comparative and critical. The military student will find a discussion

not merely of Napoleon’s influence on army organization or Frederick’s

influence on cavalry (in the articles on these two leaders), but also of

the influence of army organization on Napoleon (in the articles on the

French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Campaigns), and of cavalry

drill on the peculiar generalship of Frederick (in such articles as

Seven Years’ War, on Hohenfriedberg, and on Rossbach). Put more

concretely, the novelty consists in the inclusion of articles on wars,

campaigns and battles, chosen because of their importance in military as

well as in political history, and treated from the point of view of the

military critic and with particular attention to the lessons they

contain for the modern army officer. The care with which the battles and

campaigns of the American Civil War are analyzed and criticized will be

of singularly great interest to the American soldier, who will

immediately notice among the contributors to the military department of

the Britannica such names as those of Capt. C. F. Atkinson, author of

_The Wilderness and Cold Harbour_, Major G. W. Redway, author of

_Fredericksburg: A Study in War_, Col. G. F. R. Henderson, author of

_Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War_, and Col. F. N. Maude,

lecturer in military history, University of Manchester.

[Sidenote: Army]

The best starting point for a study of military affairs in the

Britannica is the article ARMY (Vol. 2, p. 592; equivalent to more than

100 pages of this Guide). This “key” article may be outlined as follows:

_General History_

Early Armies—_Egypt_ (chariots, infantry, archers). _Babylon_ and

_Assyria_ (horsemen, charioteers, etc.). _Persian_, largely cavalry;

the first “organized” army. _Greece_,—compulsory service; citizen

militia; heavy infantry the strong arm; phalanx, the Greek formation.

_Sparta_,—a nation in arms. _Greek_ mercenaries. _Epaminondas_ and

_Thebes_—new phalanx tactics, “oblique order”; development of

cavalry. _Alexander_ and _Macedon_—a modified Theban system.

_Carthage_—mercenary troops led by great generals, with modification

of phalanx for greater elasticity. _Rome_—army under the Republic; its

characteristics; under the Empire; see also separate article ROMAN

ARMY (Vol. 23, p. 471), by Professor F. J. Haverfield of Oxford. _The

Dark Ages_, the Byzantines, and the development of Feudalism. Medieval

Mercenaries. Infantry in Feudal Times. _The Crusades_. _The Period of

Transition_ (1290–1490), development of English archers and of

professional soldiery,—_condottieri_, _Swiss_, _Landsknechts_. _The

Spanish army_: “at the disposal of its sovereign, trained to the due

professional standard and organized in the best way found by

experience.” _The Sixteenth Century_—rise of the heavy cavalry armed

with pistols, and fall of the pikemen. _Dutch System_—attention to

minute detail; William the Silent and Maurice of Nassau. _Thirty

Years’ War_—the _Werbe-system_, small standing army to be increased by

levy at time of need. _The Swedish Army_—conscription and feudal

_indelta_; Gustavus. _The English Civil War_—real national armies;

Cromwell and the “New Model” only an incident without influence on

army organization. _Standing Armies_. French pre-eminence after

Rocroi. Small field armies, well-fed and sheltered for economy’s sake.

_18th Century organization_: “linear” formation and its negative

results. _Frederick the Great_: the art of war a formal science. _The

French Revolution_: a “nation in arms,” a war-machine more powerful

than Frederick’s. The conscription in France. _Napoleon_—his attempt

to make a dynastic army out of the “nation in arms.” _The Grande

Armée_ of 1805–1806; development of artillery; the army corps. The

Wars of Liberation: new Prussian army; excellent Austrian

organization. _Armies of 1815–1870_. _American Civil War_,—its slow

decision. Contrast between French and Prussian staff systems in 1870.

_Modern Developments_: German model followed slavishly except in Great

Britain and the United States.

_Present Day Armies_: The general accounts of existing armies, and of

the past organizations of each country, are supplemented by detailed

information in the articles on different countries. Especial attention

should be given to the military information in the article on Japan.

Army Systems: _Compulsory Service_; _Conscription_; _Voluntary

Service_; _Militia_.

_Army Organization_

The three chief arms—their relative importance: proportion on peace

footing—5 or 6 guns per 1000 men, 16 cavalry soldiers to 1000 men of

other arms; proportion in war—Russian (1905) 3½ guns per 1000 men of

other arms, 60 cavalry to 1000 infantry; Japanese (1905), 2½ field

guns per 1000 men, 37 cavalry to 1000 infantry. _Command_: _Brigade_;

_Division_; _Army Corps_, its constitution; _Army_; _Chief Command_ of

group of armies; chief of general staff and his relations to

commander-in-chief—for example, von Moltke and King William. _Branches

of Administration_—war office and general staff.

_Table_: Comparative strength of Various Armies.

_British Army_, _Indian Army_, _Canadian Forces_.

_Austrian Army_.

_French Army_.

_German Army_.

_Italian Army_.

_Russian Army_.

_Spanish Army_.

_Turkish Army_.

_United States Army_.

_Armies of minor countries_.

_Bibliography_ (2000 words)

[Sidenote: Theory and Practice]

Next in order the student should turn to the article WAR (Vol. 28, p.

305; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by Col. G. F. R. Henderson,

well known for his books on the American Civil War (_Fredericksburg_,

_Stonewall Jackson_, etc.), with a section on _Laws of War_, by Sir

Thomas Barclay. Col. Henderson’s article lays down important general

principles. An analysis of modern conditions shows that improved methods

of communication have made war a much speedier process, in which the

victorious general cannot make mistakes at the outset. That intellect

and education count for more than stamina and courage was the lesson of

the Franco-Prussian War—a lesson learned by the Prussians before that

war. Modern war is a science and the amateur has little chance; in this

respect things have changed. “It is impossible to doubt that had the

Boers of 1899 possessed a staff of trained strategists, they would have

shaken the British Empire to its foundations.” There must be a concert

between diplomacy and strategy. Civilian war ministers cannot solve

strategic problems. The greater deadliness of modern warfare, and the

greater moral effect of being under fire call for better foresight,

strategy and _morale_. The relation of army and navy is discussed and

the new doctrine of “sea-power” explained. (See the chapter _For Naval

Officers_ in this Guide). The remaining topics in the article are:

weakness of allied armies; railways and sea as lines of operation;

amphibious power; value of unprofessional troops and the need of

professional leaders.

[Sidenote: Arms of Service]

In the articles INFANTRY (Vol. 14, p. 517; 2 plates; equivalent to 35

pages of this Guide) and ARTILLERY (Vol. 2, p. 685; 2 plates; equivalent

to 30 pages of this Guide), both by Capt. Atkinson, and in the article

CAVALRY (Vol. 5, p. 563; illustrated with 2 plates and 1 cut; in length

equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude, the student

will find an elaborate treatment of the history, organization and

tactics (especially since 1870) of each of these arms. For details of

their organization and equipment he should read the articles ENGINEERS,

STAFF, MOUNTED INFANTRY, SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT (MILITARY), OFFICERS,

AMBULANCE, FORTIFICATION, MACHINE GUNS, COAST DEFENCE, ORDNANCE,

BALLISTICS, SIGHTS, RIFLE, GUN, PISTOL, EXPLOSIVE, GUNPOWDER, GUNCOTTON,

CORDITE and NITRO-GLYCERINE. In many geographical articles there are

descriptions of the world’s great fortifications, e. g., _Paris_,

_Antwerp_, and _Verdun_. Other topics of a more miscellaneous character

are covered by the articles ARMY SIGNALLING, PIGEON POST, SIGNALS, WAR

GAME, MANOEUVRES, KITE, etc.

The military use of aeroplanes and balloons is very fully shown in the

articles FLIGHT and AERONAUTICS.

[Sidenote: Strategy and Tactics]

Before taking up a systematic course in military history, there are two

general articles that the military student should read: TACTICS (Vol.

26, p. 347; equivalent in length to 20 pages of this Guide), by Maj.

Neill Malcolm, editor of the _Science of War_; and STRATEGY (Vol. 25, p.

986; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude. The

former article should be compared with the sections on tactics in the

articles INFANTRY, CAVALRY and ARTILLERY. Major Malcolm makes much of

the continuity of military history, comparing Metaurus and Ramillies

with the fighting in Manchuria, and Wellington at Maya with Oyama in his

contest with Kuropatkin. The mistakes that have been made once should

not be made again; at least the careful student of tactical history may

see to it that if they are repeated, it is done by his opponent and not

by himself. Modern tactics are different from ancient because of greater

fire-power and improved methods of transportation. Cavalry tactics are

in an uncertain condition; there is no recent practice to serve as a

guide, since neither in South Africa in the Boer war nor in Manchuria

during the Russo-Japanese conflict was cavalry much used. Infantry must

co-operate to make artillery bombardment effective. An interesting

discussion of offensive and defensive fighting is summed up in the words

“To the true general the purely defensive battle is unknown” and as

evidence are adduced Wellington at Salamanca and Oyama at Sha-ho.

Oyama’s victory in the latter battle, it is pointed out, shows the

increased ease of the process of envelopment, which has resulted in

discarding corps artillery in favour of divisional artillery. The

importance—and the possibility—of the counter stroke; the danger of

using for the relief of one’s own troops forces which might better be

launched at the enemy’s weakest spot; and the similar unwisdom of any

negative tactics, adopted to avoid loss, as in “holding attacks”—are the

other principal points made in the article.

The article STRATEGY should be read in conjunction with the articles

ARMY and WAR. It is impossible to summarize or outline it here, but it

is worth noting that the article closes with a definition and discussion

of the following terms: _Base_; _Line of Communication_; _Line of

Operations_; _Exterior Lines_; _Obstacles_.

[Sidenote: Military History and Criticism]

For a reasoned history of warfare in more detail than has been given in

the general articles already alluded to, the reader will find some

outline like the following valuable, the arrangement being roughly

chronological and all words in _Italics_ being titles of articles in the

Britannica.

_Marathon_; _Darius_; _Miltiades_; _Herodotus_.

_Thermopylae_; _Leonidas_; _Salamis_.

_Peloponnesian War_; _Pericles_; _Cleon_; _Pylos_; _Brasidas_;

_Alcibiades_; _Critias_; _Thucydides_; _Xenophon_.

_Epaminondas_; _Mantineia_.

_Philip II of Macedon_; _Olynthus_; _Chaeroneia_; _Alexander the

Great_; _Arrian_.

_Pyrrhus_.

_Roman Army_; _Caudine Forks_; _Punic Wars_; _Carthage_; _Hanno_;

_Hannibal_; _Hasdrubal_; _Mago_; _Trasimene_; _Fabius_ (Cunctator);

_Cannae_; _Scipio Africanus_; _Scipio Aemilianus_; _Aemilius Paulus_;

_Perseus_; _Marius_; _Jugurtha_; _Sulla_; _Sertorius_; _Pompey_;

_Caesar_; _Antonius_ (Mark Antony).

_Charles Martel_.

_Charlemagne_.

_William I_ (of England); _Hastings_; _Standard, Battle of_.

_Crusades_ (equivalent to 90 pages of this Guide); _Godfrey of

Bouillon_; _Raymund of Toulouse_; _Richard I_ (of England); _Philip

II_ (of France); _Saladin_; _Henry VI_ (Roman Emperor); _Baldwin I_;

_Frederick II_; _Louis IX_ (of France).

_Bouvines._

_Bannockburn_; _Robert Bruce_.

_Hundred Years’ War_; _Philip VI_; _Edward III_; _Crécy_; _John of

Bohemia_; _Edward_ (the Black Prince); _Calais_; _Poitiers_; _John II_

(of France); _Lancaster, House of_ (for John of Gaunt); _Bertrand Du

Guesclin_; _Henry V_ (of England); _Agincourt_; _Joan of Arc_; _1st

Duke of Bedford_ (John Plantagenet); Count of _Dunois_.

_Wars of the Roses_; _St. Albans_; _Towton_; _Earl of Warwick_

(Richard Neville); _Edward IV_.

_Ravenna_, battle of; _Bayard_ (the chevalier); _Gaston de Foix_;

_Pescara_; _Navarro_; _Marignan_; _Francis_ I (of France).

_Flodden_; _James IV_ (of Scotland); _Norfolk, 3rd Duke_.

_St. Quentin_ (1557); _Coligny_; _Montmorency_ (constable); _Emmanuel

Philibert_.

_Alva_; _William the Silent_ (Vol. 28, p. 672); _Maurice of Nassau_;

_Farnese_ (duke of Parma).

_Thirty Years’ War_; _Maximilian I_ (of Bavaria); _Frederick V_

(elector palatinate; Vol. 11, p. 59); _Mansfeld_; _Tilly_;

_Wallenstein_; _Gustavus Adolphus_; _Breitenfeld_; _Lützen_; _Bernhard

of Saxe-Weimar_; duc de _Rohan_; _Frederick Henry_; _Gallas_; _Banér_;

_Piccolomini_; _Turenne_; _Torstensson_; _Condé_; _Freiburg_; _Mercy_;

_Nördlingen_; _Wrangel_ (1613–1676); _Fronde_.

_Great Rebellion_ (English Civil Wars of 1642–52); _Charles I_ (of

England); _Prince Rupert_; _Essex_ (2nd Earl, Vol. 9, p. 782);

_Edgehill_; _John Hotham_; _Baron Hopton_; _Sir William Waller_; _Duke

of Newcastle_ (1592–1676); _Fairfax of Cameron_ (2nd and 3rd Barons);

_Sir Bevil Grenville_; _Oliver Cromwell_; _Manchester_, 2nd Earl of

(Vol. 17, p. 543); _Marston Moor_; _Leven_; _Skippon_; _Argyll, 8th

Earl_; _Montrose_; _Lord Newark_; _Goring_; _Naseby_; _John Lambert_;

_Charles Fleetwood_; _Dunbar_; _Thomas Harrison_.

_Dutch Wars_; _Louis XIV_; _Condé_; _Frederick William of

Brandenburg_; _Turenne_; _Montecucculi_; _William III_ (of England);

_Duke of Luxembourg_; _Charles of Lorraine_ (Vol. 17, p. 11).

_Vauban._

_Grand Alliance, War of_; _Catinat_; _Luxembourg_; _Vauban_;

_Fleurus_; _Louvois_; _Duc de Boufflers_; _Coehoorn_; _William III of

England_; _Steenkirk_; _Neerwinden_; _Villeroi_.

_Spanish Succession_; _Marlborough_; _Eugene of Savoy_; _Villars_;

_Peterborough_; _Ruvigny_; _Catinat_; _Vendôme_; _Blenheim_;

_Ramillies_; _Oudenarde_; _Malplaquet_; _Berwick_.

_Polish Succession War._

_Austrian Succession_; _Frederick the Great_; _Count von Schwerin_;

_L. A. Khevenhüller_; _Duc de Broglie_; _Traun_; _Charles_ (of

Lorraine; Vol. 5, p. 936); _Seckendorf_; _George II_ (of England);

_Noailles_; _Conti_ (Vol. 7, p. 28); _Hohenfriedberg_; _Fontenoy_;

comte de _Saxe_ (marshal); Duke of _Cumberland_; _Ligonier_;

_Belle-Isle_.

_Seven Years’ War_ (with 5 diagrams): _Frederick the Great_; _Clive_;

_Amherst_; _Wolfe_; comte de _Lally_; _Montcalm_; Count von _Browne_;

_Ferdinand_ (of Brunswick); _Daun_; _Zieten_; _F. E. J. Keith_;

_Seydlitz_; _Rossbach_; _Soubise_ (1715–1787); _Leuthen_; _Loudon_;

_Kunersdorf_; _Finck_; _Minden_; _Sackville_, 1st Viscount; _Granby_.

_American War of Independence_; _Lexington_; _Concord_; _Bunker Hill_;

_Joseph Warren_; _Israel Putnam_; _Thomas Gage_; _William Howe_;

_Ethan Allen_; _Ticonderoga_; _George Washington_; _Benedict Arnold_;

_Richard Montgomery_; _Long Island_; _Rufus Putnam_; _William

Alexander_; _Trenton and Princeton_; _Henry Knox_; _Brandywine_;

_Germantown_; _Burgoyne_; _Bennington_; _John Stark_; _Saratoga_;

_George Rogers Clark_; _Sir Henry Clinton_; _Monmouth_; _John

Sullivan_; _Anthony Wayne_; _William Moultrie_; _Charleston_ (S. C.);

_Francis Marion_; _Thomas Sumter_; _Andrew Pickens_; _Horatio Gates_;

_Nathanael Greene_; _Cornwallis_; _Kalb_; _Camden_; _King’s Mountain_;

_Daniel Morgan_; _Henry Lee_; _Tarleton_; _Eutawville_; _Lafayette_;

_Yorktown_.

_French Revolutionary Wars_ (with 6 diagrams); _Dumouriez_;

_Kellerman_ (1735–1820); _Custine_; _Jemappes_; _Gribeauval_;

_Neerwinden_ (1793); _Clerfayt_; _Vendée_; _L. N. M. Carnot_;

_Jourdan_; _Wattignies_; _Joubert_; _Frederick Augustus, Duke of

York_; _Souham_; _Moreau_; _Kray von Krajova_; _Vandamme_; _Pichegru_;

_Marceau_; _Charles_, archduke of Austria (Vol. 5, p. 935); _Masséna_;

_Napoleon_; _Augereau_; _Serurier_; _Joubert_; _Sir W. Sidney Smith_;

_Kléber_; _Alexandria_; _Oudinot_; _Suvarov_; _Borodino_; _Macdonald_;

_Marengo_; _Murat_; _Lannes_; _Berthier_; _Bautzen_.

_Napoleonic Campaigns_ (9 diagrams; and see, on p. 233 of Vol. 19,

“The Military Character of Napoleon”); _Napoleon_; _Wrede_; _Murat_;

_Charles XIV_ (Bernadotte); _Marmont_; _Davout_; _Ney_; _Lannes_;

_Soult_; _Berthier_; _Angereau_; _Dupont de l’Etang_; _Austerlitz_;

_Kutusov_; _Hohenlohe_ (Vol. 13, p. 572); _Blücher_; _Lasalle_;

_Massenbach_; _Kalckreuth_; _Scharnhorst_; _Lefebvre-Desnoëttes_;

_Count von Bennigsen_; _Eylau_; _Friedland_; _Grouchy_; _Mortier_;

_Senarmont_; _Oudinot_; _Massena_; _Aspern-Essling_; _Charles_,

archduke of Austria; _Bellegarde_; _Wagram_; _Beauharnais_;

_Macdonald_; Jerome _Bonaparte_ (Vol. 4, p. 195); _Barclay de Tolly_;

_Bagration_; _Victor-Perrin_; _Yorck von Wartenburg_; _Lauriston_;

_Wittgenstein_; _Bautzen_; _Schwarzenberg_; _Gouvion St. Cyr_;

_Dresden_ (battle).

_Peninsular War_; _Junot_; _Murat_; _Dupont de l’Etang_; _Moncey_;

_Palafox y Melzi_; _Wellington_; _Sir John Moore_; Sir David _Baird_;

_Talavera_; _Suchet_; _Sebastiani_; _Foy_; _Lord Hill_; _Lord

Lynedoch_; W. C. _Beresford_; _Salamanca_; _Clausel_; _O’Donnell_;

_Vitoria_; _Sir William Napier_.

_American War_ of 1812; Isaac _Brock_; _Dearborn_; _Baltimore_;

_Washington_; _New Orleans_; Andrew _Jackson_; Jacob _Brown_; James

_Wilkinson_; and for sea-fighting the titles in the chapter of this

Guide: _For Naval Officers_.

_Waterloo Campaign_ (with 3 maps); _Napoleon_; _Murat_;

_Schwarzenberg_; _Barclay de Tolly_; _Wellington_; _Blücher_; _Lord

Hill_; _Anglesey_; _D’Erlon_; _Gneisenau_; _Gérard_; _Grouchy_;

_Vandamme_; _Thielmann_; _Bülow_ (1755–1816); _Ney_; _Exelmans_;

_Pajol_; _Picton_.

_Greek Independence_; _Ypsilanti_; _Mavrocordato_; _Coraës_;

_Dundonald_; _Sir Richard Church_.

_Russo-Turkish Wars_ (1828–29); _Paskevich_; _Diebitsch_ (1877–78);

_Osman_; _Skobelev_; _Plevna_ (with diagram); _Todleben_; _Shipka

Pass_.

_Crimean War_ (with 2 diagrams): _Gorchakov_; _Hess_; _Raglan_; _Saint

Arnaud_; _Canrobert_; _Pelissier_; _Menshikov_ (1787–1869); _Bosquet_;

_Todleben_; _Alma_; _Balaklava_; _Scarlett_; _Cardigan_; _Inkerman_;

_Sir George Brown_; _Sir George Cathcart_; _Kinglake_.

_Italian Wars_ (1848–1870); _Radetzky_; _Charles Albert_ of Sardinia

(Vol. 5, p. 938); _Durando_; _Pepe_; _Victor Emmanuel_; _Pelissier_;

_Canrobert_; _La Marmora_; _Napoleon III_; _Forey_; _MacMahon_;

_Bazaine_; _Wimpffen_; _Benedek_; _Niel_; _Custozza_; _Cialdini_.

_American Civil War_; _Bull Run_; _McDowell_; _Beauregard_; _J. E.

Johnston_; _R. E. Lee_; _Rosecrans_; _Lexington, Mo._; _Fremont_;

_Nathaniel Lyon_; _F. P. Blair, Jr._; _Pope_; _Burnside_; _B. F.

Butler_; _McClellan_; _A. S. Johnston_; _G. H. Thomas_; _U. S. Grant_;

_C. F. Smith_; _Lew Wallace_; _McClernand_; _Halleck_; _O. M.

Mitchel_; _Shiloh_; _N. P. Banks_; _T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson_;

_Shenandoah_; _Fair Oaks_; _Seven Days_; _A. P. Hill_; _D. H. Hill_;

_J. E. B. Stuart_; _Braxton Bragg_; _Longstreet_; _Bull Run (second

battle)_; _Ewell_; _Sigel_; _Hooker_; _Kearny_; _Fitz-John Porter_;

_Antietam_; _E. V. Sumner_; _Hood_; _Burnside_; _Van Dorn_;

_Fredericksburg_; _W. B. Franklin_; _John F. Reynolds_; _D. N. Couch_;

_Stone River_; _Hardee_; _A. McD. McCook_; _T. L. Crittenden_; _G. H.

Thomas_; _J. C. Breckinridge_; _McPherson_; _Chancellorsville_; _T. F.

Meagher_; _Meade_; _Gettysburg_; _O. O. Howard_; _Doubleday_; _Early_;

_Hancock_; _Sickles_; _Vicksburg_; _J. H. Morgan_; _Chickamauga_; _N.

B. Forrest_; _Chattanooga_; _Sheridan_; _Wilderness_ (4 diagrams);

_Fitz-Hugh Lee_; _J. H. Wilson_; _G. K. Warren_; _John Sedgwick_;

_Merritt_; _R. H. Anderson_; _Spottsylvania_; _Cold Harbor_;

_Petersburg_; _Shenandoah Valley_; _Cedar Creek_; _W. T. Sherman_;

_Marietta_; _Atlanta_; _Slocum_; _Schofield_; _Joseph Wheeler_; _J. A.

Logan_; _Nashville_; _Richmond_; _Appomatox Court-House_; _Durham, N.

C._

_Seven Weeks’ War_ (with 2 diagrams): _William I_ (of Germany);

_Moltke_; _Benedek_; _Frederick III_ (of Germany); _Frederick Charles_

(of Prussia; Vol. 11, p. 61); _Steinmetz_; _Blumenthal_;

_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen_ (Vol. 13, p. 573b); _Goeben_; and see _Italian

Wars_ above.

_Franco-German War_; _Napoleon III_; _Niel_; _Moltke_; _William I_ (of

Germany); _Steinmetz_; _Frossard_; _MacMahon_; _Wörth_ (with plan);

_Bazaine_; _Metz_ (2 plans); _Alvensleben_; _Canrobert_; _Bourbaki_;

_Leboeuf_; _Manteuffel_; _Caprivi_; _Prince Frederick Charles_;

_Sedan_ (with plan); _Vinoy_; _Wimpffen_; _Gallifet_; _Werder_;

_Gambetta_; _Freycinet_; _Aurelle de Paladines_; _Orleans_;

_Bourbaki_; _Le Mans_; _Chanzy_; _Faidherbe_; _Belfort_; _Clinchant_;

_Paris_.

_Servo-Bulgarian War_; _Alexander of Bulgaria_ (Vol. 1, p. 544);

_Milan of Servia_.

_Greco-Turkish War_; _Edhem Pasha_.

_Spanish-American War_; _Joseph Wheeler_; _F. V. Greene_; _Roosevelt_;

_Miles_.

_Transvaal_ (Vol. 27, pp. 203 sqq. for Boer War of 1899–1902);

_Kruger_; _Cronje_; _P. J. Joubert_; _Sir George White_; _Buller_;

_Lord Roberts_; _Lord Kitchener_; _J. H. De la Rey_; _Christian

DeWet_; _Louis Botha_.

_Russo-Japanese War_ (with 4 diagrams); _Kuroki_; _Kuropatkin_;

_Inouye_; _Oku_; _Nozu_; _Oyama_.

[Sidenote: A Military Encyclopaedia]

The military student will see from what has already been said that the

Britannica is not merely a general work of reference but a valuable aid

in the study of military history, biography, theory, practice and

phraseology. The following alphabetical list names only the chief of the

articles in the Britannica which make it a military cyclopaedia. As has

been noticed above, many articles are special treatises in themselves

dealing with many related topics, and—for instance—articles on wars or

campaigns contain elaborate descriptions of separate battles. Many

topics are treated in the Britannica, even if they are not in the

following list, and their whereabouts may be readily learned by turning

to the Index volume.

Abatis

Accoutrement

Acinaces

Adjutant

Adjutant-general

Adye, Sir John Miller

Aelian (Aelianus Tacticus)

Aemilius, Paulus

Aeneas Tacticus

Aeronautics

Agincourt, Battle of

Aide-de-camp

Albert, Charles, of Sardinia

Alcibiades

Alexander

Alexander the Great

Alexander, William

Alexander of Bulgaria

Alexandria

Alignment

Allan, Ethan

Alma

Alva

Alvensleben

Ambush

Ammunition

American Civil War

American War of 1812

American War of Independence

Amherst

Anderson, R. H.

Anglesey

Antietam

Antonius (Mark Antony)

Antwerp

Archery

Argyll, 8th Earl

Armet

Arms and Armour

Army

Army Corps

Army Signalling

Arnold, Benedict

Arquebus

Arrian

Arsenal

Artillery

Asclepiodotus

Aspern-Essling

Assegai

Atlanta

Augereau

Augsburg, War of the League of

Augustus, Frederick, Duke of York

Aurelle de Paladines

Austerlitz

Austrian Succession, War of the

Aventail or Avantaille

Bagration

Bailey

Baird, Sir David

Balaklava

Baldwin I

Ballistics

Bandolier

Banér

Banks, N. P.

Bannockburn

Barbette

Barclay de Tolly

Barracks

Barricade

Basinet

Bastion

Batta

Battalion

Battering Ram

Battle

Bautzen

Bayonet

Bazaine

Bayard (the Chevalier)

Beauharnais

Beauregard

Bedford, 1st Duke of

Belfort

Bellegarde

Belle-Isle

Benedek

Bennigsen, Count von

Bennington

Beresford, W. C.

Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar

Berthier

Berwick

Bivouac

Blair, F. P., Jr.

Blenheim

Blockhouse

Blücher

Blumenthal

Blunderbuss

Bomb

Bombardier

Bombardment

Bonaparte, Jerome

Borodino

Bosquet

Botha

Boufflers, Duc de

Boulevard

Bourbaki

Bouvines

Bragg, Braxton

Brandywine

Brasidas

Breckinridge, J. C.

Breitenfeld

Brevet

Brialmont, H. A.

Brigade

Brigandine

Benedetto Brin

Bronsart von Schellendorf, Paul

Brown, Sir George

Brown, Jacob

Brown Bess

Browne, Count von

Bruce, Robert

Bullet

Buller

Bull Run

Bull Run (second battle)

Bülow, Dietrich Heinrich

Bunker Hill

Burgonet, or Burganet

Burgoyne

Burnside

Busby

Butler, B. F.

Cadet

Cadre

Caesar

Calais

Caliver

Caltrop

Camden

Camp

Campaign

Canadian Forces

Cannac

Cannon

Canrobert

Canteen

Cantonment

Capitulation

Caponier

Caprivi

Captain

Carabiniers

Carbine

Cardigan

Carnot, L. N. M.

Carronade

Carthage

Cartridge

Carrington, H. B.

Casemate

Case-Shot

Cashier

Castle

Catapult

Cathcart, Sir George

Catinat

Caudine Forks

Cavalry

Cedar Creek, Va.

Chaeroneia

Chancellorsville

Chanzy

Chaplain

Charlemagne

Charles, Archduke of Austria

Charles I (of England)

Charles XIV (Bernadotte)

Charles Martel

Charleston, S. C.

Chassepot

Chattanooga, Tenn.

Chesney, C. C.

Chesney, Sir G. T.

Chevaux-de-frise

Church, Sir Richard

Chickamauga Creek

Cialdini

Circumvallation, Lines of

Clark, George Rogers

Clausel

Clausewitz, Karl von

Claymore

Cleon

Clerfayt

Clinchant

Clinton, Sir Henry

Clive

Coast Defence

Coastguard

Coehoorn

Cold Harbor

Coligny

Colonel

Colours, Military

Colour-sergeant

Commander

Commandeer

Commando

Commissariat

Concord

Condé

Condottiere

Conscription

Conti

Coraés

Cordite

Cormontaingne, Louis de

Cornwallis

Corporal

Corps

Couch, D. N.

Counterscarp

Countersign

Court Marshal

Cox, J. D.

Crécy

Crimean War

Crilias

Crittenden, T. L.

Cromwell, Oliver

Cronje

Crusades

Cuirass

Cuirassiers

Cumberland, Duke of

Custine

Custozza

Cutlass

Dagger

Dannewerk

Darius

Daun

Davout

Dearborn

Defile

Depot

D’Erlon

De la Rey

Devolution, War of

De Wet

Diebitsch

Dirk

Division

Dodge, Theodore A.

Donelson, Fort

Doubleday

Dragoon

Dresden

Du Guesclin, Bertrand

Dumouriez

Dunbar

Dundonald

Dunes

Dunois, Count of

Dupont de l’Etang

Düppel

Durando

Dutch Wars

Early

Echelon

Edgehill

Edhem Pasha

Edward (the Black Prince)

Edward III

Edward IV

Emmanuel Philibert

Emmanuel, Victor

Enceinte

Enfilade

Engineers, Military

Ensign

Epaminondas

Epaulette

Essex

Eugene of Savoy

Eutawville

Ewell

Exelmans

Explosives

Eylau

Fabius (Cunctator)

Faidherbe

Fairfax of Cameron

Fair Oaks, Va.

Farnese (Duke of Parma)

Fascine

Ferdinand (of Brunswick)

Filibuster

Finck

Fleetwood, Charles

Fleurus

Flodden

Flying

Flying Column

Foix, Gaston de

Folard, Jean Charles

Fontenoy

Forey

Forlorn Hope

Forrest, N. B.

Fortification and Siegecraft

Foy

Francis I (of France)

Franco-German War

Franklin, W. B.

Frederick II

Frederick III (of Germany)

Frederick V

Frederick Charles (of Prussia)

Frederick Henry

Frederick the Great

Frederick William of Brandenburg

Fredericksburg, Va.

Freiburg im Breisgau

Fremont, J. C.

French Revolutionary Wars

Freycinet

Friedland

Frigate

Fronde

Frossard

Fugleman

Fusilier

Gabion

Gage, Thomas

Gallas

Galliffet

Gambetta

Garrison

Gates, Horatio

Gauntlet

General

George II of England

Gerard

Germantown

Gettysburg

Gingall or Jingal

Glacis

Gneisenau

Godfrey of Bouillon

Goeben

Gorchakov

Gorget

Goring

Gouvion St. Cyr

Granby

Grand Alliance, War of the

Grant, U. S.

Grape

Great Rebellion

Greco-Turkish War

Greek Fire

Greek Independence, War of

Greene, F. V.

Greene, Nathanael

Grenade

Grenadier

Grenville, Sir Bevil

Gribeauval

Grouchy

Guards and Household Troops

Guardship

Guibert, Comte de

Guichard, Karl Gottlieb

Gun

Guncotton

Gunner

Gunpowder

Gun-Room

Gustavus Adolphus

Halbert

Halleck, H. W.

Hamley, Sir Edward

Hancock

Hannibal

Hanno

Hardee

Harper’s Ferry, W. Va.

Harrison, Thomas

Hasdrubal

Hastings

Haversack

Heliograph

Helmet

Henderson, G. F. R.

Henry V (of England)

Henry VI (Roman Emperor)

Herodotus

Herrings, Battle of the

Hess

Hill, A. P.

Hill, D. H.

Hill, Lord Rowland

Hohenfriedberg

Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen

Holster

Hood

Hooker

Hopton, Baron

Hostage

Hotham, John

Howard, O. O.

Howe, William

Howitzer

Hull, William

Hundred Years’ War

Hussar

Infantry

Inkerman

Inouye

Isly

Italian Wars

Jackson, Andrew

Jackson, T. J. (“Stonewall”)

James IV (of Scotland)

Japan, _Army_

Jemappes

Joan of Arc

John of Bohemia

John II of France

Johnston, A. S.

Johnston, J. E.

Jomini, Baron A. H.

Joubert, P. J.

Jourdan

Jugurtha

Junot

Kalb

Kalckreuth

Kearny

Keith, F. E. J.

Kellermann

Khaki

Khevenhüller, L. A.

Kinglake

King’s Mountain

Kitchener, Lord

Kite

Kléber

Knobkerrie

Knox, Henry

Kray von Krajova

Kriegspiel

Kruger

Kunersdorf

Kuroki

Kuropatkin

Kutusov

Laager

Lafayette

Lally, Comte de

Lambert, John

La Marmora

Lancaster, House of

Lance

Landsknecht

Landsturm

Landwehr

Langlois, H.

Lannes

Lasalle

Lauriston

Leboeuf

Lee, Fitz-Hugh

Lee, Henry

Lee, R. E.

Lefebvre-Desnoëttes

Legion

Leipzig

Le Mans

Leonidas

Leuthen

Leven

Lexington

Ligonier

Linstock

Logan, J. A.

Long Island, N. Y.

Longstreet

Lorraine, Charles of

Loudon

Louis IX (of France)

Louis XIV

Louvois

Lützen

Luxembourg

Luxembourg, Duke of

Lord Lynedoch

Lyon, Nathaniel

McClellan

McClernand

McCook, A. McD.

Macdonald

McDowell

McPherson

Macedon

Machine Gun

MacMahon

Mago

Major

Malleson, George Bruce

Malplaquet

Mameluke

Manchester, 2d Earl of

Military Manoeuvres

Mansfeld

Manteuffel

Mantineia

Marathon

Marceau

March

Marengo

Marietta, Ga.

Marignan

Marion, Francis

Marius

Marlborough

Marmont

Marston Moor

Martello Tower

Martial Law

Martinet

Masséna

Massenbach

Massinissa

Matross

Maurice of Nassau

Mavrocordato

Maximilian I (of Bavaria)

Meade

Meagher, T. F.

Menshikov

Mercenary

Mercy

Merritt

Metz

Meuse Line

Milan of Servia

Miles

Military Law

Militia

Miltiades

Minden

Minute Men

Mitchel, O. M.

Moat

Moltke

Moncey

Monmouth

Montalembert

Montcalm

Montecucculi

Montgomery, Richard

Montmorency (constable)

Montrose

Moore, Sir John

Moreau

Morgan, Daniel

Morgan, J. H.

Morion

Mortier

Moselle Line

Moultrie, William

Mounted Infantry

Murat

Musket

Muster

Mutiny

Napier, Sir William

Napoleon

Napoleonic Campaigns

Napoleon III

Naseby

Nashville

Navarro

Needle-gun

Neerwinden

Newark, Lord

Newcastle, Duke of

New Orleans

Ney

Niel

Nitro-glycerine

Noailles

Nördlingen

Norfolk, 3rd Duke

Nozu

O’Donnell, H. J.

Officers

Oku

Olynthus

Onosander

Ordnance

Orleans

Osman

Oudenarde

Oudinot

Oyama

Pajol

Palafox y Melzi

Panoply

Parade

Parados

Parallels

Paris

Parole

Partisan

Paskevich

Pasley, Sir C. W.

Patrol

Pavis, or Pavise

Pelissier

Peloponnesian War

Peninsular War

Pericles

Perseus

Pescara

Petard

Peterborough

Petersburg Campaign

Petronel

Petty-Officer

Phalanx

Philip II (of Macedon)

Philip II (of France)

Philip VI

Piccolomini

Pichegru

Pickens, Andrew

Picket

Picton

Pigeon Post

Pike

Pistol

Platoon

Pneumatic Gun

Poitiers

Polish Succession, War of the

Polyaenus

Pompey

Poniard

Pontoon

Pope

Porter, Fitz-John

Press Gang

Propellants

Punic Wars

Purser

Putnam, Israel

Putnam, Rufus

Pylos

Pyrrhus

Quadrilateral

Quiver

Radetzky

Raglan

Ramillies

Range-finder, Telemeter or Position-finder

Rapier

Rapparee

Ravenna

Raymund of Toulouse

Razzia

Reconnaissance

Redan

Redoubt

Regiment

Retrenchment

Réveillé

Reynolds, John F.

Richard I (of England)

Ricochet

Richmond

Rifle

Roberts, Lord

Rocket

Rohan, duc de

Roosevelt

Ropes, J. C.

Rosecrans

Roses, Wars of the

Rossbach

Rupert, Prince

Russo-Japanese War

Russo-Turkish Wars

Rüstow, Friedrich W.

Ruvigny

Sackville, 1st Viscount

Saint Arnaud

St. Quentin

Salade, Sallet or Salet

Saladin

Salamanca

Salamis

Saratoga, Battles of

Saxe, Comte de (marshal)

Scabbard

Scarlett

Scharnhorst

Schiavone

Schofield

Schwarzenberg

Schwerin, Count von

Scimitar

Scipio Aemilianus

Scipio Africanus

Scout

Sebastiani

Seckendorf

Sedan

Sedgwick, John

Senarmont

Sentinel or Sentry

Sepoy

Serjeant

Sertorius

Servo-Bulgarian War

Sérurier

Seven Days’ Battle

Seven Weeks’ War

Seven Years’ War

Seydlitz

Shenandoah Valley Campaign

Sheridan

Sherman, W. T.

Shield

Shiloh

Shipka Pass

Sickles

Siege

Sigel

Sights

Signal

Silesian Wars

Sirdar

Skippon

Skobelev

Sling

Slocum

Smith, C. F.

Smith, Sir W. Sidney

Soubise

Souham

Soult

Sowar

Spahis

Spanish-American War

Spanish Succession, War of The

Spear

Spontoon

Spottsylvania

Spur

Spy

Squadron

Staff, military

Standard, Battle of

Stark, John

Steenkirk

Steinmetz

Stiletto

Stone River

Stony Point

Strategy

Strelitz

Stuart, J. E. B.

Suchet

Sulla

Sullivan, John

Sumner, E. V.

Sumter, Thomas

Supply and Transport (Military)

Sutler

Suvarov

Swold

Sword

Tactics

Talavera de la Reina

Target

Tarleton

Tattoo

Thermopylae

Thielmann

Thirty Years’ War

Thomas, G. H.

Thucydides

Ticonderoga, N. Y.

Tilly

Todleben

Torstensson

Towton

Transvaal

Trasimene

Traun

Traverse

Trébuchet

Trenton and Princeton

Troop

Turenne

Ulan

Uniforms

Vandamme

Van Dorn

Vauban

Vedette

Vegetius

Vendée

Vendôme

Verdun

Verdy du Vernois

Veteran

Vexillum

Vicksburg

Victor-Perrin

Villars

Villeroi

Vinoy

Visor

Vitoria

Volunteers

Wagram

Wallace, Lewis

Waller, Sir William

Wallenstein

Ward Room

War Game

Warrant Officer

Warren, G. K.

Warren, Joseph

Warwick, Earl of

Washington, George

Waterloo Campaign

Wattignies

Wayne, Anthony

Weapon

Wellington

Werder

Wheeler, Joseph

White, Sir George

Wilderness, Va.

Wilkinson, James

William the Silent

William I (of England)

William III (of England)

William I (of Germany)

Wilson, J. H.

Wimpffen

Wittgenstein

Wolfe

Wood, Sir H. E.

Worth

Wrangel

Wrede

Xenophon

Yataghan

Yeomanry

Yorck von Wartenburg

Yorktown, Va.

Ypsilanti

Zieten

Zouave

CHAPTER XXX

FOR NAVAL OFFICERS

The scope of a naval officer’s professional interests is so broad that

the present chapter of this Guide could not, without duplicating other

chapters, indicate all the aspects of the Britannica with which he is

directly concerned. And he will find that his use of the Britannica is

simplified by the subdivisions about to be specified, which virtually

present his subjects under four different heads. Of course he may be

called upon, in the exercise of his duties, simultaneously to think and

to act in all his capacities, to concentrate upon the swift solution of

one problem his knowledge of warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation and

of mechanical engineering; but his reading upon these topics naturally

divides itself into these four parts.

[Sidenote: Three Other Relevant Chapters]

Inasmuch as army officers, even when they are at sea, are passengers,

and, save in relation to the discipline of their troops, have nothing to

do with the ship’s management, it could not be assumed that the present

chapter would appeal to them. But naval officers, when co-operating in a

land expedition, need to employ every kind of knowledge that is of use

to army officers, and as the chapter _For Army Officers_ in this Guide

would therefore in any case be read by them, it has seemed convenient to

include in it the description of those articles in the Britannica which

deal with war in general.

The chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_ in this Guide is also one to

which the naval officer should refer, as it deals with ships and

navigation in general. The articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING mentioned in

that chapter are (except for the historical section of the former) by

Sir Philip Watts, designer of the British “Dreadnoughts” and

“Super-Dreadnoughts;” and the article SHIPPING is by Douglas Owen, of

the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth. Obviously these and many

other articles described in that chapter are of the greatest importance

to naval officers.

The chapter _For Engineers_ in this Guide describes the articles dealing

with steam engines, internal combustion engines, electrical machinery

and fuels of all kinds; and it would be a waste of space to repeat in

this chapter a summary of the Britannica treatment of these subjects.

All three of the chapters mentioned should therefore be treated as

forming constituent parts of the general plan of this present chapter,

in which the naval officer will find no repetition of their contents.

[Sidenote: The Key Article]

The article to which he will naturally first turn is NAVY AND NAVIES

(Vol. 19, p. 299), by David Hannay, author of _A Short History of the

Royal Navy_. This article is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide in

length. It contains:

_Naval Personnel._

Sketches of the _Administrative History of navies_: _Athenian_;

_Roman_; _Byzantine_; _Medieval_; _British_, with special attention to

the period since the Restoration, and the reforms under James II when

Samuel Pepys was secretary;

_French_—modern navy dating from the time of Richelieu;

_Spanish_—a great navy without an organization before the 18th

century;

_Dutch_—good seamen and well-fed, led by able admirals, but

unorganized, and unimportant after the 17th century;

_United States_—the first great extra-European power on the sea;

_Russian_—dating from the reign of Peter the Great, when it was

organized and led by foreigners.

_The Balance of Navies in History_: influence of sea-power—“when

Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain was not merely the first in

the world; it was the only powerful navy in existence.” _Modern

Rivalry_ between Italy and Germany (1871), United States (1890),

Japan; England and the Dual Alliance—“naval scares” since 1874;

British Naval Defence Act of 1889; Russia’s navy crushed (1904); new

navies rivalling Great Britain and France,—Italy, Germany, United

States, Japan.

_Latest developments_: “Dreadnoughts”; Building Programmes.

_Bibliography_ (about 1800 words).

_Naval Strategy and Tactics_.

_Historical evolution_: inter-relation of the ship’s capacity and

armament.

_Early history_: ramming demanded oars for propulsion; small warships,

large fighting crews,—no blockade, short cruises;

_Greek and Roman methods_: boarding introduced by Romans; “bearding,”

that is, fortifying with iron bands across the bows, an early form of

armor plate.

_Sailing ships_: ramming discarded; “line ahead” formation displaces

“line abreast”; principles of fighting tactics—order at beginning to

be kept throughout, thus no advantage taken of enemy’s disorder;

Clerk’s theories (1790–97)—not maximum safety but immediate mêlée the

_desideratum_; Suffren, Rodney and Howe and their disregard of

accepted tactics.

_Improved shipbuilding and modern times_: New problems—steam

propulsion, its gain in speed, but its dependence on fuel; fleet in

being; risk of transporting troops while enemy is unbeaten; ramming

and pell-mell battles forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as check to

torpedoes; failure of attempts to “bottle up” harbours; gun-fire still

the great factor; position; speed; submarines still an unknown factor.

_Bibliography_.

[Sidenote: Naval Administration]

The first part of this article NAVY AND NAVIES should be supplemented by

the article ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1, p. 195), by Admiral Sir R.

Vesey Hamilton, and, for the United States, the late Admiral W. T.

Sampson. The American part of this article describes the divisions and

the working of the Navy Department, its bureaus, judge advocate-general,

office of naval intelligence, boards etc.; and there is additional

information on the subject in such articles as DOCKYARDS, and UNITED

STATES NAVAL ACADEMY.

For the legal side of naval administration the reader should study the

article ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION (Vol. 1, p. 205), by Sir Walter

Phillimore, former president of the International Law Association (and

author of the Britannica article ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF), and, for the

United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and also the general articles

INTERNATIONAL LAW (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of

_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_, and INTERNATIONAL

LAW, PRIVATE (Vol. 14, p. 701), by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor

of international law, Cambridge University, and member for the United

Kingdom of the International (Hague) Court of Arbitration; as well as

such special articles as SEARCH (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas

Barclay, and SEA LAWS (Vol. 24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss.

[Sidenote: Policy, Strategy, Tactics]

It has already been noticed that the closing part of the article NAVY

AND NAVIES dealt with strategy and tactics in a general way. This

subject is treated in fuller detail by Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge,

G.C.B. (former Director of Naval Intelligence, British Navy, author of

_Sea-Power and other Studies_) in two articles SEA-POWER (Vol. 24, p.

548) and SEA, COMMAND OF THE (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these articles

will be of great value and interest to the naval officer as a summary

and criticism of the theories of Captain A. T. Mahan and Vice-Admiral P.

H. Colomb; and this will be made evident by the brief outline of the two

articles which follows.

Article, SEA-POWER—Use of the term to mean (1) a state pre-eminently

strong at sea; and (2)—as in this article—the various factors in a

state’s naval strength. Thucydides as a forerunner of Mahan; he makes

Pericles in comparing Athenian resources with those of her enemies

comment on the importance of “sea-power.”

The meaning of sea-power can only be learned historically. Although

there have been more land-wars, “the course of history has been

profoundly changed more often by contests on the water.” Salamis saved

Greece and held back Oriental invasion. The loss of the Peloponnesian

War by Athens was due to her weakening sea-power. The First Punic War,

Roman rather than Carthaginian control of the Mediterranean, was won

by Roman naval predominance. Mahommedan conquest spread west in Africa

only with the creation of a navy. The crusades could not have

continued had not Mahommedan naval power sunk as the Venetian, Pisan,

and Genoese grew. The defeat of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a

right to perform the ceremony of “wedding the sea” with a ring as

token of “perpetual sway.” Lepanto (1571) the end of Turkish

sea-power.

Spanish and Portuguese sea-power crushed by English growth and the

loss of the Armada. Early English naval history: the importance of the

battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance of standing navies. The New World

and its influence on sea-power. The sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden

rise; its basis in foreign trade; the Dutch wars with England resulted

in England’s becoming the first great naval power, but did not crush

the United Provinces because of their sea-power. Torrington and the

“Fleet in Being” in 1690. Change in naval operations in 17th

century—the scene thereafter in the enemy’s waters, not near the coast

of England.

The 18th century. Rise of Russia’s sea-power—an artificial creation.

Seven Years’ War and its gains to Great Britain. War of American

Independence: British mistakes—the enemy’s coast _not_ considered the

frontier. Wars of the French Revolution and Empire: Great Britain’s

advantage not in organization, discipline or “science,” but in

sea-experience.

The War of 1812. “The British had now to meet the _élite_ of one of

the finest communities of seamen ever known.... In any future war

British sea-power, great as it may be, should not receive shocks like

those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812.”

Later Manifestations of Sea-Power. American Civil War—“By dominating

the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and, by the power

they possessed of moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed

the defence, and facilitated the occupation of important points.”

Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78—Turkish control of Black Sea forced

Russians to invade by land through the difficult Balkans. Chilean

Civil War of 1891—an army defeated by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of

1894–95—Japanese navy in transport work and in crushing last

resistance. Spanish-American War: “Spaniards were defeated by the

superiority of the American sea-power.”

Article, SEA, COMMAND OF THE—Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea; Command

different from Sovereignty or Dominion.

Attempts to gain Command: Dutch Wars.

Strategic Command or Control—largely the power of carrying out

considerable over-sea expeditions at will. Seeking the enemy’s fleet.

Temporary command in smaller operations.

[Sidenote: Special Historical Articles]

As for the army officer, so the Britannica has for the naval officer

many separate articles on wars, campaigns, battles, generals,

commanders. The following list of articles will serve as a guide to a

course of reading constituting a history of naval warfare, furnishing

the concrete separate facts on which are based the articles already

described.

_Ancient History._

_Greece_: articles _Salamis_, _Themistocles_, _Xerxes I_,

_Peloponnesian War_, _Pericles_.

_Rome_: articles _Punic Wars_, _Carthage_, _Pompey_, _Actium_.

_Medieval History._

_Crusades_; _Swold_; _Dover, Battle of_; _Sluys, Battle of_;

_Espagnols sur Mer_ (and article _Edward III_), _Chioggia_ (and

articles _Venice_ and _Genoa_).

_16th Century._

_Lepanto_ (and article _Don John of Austria_).

_Armada_ (and articles on _Howard_, _Hawkins_, _Drake_, _Frobisher_,

_Raleigh_, _Richard Grenville_, and the other heroes of this first

bright glow of England’s naval glory).

_The Era of Sailing Vessels._

_Dutch Wars_ (and articles _Tromp_, _Robert Blake_, _Ayscue_, _De

Ruyter_, _Cornelius De Witt_, _William Penn_, _George Monk_, _Sir John

Lawson_, _James II_, _Prince Rupert_, _First Earl of Sandwich_,

_Abraham Duquesne_).

_Grand Alliance, Naval Operations_ (and articles _Earl of Torrington_,

and _Beachy Head, Battle of_; _La Hogue_, _Earl of Oxford_ [Edward

Russell] and _Tourville_).

_Spanish Succession, Naval Operations_ (and _Château-Renault_,

_Benbow_, _Rooke_, _Cloudesley Shovel_, _Duguay-Trouin_, _Forbin_).

_Austrian Succession, Naval Operations_ (and the articles _Edward

Vernon_, _Lord Anson_, _Toulon, Battle of_, and _Thomas Mathews_,

marking the official sanction in England of an absurd formal system of

tactics).

_Seven Years’ War, Naval Operations_ (and _Boscawen_, _Byng_, _Hawke_,

_Pocock_, _Quiberon_).

_American War of Independence, Naval Operations_ (and _Esek Hopkins_,

_John Paul Jones_, _Comte d’Estaing_, _Suffren St. Tropez_, _Thomas

Truxtun_, _Lord Howe_, _John Byron_, _Hotham_, _Hyde Parker_,

_Rodney_, _Guichen_, _Comte de Grasse_).

_French Revolutionary Wars, Naval Operations_ (and _First of June,

Battle of_, _Howe_, _Villaret de Joyeuse_, _Lord Bridport_, _Lord

Hood_, _Earl of St. Vincent_ [John Jervis], _St. Vincent, Battle of_,

_Lord Keith_, _Lord Duncan_, _Nile_, _Nelson_, _Sir Thomas

Troubridge_).

_Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Operations_ (and _Baron de Saumarez_,

_Copenhagen, Battle of_, _Sir Hyde Parker_, _Sir Robert Calder_,

_Villeneuve_, _Trafalgar_, _Lord Collingwood_).

_American War of_ 1812 (and _John Rodgers_, _Isaac Hull_, _William

Bainbridge_, _Stephen Decatur_, _David Porter_, _Oliver Hazard Perry_,

_Sir Philip Broke_, _Thomas Macdonough_).

And _Lissa_ (1811), closely resembling Trafalgar, and _Navarino_,

decisive for Greek Independence.

_The Era of Steam._

_American Civil War_ (and _Hampton Roads_, _Andrew Hull Foote_, _New

Madrid_, _D. G. Farragut_, _D. D. Porter_, _W. B. Cushing_).

_Chile-Peruvian War._

_Chilean Civil War._

_Chino-Japanese War_ (and see _Ito_).

_Spanish-American War_ (and see the articles _W. T. Sampson_, _W. S.

Schley_, _George Dewey_, _Pascual Cervera y Topete Cervera_).

_Russo-Japanese War_ (and _Togo_, _Dogger Bank_, _Tsushima_).

[Sidenote: Armaments]

The subject of _armaments_ is treated in the articles SHIP and

SHIPBUILDING (see chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_), ARMOUR

PLATES, with illustrations, by Major William Egerton Edwards, late

lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, ORDNANCE,

AMMUNITION, TORPEDO, etc.

The following is an alphabetical list of articles in the Britannica of

especial interest to naval officers or other students of naval warfare.

Actium

Admiral

Admiralty Administration

Admiralty Jurisdiction

American Civil War

American War of Independence

American War of 1812

Ammunition

Anson, Lord

Armada

Armour Plates

Arms and Armour

Ayscue

Bainbridge, William

Beachy Head

Benbow

Beresford

Blake, Robert

Boscawen

Bridport, Lord

Broke, Sir Philip

Byng

Byron, John

Calder, Sir Robert

Camperdown

Carthage

Casemate

Case-shot

Cervera

Château-Renault

Chile-Peruvian War

Chilean Civil War

Chino-Japanese War

Chioggia

Coaling Stations

Coast Defence

Coast Guard

Codrington

Coligny

Collingwood, Lord

Colomb

Commodore

Copenhagen, Battle of

Crusades

Cushing, W. B.

Decatur, Stephen

d’Estaing

De Ruyter

De Saumarez, Baron

Dewey, George

De Witt, Cornelius

Dockyards

Dogger Bank

Dover, Battle of (1217)

Drake

Duguay-Trouin

Duilius

Duncan, Lord

Duquesne, Abraham

Dutch Wars

Edward III

Espagnols sur Mer

Farragut, D. G.

Fireship

First of June

Flagship

Fleet

Flying Column

Foote, Andrew Hull

Forbin

French Revolutionary Wars

Frigate

Frobisher

Genoa

Grand Alliance

Grasse, Comte de

Grenville, Richard

Greek Independence

Guardship Perry,

Guichen

Hampton Roads

Hawke

Hawkins

Hood, Lord

Hopkins, Esek

Hotham

Howard

Howe, Lord

Hull, Isaac

International Law

James II

Jones, John Paul

Keith, Lord

La Hogue

Lawson, Sir John

Lepanto

Liner

Lissa (1811, 1866)

Macdonough, Thomas

Madrid, New

Mahan

Marines

Mathews, Thomas

Meloria

Miaoulis

Midshipman

Monk, George

Napoleonic Campaigns

Nauarchia

Naucrary

Naval Operations

Navarino

Navy and Navies

Nelson

Nile, Battle of the

Ordnance

Oxford, Earl of

Parker, Hyde

Parker, Sir Hyde

Peloponnesian War

Penn, William

Pepys

Pericles

Perry, Oliver Hazard

Piracy

Pocock

Pompey

Porter, David

Porter, D. D.

Privateer

Punic Wars

Quiberon, Battle of

Raleigh

Range-finder

Rodgers, John

Rodney

Rooke

Rupert, Prince

Russo-Japanese War

Saint-Bon

Saint Vincent

Saints, Battle of the

Salamis

Sampson, W. T.

Sandwich, 1st Earl of

Schley, W. S.

Sea, Command of the

Sea Laws

Seamanship

Sea-Power

Seven Years’ War

Ship, Shipbuilding

Shovel, Cloudesley

Sluys

Spanish-American War

Spanish Succession

Squadron

Submarine Mines

Suffren, St. Tropez

Swold

Themistocles

Togo

Torpedo

Torrington

Toulon, Battle of

Tourville

Trafalgar

Tromp

Troubridge, Sir Thomas

Truxtun, Thomas

Tsushima

U. S. Naval Academy

Venice

Vernon, Edward

Villaret de Joyeuse

Villeneuve

Xerxes I

PART II

COURSES OF EDUCATIONAL READING TO SUPPLEMENT OR TAKE THE PLACE OF SCHOOL

OR UNIVERSITY STUDIES

CHAPTER XXXI

MUSIC

The general articles on music in the Encyclopaedia Britannica provide an

illuminative discussion of broad artistic principles which cannot fail

to stimulate the musical sense and perception of the professional or the

amateur. The technical and critical treatment of the subject was

directed by Donald F. Tovey, composer, pianist, and author of _Essays in

Musical Analysis_; and no one could be better fitted for the work of

organizing this department of the Britannica. He was assisted by W. H.

Hadow, the well-known musical writer and composer, J. A. Fuller

Maitland, musical critic of _The Times_ (London), E. J. Dent, author of

_Alessandro Scarlatti and His Works_, R. H. Legge, principal musical

critic on the _Daily Telegraph_ (London), and others; and the section

treating of musical instruments was organized and contributed by Miss

Kathleen Schlesinger, the greatest living authority on the subject.

In mapping out courses of reading the subject is divided into sections

as follows: (1) Evolution, (2) Theory, (3) Musical Forms, (4) Musical

Instruments.

The article MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 72), by Donald Tovey, which contains a

masterly account of the development of the art from the earliest time

down to the present day, provides the reader with just that general

survey which enables him to see the whole picture in perspective. This

he will naturally turn to first, but to fill out the picture there are a

number of other articles which he will wish to read. In the following

scheme the evolution of the art has been sketched in skeleton, so that

the student may have before him a guide to the study of any period in

which he is specially interested. This outline serves to show how very

thoroughly the ground is covered in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica.

(1) EVOLUTION OF MUSIC

_Subject for Reading_ _Article_

_PRE-HARMONIC STAGE_

Primitive Music. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 72).

SONG (Vol. 25, p. 406).

Musical sense first awakened by the DANCE (Vol. 7, p. 795); see also

rhythm of the dance. RHYTHM (Vol. 23, p. 278).

Legendary account of the invention DAVID (Vol. 7, p. 859).

of music by a Judean.

Hebrew music: setting of the PSALMS, BOOK OF (Vol. 22, p. 539

Psalms. and p. 536).

Suggested Jewish origin of some PLAIN SONG (Vol. 21, p. 706).

Gregorian Tunes.

Dawn of modern music in Greece. GREEK LITERATURE (Vol. 12, p. 509).

Connection of music with lyric

poetry. Terpander of Lesbos (660

B.C.) adds 3 strings to the

4–stringed lyre, giving compass

of octave.

Characteristics of Greek music. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 73); see also

Pythagoras (6th century, B.C.) PYTHAGORAS (Vol. 22, p. 699).

fixes the intervals of the

harmonic series and of the

diatonic scale.

The Greek scale shows a latent LYRE (Vol. 17, p. 178); see also

harmonic sense, though octaves ORCHESTRA (Vol. 20, p. 168);

only allowed. AULOS (Vol. 2, p. 917); CITHARA

(Vol. 6, p. 395).

HARMONY (Vol. 13, p. 1).

Pitch in Greek music. PITCH, MUSICAL (Vol. 21, p. 661).

Other primitive systems without CHINA, _Literature_ (Vol. 6, p. 228

influence on modern music. and p. 215).

Chinese adopted Pythagorean system;

a lost art recovered in 3rd

century, A.D.

Indian music—Scale of 22 intervals. SANSKRIT (Vol. 24, p. 181).

Siamese music: 7 tone scale; SIAM (Vol. 25, p. 5).

orchestras perform in unison.

The music of the North American INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (Vol. 14,

Indian. p. 470).

Biographies of musicians of the primitive, non-harmonic, period in the

Britannica are: TERPANDER, 7th century B.C.; PYTHAGORAS, 6th century

B.C.; ARISTOXENUS, 4th century; ALYPIUS, 3rd century B.C.; ARISTIDES,

QUINTILIANUS, 3rd century.

_HARMONIC ORIGINS_

The Greeks found that by doubling the melody at the octave a greater

sonority resulted. It was a great step from this to the discovery that

two separate tunes could be combined which should be satisfying to the

ear. With this discovery modern harmony may be said to have begun.

_Subject_ _Article_

Awakening of the harmonic sense. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 74); HARMONY

(Vol. 13, p. 1).

The Grecian modes modified into the PLAIN SONG (Vol. 21, p. 705); see

ecclesiastical by Ambrose in the also AMBROSE (Vol. 1, p. 798),

4th century. and GREGORY (Vol. 12, p. 567).

Following Hucbald, “beatus Guido GUIDO OF AREZZO (Vol. 12, p. 687);

inventor musicae” in the 11th see also HUCBALD (Vol. 13, p.

century, invents names for the 847).

notes and improves system of

notation.

The Troubadour becomes a learned ADAM DE LA HALE, 13th century (Vol.

musician in the 13th century. 1, p. 171); MACHAUT (Vol. 17, p.

233).

After Dunstable of England and DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN (Vol. 8, p. 103);

Dufay of the Netherlands had see also BINCHOIS, EGIDIUS (Vol.

invented counterpoint comes the 3, p. 948).

first great composer, heralding

the advent of the “Golden Age.”

_THE GOLDEN AGE_

[Sidenote: The First Great Climax]

Composers were not long content with the simple combination of two

tunes. They soon found that three tunes so treated afforded a yet richer

texture, and the extension to the elaborate polyphony of 16th century

choral music was an inevitable step. An elaborate system of

prohibitions, based on the limitations of the human voice, and the

difficulty of attacking certain intervals, shackled the composer at

every turn and formed the basis of theories of counterpoint which

endured almost to our time. Despite the restrictions imposed by their

rules, the structure raised by the great composers of the first half of

the 16th century was of amazing richness and complexity.

_Subject of Reading_ _Article_

The Riot of Choral Polyphony in the MUSIC, _The Golden Age_ (Vol. 19,

16th century. p. 75); see also HARMONY (Vol.

13, p. 2); INSTRUMENTATION,

_Vocal Styles of 16th Century_

(Vol. 14, p. 651).

Musical forms brought to great CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, _Canonic Forms

perfection in this period those and Devices_, _Counterpoint on a

in which texture holds first Canto Fermo_ (Vol. 7, p. 42); see

place. also MASS, _Polyphonic Masses_

(Vol. 17, p. 849); MADRIGAL (Vol.

17, p. 295); MOTET (Vol. 18, p.

905).

Leaders of musical thought in the LASSO, Orlando (Vol. 16, p. 237);

“Golden Age.” TALLIS, T. (Vol. 26, p. 377);

PALESTRINA (Vol. 20, p. 627).

[Sidenote: Composer of the Golden Age]

Composers of the “Golden Age,” following the polyphonic tradition of

the early 16th century, biographies of whom appear in the Britannica,

are: _Netherlandish_: ARCADELT, JACOB, 1514–1556; LASSO, ORLANDO, c.

1530–1594; _German_: FINCK, HERMANN, 1527–1558; ECCARD, JOHANN,

1553–1611; AICHINGER, GREGOR, leader of Reformation church music, c.

1565–1628; _French_: GOUDIMEL, C., c. 1510–1572; _English_: WILBYE,

JOHN, 16th century, famous for his madrigals; MERBECK, JOHN, d. 1585;

BENNETT, JOHN, d.c. 1614; BATESON, T., d. 1630, a composer of

madrigals; TALLIS, T., c. 1515–1585, “father of English cathedral

music”; FARRANT, R., c. 1530–1581; BYRD, WM., 1543–1623; MORLEY, T.,

1557–1603; GIBBONS, ORLANDO, 1583–1625; _Italian_: ANIMUCCIA,

GIOVANNI, c. 1490–1571; ZARLINO, GIOSEFFO, 1517–1590, fixed the

diatonic scale as now accepted; PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA,

1526–1594; BANCHIERE, ADRIANO, c. 1557–1634, fought against monodist

revolt—see below; ANERIO (brothers), c. 1560–1620; ARTUSI, G. M., 16th

century, opposed Monteverdi’s innovations—see below; _Spanish_:

VICTORIA, TOMMASSO L. DA, c. 1540–1613.

_THE FIRST ROMANTIC MOVEMENT_

The last word in polyphony seemed to have been said by such masters as

Orlando Lasso, and Palestrina, and a change into new paths was

inevitable. Moreover, men’s minds were craving something more directly

stimulating than the passionless web of ecclesiastical polyphony, which

was the glory of the 16th century. Freedom was sought from the

conventions of modal counterpoint. The monodist revolt was the result.

_Subject_ _Article_

Revolt against the overelaboration MUSIC, _The Monodic Revolution_

of texture. (Vol. 19, p. 76); HARMONY,

_Modern Harmony_ (Vol. 13, p. 4).

Prominence given to solo part SONG (Vol. 25, p. 406); ARIA (Vol.

rather than to choral effect 2, p. 489).

leads to development of the aria.

The leader in the new paths, the MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (Vol. 18, p.

pioneer of modern harmony. 778).

The first oratorio (1600). ORATORIO (Vol. 20, p. 161); see

also CAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL (Vol.

5, p. 563).

The first opera (1600). OPERA (Vol. 20, p. 121); see also

PERI, JACOPO (Vol. 21, p. 144).

The monodic impulse synchronizes VIOLIN (Vol. 28, p. 103); see also

with the startling development of AMATI (Vol. 1, p. 783); GUARNIERI

the violin family by the Cremona (Vol. 12, p. 660); STRADIVARI

makers. (Vol. 25, p. 977).

[Sidenote: Famous Monodists]

Among distinguished composers of this period and school are:

_English_: BULL, JOHN, c. 1562–1628; FORD, THOMAS, b. 1580; LAWES,

HENRY, 1595–1662; _Italian_: CAVALIERE, E. DEL, c. 1550–1602; PERI,

JACOPO, b. 1561; GABRIELE, GIOVANNI, 1557–c. 1612, early experimenter

in chromatic harmony; CACCINI, GIULIO, 1558–1615; MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO,

1567–1643; ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, c. 1570–1652; FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO,

1583–1644, famous also as a teacher; AGOSTINO, P., 1593–1639; CAVALLI,

F., 1596–1676, popularized opera; CARISSIMI, G., c. 1604–1674,

popularized oratorio; ROSSI, LUIGI DE. All the above have separate

articles assigned to them in the Britannica.

_THE 17th CENTURY AND AFTER_

[Sidenote: The Second Great Climax]

Those who revolted from the traditions of the polyphonic school went, as

was inevitable, too far. A reaction was equally inevitable, for the

language of the new music was unformed and was in danger of being

stereotyped into the emptiest of formulas. The welding of the old and

new ideas was all that was needed to prepare the way for the colossal

achievement of a Bach or a Beethoven. It was a busy period when the

rules of counterpoint were reviewed and revised, when theories of

harmony as a distinct science took shape. But, save for the work of such

men as Purcell, the Englishman (Vol. 22, p. 658), born 100 years before

his time, the 17th century was mainly one of preparation. The next great

climax came in the first half of the 18th century.

_Subject_ _Article_

The renascence of texture, the MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 77); HARMONY

welding of polyphony and monody. (Vol. 13, p. 4).

Publication in 1715 of the famous FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH (Vol. 11, p.

_Gradus ad Parnassum_, the first 375).

complete theory of counterpoint.

The first systematic theory of RAMEAU, J. P. (Vol. 22, p. 874).

harmony published in 1722.

The second great climax in music. MUSIC, _Bach and Handel_ (Vol. 19,

p. 78).

The achievement of Johann Sebastian BACH, J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 124); see

Bach. also CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS (Vol. 7,

p. 41); CONCERTO (Vol. 6, p.

825); OVERTURE (Vol. 20, p. 384);

SUITE (Vol. 26, p. 51); ORATORIO

(Vol. 20, p. 161); CANTATA (Vol.

5, p. 209); MASS, _Lutheran

Masses_ (Vol. 17, p. 850);

VARIATIONS (Vol. 27, p. 912);

INSTRUMENTATION, _Decoration_ and

_Orchestral Schemes_ (Vol. 14, p.

651 and p. 655).

[Sidenote: 17th and 18th Century Composers]

Composers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica

are: _Italian_: CESTI, M. A., c. 1620–1669; COLONNA, GIOVANNI P., c.

1637–1695; PASQUINI, B., 1637–1710; STRADELLA, ALESSANDRO, 1645–1682;

CORELLI, ARCANGELO, 1653–1713, first classic of the violin; STEFFANI,

A., 1653–1728; SCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO, 1659–1725, largely created

language of modern music; PITONI, G. O., 1657–1743; LOTTI, ANTONIO, c.

1667–1740; CLARI, G. C. M., c. 1669–1745; BONONCINI, G. B., c.

1672–1750; ALBINONI, T., c. 1674–1745; ASTORGA, EMANUELE D’,

1681–1736; DURANTE, FRANCESCO, 1684–1755; MARCELLO, B., 1686–1739;

VINCI, LEONARDO, 1690–1730; LEO, LEONARDO, 1694–1744; LOGROSCINO,

NICOLA, c. 1700–1763; PERGOLESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, 1710–1736;

ALBERTI, DOMENICO, c. 1710–1740; _French_: CAMBERT, R., 1628–1677;

LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE, c. 1623–1687, inventor of the classical French

opera style; _English_: LOCKE, MATTHEW, c. 1630–1677; BLOW, JOHN,

1648–1708; PURCELL, HENRY, 1658–1695; CROFT, WILLIAM, 1678–1727;

HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK, 1685–1759; GREENE, MAURICE, 1695–1755;

_German_: BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, 1685–1750; HASSE, JOHANN A.,

1699–1783; EBERLIN, J. E., 1702–1762.

_THE RISE OF THE SONATA_

[Sidenote: The Third Great Climax]

Bach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a

hundred years after his death his influence on the course of musical

development was astonishingly small. Again men sought new channels of

expression and found them in instrumental music. But a structure less

loosely knit than the suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be

adequately stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has

sufficed to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great

composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck,

a great development of orchestral resources, and the rise of the string

quartette in chamber music.

_Subject_ _Article_

The new language: evolution of the MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 79); SONATA,

sonata from the suite. _Sonata Style_ (Vol. 25, p. 394);