with the present and past passive participles in the following two
sentences:--
(1). _Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian
edzinon hejme._
(2). _Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian
edzinon hejme._
(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to
leave his wife at home.
(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been
compelled to leave his wife at home.
194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to
attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative,
if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies
some unexpressed condition.
Example.--_Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere_ = I
should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the
condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to
_estu_, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).
THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).
195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by
adding _-U_ to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the
participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, or _-ONTA_ for the compound forms;
but the latter are very rarely used.
196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the
participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, or _-OTA_.
197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo),
entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness
(konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention
(intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider
application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood,
for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also
desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.
198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a
dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually
introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_; but it must be borne in
mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than
they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is
followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English
either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more
frequently, by the Infinitive.
199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and
when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the
dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb
will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.
Examples.--_Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here. _Donu al mi tiun libron_ =
Give me that book. _Li venu tien ĉi tuj_ = Let him come here at
once. _Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ_ = Let us go to Paris to-morrow. _Do ne
maltrankviligu vin_ (or, _Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu_) _pri la afero_ =
Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. _Ordonu, ke li venu_
= Order him to come (that he come). _Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru_ =
Tell her to go away (that she go away). _Atentu, ke vi ne falu_ =
Take care not to fall (_or_, lest you fall). _Ni ne toleru, ke li
tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni_ = Let us not suffer him in that way
to oppose us (_or_, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that
manner). _Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti_ = Let us take care
that he can damage nothing. _Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu
silenta_ = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be
silent). For other examples see par. 237 (_m_).
200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when
the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative,
implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And
also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when
the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc.
(pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)).
Examples.--_Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron_ = I ordered
him to give me the book. _Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon_ = I
beg you to send me the dog. _Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la
fenestron_ = He did not require me to shut the window. _Mi volas, ke
vi skribu al via frato_ = I wish you to write to your brother. _Estas
necese, ke ni tien iru_ = It is necessary for us to go thither. _Vi
meritas, ke oni pendigu vin_ = You deserve to be hanged (that they
hang you). _Mi bezonas, ke li venu_ = I want him to come (I have need
that he come). _Mi ne volis, ke li venu_ = I did not wish him to come
(that he should come). _Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron_ =
She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the
letter"). _Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon_ = I
invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. _Ili
skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ_ = They wrote to me not to come to-day
(They wrote that I should not come to-day, _or_, They wrote "do not
come to-day").
201. The expression por ke = _in order that_, _to the end that_,
_so that_, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this
expression implies "order."
Examples.--_Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi
kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono_ = In order to be able to pay
(in order that you may be able to pay) this debt it is necessary
for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient large sum of money.
_Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio_
= In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need
to fight with extreme energy. _Por ke oni rekompencu vin,
konvenas, ke vi tion meritu_ = In order that they may reward you, it
is fitting that you merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu
kontenta pri mi_ = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that
you may be satisfied with me). _Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke
mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li_ = Answer me before to-morrow, so
that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. _Mi volas, ke
li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon_ = I wish that he may be ordered
to await my arrival, _or_, I wish him to be ordered to await my
arrival.
201 (_a_). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice
are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give
exactitude to an expression.
Examples.--_Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je
la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze_ = I desire that he be awaiting me in
the station at 2 o'clock to-morrow afternoon. _Estas necese, ke li
estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo_ = It is necessary that he
have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o'clock. _Mi ne volas,
ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu
finonta ĝin_ = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work
when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.
202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we
see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost
always preceded by the conjunction ke = _that_, and that the
English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the
conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in
the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this
infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the
_actor_ of the _first_ verb is also the _actor_ of the _second_.
Examples.--_Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ_ = I wish to see him to-morrow.
_La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon_ = The schoolmaster
desired to reward the boy. _Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras
fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere_ = We shall need to work hard if we
wish to finish the mowing this evening.
THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).
There are three forms of the participle, viz.:--The adjectival in
_-A_, the adverbial in _-E_, and the substantival in _-O_.
203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding
_-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ to the root of the verb, as:--
Present, Skribanta = _Writing_ (lit., _being writing_).
Past, Skribinta = _Having written_.
Future, Skribonta = _About_ (_going_) _to write_.
204. In the passive voice by adding _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_, as:--
Present, Skribata = _Being written_.
Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _having been written_.
Future, Skribota = _About_ (or, _going_) _to be written_.
205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti
= _to be_, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound
tenses of the active voice.
206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the
moods and tenses in the passive voice.
207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with
the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.
Examples. _Ni estas vidintaj la viron_ = We have seen the man. _Ŝi
vidis la virojn legantajn_ = She saw the men who were reading (the
reading men). _Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la
stratoj_ = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.
208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as
nouns and adverbs, by substituting _-O_ for _-A_ for a noun, and _-E_
for _-A_ for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of
the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in
the active voice govern the accusative.
209. Examples in the active voice.
(_a_). _Participial nouns_, as:--_La leganto_ = _The reader_ (_person
now reading_). La leginto = _The reader_ (_person who has been
reading_). La legonto = _The reader_ (_person about to read_).
Examples.--_La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli
bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el
ĉiuj_ = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous)
reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader
will have the best voice of all. _Ĉi tiu_ (or, _tiu ĉi_) _ideo
okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo_ = This idea
occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.
(_b_). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and
case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks
on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (_d_)).
Examples.--_La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda
lito_ = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. _Ŝi paliĝis
kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta_ = She grew pale and appeared like
a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might
be used when the translation in English would be word for word the
same, as:--_La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi
paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino._ This shows the wonderful
flexibility of Esperanto!
(_c_). Participial adverbs are invariable.
Examples.--_Legante ni lernas_ = In reading we learn. _Fininte sian
laboron, li iris hejmen_ = Having finished his work, he went home.
_Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn_ =
Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him)
three shillings.
210. Examples in the passive voice.
(_a_). Participial nouns, as:--La aludato = _The person being
spoken of_, or, _the person in question_. La aludito = _The
aforesaid_ (_person_). La aludoto = _The person about to be spoken
of_.
Examples.--_La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo_ = The woman
about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. _La batito tute
meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li_ = The beaten one quite
deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.
(_b_). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo =
_The house under construction_. La konstruita domo = _The
(actually) constructed house_. La konstruota domo = _The house
(about) to be constructed_. Konstruota does not show obligation to
construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and
that it will be eventually built.
Examples.--_Li venis al mi tute ne atendite_ = He came to me quite
unexpectedly. _Ne estas atendate ke li venos_ = It is not expected
(being expected) that he will come. _La domo estas vendota morgaŭ_ =
The house is to be sold to-morrow.
N.B.--Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle
takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).
211. Relation of the participle to the subject.
(_a_). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but
not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time,
occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof
states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as
its use would be against the spirit of the language.
Examples.--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = (While) walking in
the street, I fell. _Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis_ = Having found
an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (_a_)).
(_b_). If, however, the participle does _not_ relate to the _subject_
of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make
the participial portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or
else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc.
For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we
crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into
Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who
crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say _La malamiko
forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton_. So we must change the
construction, thus:--"Having put to flight (made to run away) the
enemy, we crossed the bridge" = _Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni
transiris la ponton_. Or, another construction would be:--"After the
enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = _Post kiam la malamiko
forkuris, ni transiris la ponton_. In the sentence, "Swimming in the
lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or
the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the
sentence, _Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon_, the
participle, _naĝante_, relates to the man, the subject of _vidis_.
If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with _cignon_,
and say, _Naĝantan sur la lago_, etc. But it would be better to
alter the order, thus: _La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu
naĝis) sur la lago_.
212. Participial expressions with prepositions.
(_a_). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an
adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.
Examples.--_Li alvenis, ne avertinte min_ (or, _sen averto al mi_) =
He arrived without (not) having warned me. _Mi ne povos tion ĉi
fari, ne estante subtenata_ (or, _ne subtenate_, or, _sen subteno_) =
I shall not be able to do this without being supported. _Ni iru al la
danĝero, ne timante la morton_ (or, _sen timo pri la morto_) = Let
us go to the danger without fearing death.
(_b_). For can be rendered by ke = _that_ (or, pro tio, ke or,
tial, ke) and the indicative.
Examples.--_Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min_ = I am thankful
to you for having (that you) warned me. _Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel
faras_ = Pardon me for so doing. _Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel
faris_ = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).
(_c_). Of, by por and the infinitive.
Example.--_Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto_ =
I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.
(_d_). After, by an adverbial past participle.
Example.--_"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente_ =
"What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment
in silence.
(_e_). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.
Example.--_Li ludis antaŭ ol labori_ = He played before working.
213. The participle for the adjective.
(_a_). Be careful not to use the participle terminations _-ANTA_,
_-INTA_ for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some
English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as
participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes
_action_, whilst the adjective denotes _quality_, _state_, etc.
(_b_). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a
participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in
accordance with the sense.
Examples..--_Laboranta_ and _labora_ = Working. _Ĉarmanta_ and
_ĉarma_ = Charming. _Interesanta_ and _interesa_ = Interesting.
_Sufokanta_ and _sufoka_ = Suffocating. _Kontentigita_ and _kontenta_
= Satisfied; pleased, content.
(_c_). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:--
_Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo!_ = Look
at that man, working in the field! _Rigardu tiun homon laboran_
(better, _tiun laboriston_) _sur la kampo!_ = Look at that
working-man in the field! In the first sentence, _laborantan_, the
participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, _laboran_,
the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. _Ŝi estas
ĉarmanta nin per sia kantado_ = She is charming us with her singing.
_Ŝi estas ĉarma, kiam ŝi kantas_ = She is charming when she sings.
It would be better, instead of using the participle _ĉarmanta_, to
say, _Ŝi ĉarmas nin per sia kantado._ _Mi ne estas kontentigita per
liaj respondoj_ = I have not been satisfied with his replies. _Mi ne
estas kontenta je li_ = I am not pleased with him.
THE TENSES (La Tempoj).
The Tenses, Active Voice.
214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of
completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound.
The simple tenses are formed by adding -_AS_, -_IS_ or -_OS_ to the
root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all
persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary
verb esti = _to be_, and one of the participles of the verb which
must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in
exactly the same way as all other verbs.
215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and
Future.
216. Duration of action of the verb.--(_a_). In English, to express
the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive
verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses--as
"I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving";
imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be
necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word
as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas
(estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.
(_a_). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix
_-AD-_ may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix _-AD-_, par.
270 (1)).
Examples.--_Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon_ = She keeps on singing the
whole day. _La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo_ = The birds were
(kept on) flying from tree to tree.
(_b_). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by
adding the prefix _EK-_.
Examples.--_Ŝi ekkantis_ = She began to sing. _La lumo brilis_ = The
light shone. _La lumo ekbrilis_ = The light flashed (see remarks on
prefix _EK-_, par. 288).
217. Emphatic form of verb.--In English this form consists of the
verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and
past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the
imperative mood of the active voice, as:--"I do love," "He does
love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be
represented by the adverb ja = _indeed_, or by suitable adverbs,
such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.
Examples.--_Mi ja lin amas_ = I _do_ love him. _Mi tiel multe amis
ŝin_ = I _did_ so love her.
The Present.
218. The Present tense (simple) ends in _-AS_. It is used to
express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what
happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.
Examples.--_Mi kuras_ = I run, _or_ am running. _La vero ĉiam
venkas_ = Truth always conquers. _La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke_
.... = The author says in his book that.... _Kiun vi vidas?_ = Whom do
you see? _Mi vidas neniun_ = I see nobody. _Mi foriras, ĉar mia
patro min atendas_ = I am going away, for my father awaits (_or_
expects) me. _Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue_ = I always get up (rise)
very early. _Nenion oni faras sen peno_ = One does nothing without
effort.
219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.--In Esperanto, as
in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future,
to give vividness to an expression.
Examples.--_Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post
mi voĉon_ = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a
voice. _Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la
tombo_ = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey
(acquirement) of the tomb.
220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase
relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the
time in question.
Example.--_Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la
patrinon_ = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the)
mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We
see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to
them, hence _ili vidas_.
221. Present in place of the Past.--If it is a question of the
truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of,
English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present
is always employed.
Examples.--_Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn_ = We learnt
that you were (are) in London for eight days. _Ni kredis, ke vi estas
kuracisto_ = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. _Li instruis
nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga_ = He taught us that one must
always be forbearing (merciful).
222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary
esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_,
_-ONTA_. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their
use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our
meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to
the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).
Examples.--_Li estas vojaĝanta_ = He is travelling. The simple form,
_Li vojaĝas_, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is
not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to
convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the
compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., _li nun
vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte_ =
When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly
(see par. 216 (_a_)). _Esti skribanta_ = To be writing.
The Past.
223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -_IS_. It expresses
something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in
English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the
pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.
Examples.--_Mi skribis_ = I wrote, I was writing, _or_, I have
written. _Li venis antaŭ du horoj_ = He came two hours ago. _Pluvis
hieraŭ_ = It rained yesterday. _Se li estis malsana, li ne povis
veni_ = If he was ill, he could not come. _Ĉu vi lin vidis?_ = Did
you see (_or_, have you seen) him? _Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis_
= He had left before I arrived. _Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis
vian amikon_ = I took a walk (_or_, I was walking, better
_promenadis_) yesterday, and met your friend.
224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb
esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_,
_-ONTA_. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices
to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we
wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of
the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by
the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (_a_)).
Examples.--_Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen_ =
When he had finished his work, he went home. _Mi estis skribanta
leteron, kiam okazis tertremo_ = I was writing a letter when an
earthquake took place. _Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la
landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis_ = They mutually agreed,
and were about to enter the country, but something happened which
prevented them.
225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going
to happen, the words ĵus = _just_, or tuj = _immediately_, are
often used respectively.
Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon_ = I have just seen a
very beautiful picture. _Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis_ = We
were on the point of (_or_, just) going out when it began to rain.
226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle
(_-INTA_) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It
denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before
stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in _-IS_
sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.
Examples.--_Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi
ekploris_ = When she had related everything that happened, she began
to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that
_had_ happened," but "_ĉion, kio estis okazinta_" is unnecessary in
Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "_okazis_." _Li ne
estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!"_ = He
had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!"
226 (_a_). The adverb antaŭe = _beforehand_ (or jam, or jam
antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses,
or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood,
instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).
Examples.--_Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe
foriris (or, estis foririntaj)_ = When you entered the room, the
guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). _Kiam vi
venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos_ (or, _estos fininta_) _la laboron_
= When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work.
_Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus_ (or, _estus
doninta_) _al li la monon_ = He would not have bought the book unless
you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give
him the money).
The Future.
227. The Future (simple) ends in _-OS_. The future (compound) is
formed by the auxiliary esti and one of the three participles,
_-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_, but the compound form should be used only
when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking
place previous to that of the principal action.
228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.
Examples.--_La patro venos post du tagoj_ = Father will come in two
days. _Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron?_ = Will you lend me the book?
_Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive? _Li venos la lundon
proksiman_ = He will come next Monday.
229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the
adverbs tuj = _immediately_, baldaŭ = _soon_, tre baldaŭ =
_very soon_.
Examples.--_Li tuj alvenos_ = He will arrive immediately. _Li tre
baldaŭ estos tie ĉi_ = He will very soon be here.
230. The future compound with the present participle is used when
we wish to mark that an action will be _going on_ at some particular
time in the future.
Example.--_Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon_ = At
10 o'clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.
231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we
wish to mark that an action will be _finished_ at some particular
time in the future (see par. 226 (_a_)).
Example.--_Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ
vespere_ = I shall have finished my work at six o'clock to-morrow
evening.
232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.--Be
careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive
for the future.
Examples.--_Se pluvos, li ne venos_ = If it rains, he will not come.
_Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo?_ = What will you do when I
am in the grave? _Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos_ = I shall
write the letter whilst you are resting. _Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi
estos tie ĉi morgaŭ_ = She wrote to us that she would (will) be
here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she _would_," but "that
she will," so the future is the correct tense).
The Tenses, Passive Voice.
233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses
of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, _-ATA_,
_-ITA_, _-OTA_. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the
active participles, _J_ is added to the three persons of the plural
in all the tenses.
234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active
voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted
upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it
represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we
must, therefore, translate it accordingly.
235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For
instance, the participles of skribi = _to write_ used alone mean--
Present, Skribata = _Written_, or, _being written_ (action going
on).
Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _been written_ (lit., _having been
written_) (action completed).
Future, Skribota = _About to be_, or, _going to be_, _written_
(action about to occur).
236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the _time_ of the
action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that
time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following
examples:--
_La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota_ = The gate is
being shut, for the game is about to be played.
_La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata_ = The gate is
(_or_, has been) shut, for the game is being played.
_La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata_ = The gate was
(_or_, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.
_Kiam estos pendigata la homo?_ = When will the man be (being)
hanged?
_Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata
ĝis mardo_ = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow,
but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.
_Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota?_ = And when he
is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he
shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note
that after the interrogative _kiam_ the English present tense is
often future in Esperanto, as:--_Kiam li venos?_ When is he coming?
_or_, When will he come?
_Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de
la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis_ = A sparrow was (_or_, had
been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was
being opened it flew away.
N.B.--In the above sentence we see that the sparrow _was_ (estis)
first in the state of _having been caught_ (kaptita); then in the
state of _having been put_ (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door
was in the state of _being opened_ (malfermata), and that during this
action the bird _flew away_ (forflugis).
(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)
(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)
THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.
Devi.
237 (_a_). Devi = _to be obliged to, to have to_, means to be
physically or morally obliged to do something, as:--Vi devas fari
tion = _You must (have to, are to) do that_. Vi ne devas fari tion
= _You are not obliged to do that_. If, however, the action is not
immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:--Vi devos fari
tion morgaŭ = _You must (will have to) do that to-morrow._ In its
Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an
expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:--Vi devus
ne fari tion = _You ought not to (should not) do that._ Here devus
is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari
tion would mean _You must not (are not to) do that_ (see par. 194,
also pars. 237 (_o_), (_p_), on "should," "must," "ought," and par.
59 (_a_)).
Examples.--_Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min_ = I must
(have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. _Ĉu mi devas fari
tion tuj?_ = Must I (am I to) do that at once? _Ĉu mi devos veni
morgaŭ_ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? _Mi
devis skribi leteron_ = I had (have had) to write a letter. _Li devis
min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni_ = He was to see me to-day,
but he cannot come. _Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis
veni_ = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come.
_Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon_ = He was angry
yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. _Sed por
tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo_ = But for this I shall have to
(I must) wait some time. _Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li_ =
If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. _Se mi lin vidus, mi
estus devinta paroli kun li_ = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have
been obliged (have had) to speak to him. _La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ
devus esti, bonfaradi_ = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should)
be, to do good. _Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn_ = He
ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. _Kiam vi estas tie,
vi devus vidi la kastelon_ = When you are there, you ought to see the
castle. _Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi_ (or, _vi devus esti
vidinta_) _la kastelon_ = When you were there, you ought to have seen
the castle. _Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin_ = I ought not to listen
to her at all.
From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of
devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used
unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.
Present.
_Vi devas (paroli)_ = You must, have to, are to (speak).
_Past._
_Mi devis (paroli)_ = I had to (speak); _or_, I was to (speak, or,
have spoken).
_Mi estas devinta (paroli)_ = I have been obliged, _or_, I have had
to (speak).
_Mi estis devinta (paroli)_ = I had been obliged to (speak).
_Future._
_Mi devos (paroli)_ = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).
_Conditional._
_Mi devus (paroli), se ..._ = I should have to, or, be obliged to
(speak), if ...
_Mi estus devinta (paroli), se ..._ = I should have had to, _or_,
have been obliged to (speak), if ...
_Conditional (softened sense)._
_Vi devus (paroli)_ = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have
spoken).
_Vi devus (esti parolinta)_ = You ought to have, or, you should have
(spoken).
N.B.--Do not use _devi_ for "were to," when no obligation is implied.
Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:--_Se ili
venus, mi vidus ilin_ = If (supposing) they were to come (if they
came), I would see them. _Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io
malhelpis ilin_ = They were to (have) come last week, but something
prevented them.
Also do not use _devi_ for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words
express not "obligation," but "_purpose_" or "_intention_." For
instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do
you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you)
speak?" So we translate (1) _Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos)
ĉe la kunveno?_ or, (2) _Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno?_ In
such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we
say _Vi devas tion fari._
Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man
must be a fool," which is _La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo,_ not,
_devas esti ..._
Kuŝi.
237 (_b_). Kuŝi = _to lie, to be situated_, is sometimes used to
denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It
has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be."
Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas sur la libro_ = The pencil lies (is) on
the book. _La libroj kuŝas sur la breto_ = The books are (lie) on
the shelf.
Koni and Scii.
237 (_c_). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French
verbs _connaître_ and _savoir_.
Koni means _to know_, _to be acquainted with_, _to know a person_,
or, _thing_.
Examples.--_Mi konas vian fraton_ = I know your brother. _Li konas la
hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton_ = He knows the dog, but he
does not know its owner.
N.B.--It is never followed by the conjunction _KE_; _Mi konas, ke_,
is wrong. _Mi scias, ke vi_ ... = I know that you ...
Scii means _to know_, _to be aware of_, _to know something is_ or
_was happening_, etc.
N.B.--It is never used of persons.
Examples.--_Mi scias, ke li estas prava_ = I know that he is right.
_Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ_ = I knew he was there yesterday.
_Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin_ = I did not know that you knew him.
_Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin_ = I know
(recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know
it.
Lasi.
237 (_d_). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various
meanings.
(1). To let remain, as:--_Li lasis la libron sur la tablo_ = He left
the book on the table.
(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:--_Li lasis sian
edzinon en la domo_ = He left his wife in the house. _Lasu vian
bastonon tie ĉi_ = Leave your stick here.
(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:--_Li lasis fali la libron_
= He let the book fall.
(4). To leave in a certain state, as:--_Li lasis min en la plej
granda embaraso_ = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. _Li
lasis la domon tre malpura_ = He left the house very dirty.
(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:--_La juĝisto lasis la
infanojn al la patro_ = The judge left the children to the father.
(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:--_Kiam li
mortis, li lasis_ (or, _postlasis_) _grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li
testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj_ = When he died,
he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable
institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is _testamenti_).
(7). _Lasi_, followed by the preposition _en_, means to "leave in,"
or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or
accusative, e.g.:--_Mi lasis la hundon en la domo_ = I left the dog
in the house. _Mi lasis la hundon en la domon_ = I let the dog into
the house.
(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave
off," "cease," as:--_Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj
petis de ili panon_ = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked
them for bread.
(9). _Lasi_, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow,"
as:--_Lasu al mi ĝin fari_ = Let me do it, _or_, Leave it to me to
do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:--_Neniu
volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas_ = No one wished to let it be
noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some
national languages. It can be explained as an omission of _onin_ or
some other pronoun, thus:--_Neniu volis lasi onin_ (_nin_) _rimarki,
ke_ ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ...
(10). _Allasi_ = to admit (own the truth), as:--_Li allasis, ke li
estas malprava_ = He admitted he was (is) wrong.
(11). _Delasi_ = to allow to leave, as:--_Li delasis lin de la domo_
= He let him leave the house.
(12). _Enlasi_ (like _lasi en_) = to let go in, as:--_Enlasu min!_ =
Let me in!
(13). _Forlasi_ = to abandon, as:--_Li forlasis sian postenon_ = He
abandoned his post.
(14). _Preterlasi_ = to let pass, as:--_Li preterlasis la okazon_ =
He let the opportunity pass, _or_, He missed the opportunity. _Li ne
povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis_ = He could
not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.
(15). _Tralasi_ = to allow to pass through, as:--_Li tralasis la
homon tra la pordo_ = He let the man pass through the door. _Kiam ŝi
atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis_ = When she reached the gate,
they let her through.
Pesi and Pezi.
237 (_e_). Pesi = _to weigh_, _to examine by balance_ (transitive).
Pezi = _to weigh_, _to have weight_ (intransitive).
Peso = _the weighing_, _the act of weighing_.
Pezo = _the weight_, or, _heaviness of a thing_.
Pesilo = _the scales_, or, _the weighing machine_.
Pezilo = _a_ (_metal_) _weight_.
From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both
signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their
transitive or intransitive sense.
Examples. _Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia
pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj_ = These tables are a great
weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty
pounds. _Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas
almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la
pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon_ = That chest is
very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety
pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights,
weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.
Povi.
237 (_f_). Povi = _to be able_. Beginners sometimes find a
difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of
the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can
'can' be both present and future, or 'could' both past and
conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in
its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.
Present, Mi povas = _I am able to_, _I can_.
Past, Mi povis = _I have been_ (or, _was_) _able to_, _I could_.
Future, Mi povos = _I shall be able to_, _I can_.
Future, Ni estos povintaj = _We shall have been able to_.
Conditional, Mi povus = _I should_ (or, _would_) _be able to_, or,
_I could_, or, _I might_.
Conditional, Li estus povinta = _He would have been able to_, or,
_He could have_.
Examples.--_Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas_ = Are you able to
(can you) do that? Yes, I can. _Mi ne povas vidi la arbon, kiun vi
montras_ = I cannot see the tree which you point out. _Mi povis
fari tion, kion vi volis_ = I was (have been) able to do what
you wished. _Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis_ = I was
not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required.
_Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ_ = I shall be able to (I can) do
that to-morrow. _Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi_ = If
you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could
see you. _Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se...._ = I could (should be
able to) do that to-morrow if.... _Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la
laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ?_ = Will he have been able to
complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? _Se vi venus
hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi_ = If you had come yesterday, I
could have seen you. _Li povus veni, se li volus_ = He might (would
be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (_l_), (_m_)).
Sidi.
237 (_g_). Sidi = _to sit_, _to be sitting_. Sidi has sometimes
the signification "to be" in some defined place.
Examples.--_En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj_ = In the room
were (sat) only a few (some) men. _La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo_ =
The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. _En la kandelingo sidis brulanta
kandelo_ = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.
Sin trovi.
237 (_h_). Sin trovi = _to find oneself_. This expression (or,
troviĝi = _to be found_, _to find oneself_, _to be_, or, _to be
situated_) is often used for the English verb "to be."
Examples.--_Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj_ = On the tree
were (found themselves) many birds. _Super la tero troviĝas aero_ =
Over the earth is air.
Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.[17]
237 (_i_). In English the following and many other verbs are used in
both a transitive and intransitive sense:--_to stop_, _to continue_,
_to pass_, _to finish_, _to commence_. In Esperanto ĉesi,
daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we
must add _IGI_. On the other hand, fini and komenci are
transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add _IĜI_
(par. 280).
Transitive. Intransitive.
_Ĉesigu tiun bruon_ = _La pluvo ĉesis fali_ =
Cease (stop) that noise. The rain ceased to fall (stopped).
_Li daŭrigis sian rakonton_ = _La ventego daŭris unu horon_ =
He continued his story. The storm lasted an hour.
_Li pasigis du horojn en la budo_ = _La tempo pasas rapide_ =
He passed two hours in the booth. Time passes rapidly.
_Li finis sian laboron_ = _La monato finiĝos morgaŭ_ =
He finished his work. The month will finish to-morrow.
_Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ_ = _La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ_ =
She will commence her journey tomorrow. The week commenced yesterday.
Footnote:
[17] The following is a list of the chief Esperanto verb roots whose
English equivalents are used both transitively and intransitively.
(E.g., _wakes_, in _he wakes her_, is transitive; in _she wakes_ it
is intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving
such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive.
Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda;
may be used intransitively with -iĝ-):--
Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks,
izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt,
renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ,
ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.
Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla,
-inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):--
Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit,
halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor,
ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.
Do, Did.
237 (_j_). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:--
(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc.,
it is represented by fari or agi.
Examples.--_Ne faru tion_ = Don't do that. _Batante la knabon, li
faris_ (or, _agis_) _malprave_ = He did wrong in beating the boy. _La
ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis_ = The chambermaid did what
I ordered.
(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present
and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).
Examples.--_Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos?_ = Do you think that he will
come? _Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ?_ = Did you see him yesterday? _Mi ne
konas lin_ = I do not know him.
(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja =
_indeed, in fact_, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par.
217).
Example.--_Mi ja esperas, ke li venos_ = I do hope he will come.
(4). As an inquiry after health.
Example.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ or, _Kia estas via sano?_ or, _Kiel vi
statas?_ = How do you do? or, How are you?
(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi.
In the sense of "to suffice" by sufiĉi.
Examples.--_Li friponis min_ = He did (cheated) me. _Tio sufiĉos_ =
That will do.
(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance
with the sense of the phrases.
Examples:--
To do away with (abolish) = _neniigi_, (destroy) = _detrui_.
To do business = _komerci_, _fari negocon kun_.
To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = _mortigi_.
To do into (translate) = _traduki_.
To do well (prosper) = _prosperi_.
To do up (arrange) = _aranĝi_, (tie up) = _kunligi_, (repair) = _ripari_.
To do with (make use of) = _fari uzon el_.
To do without (dispense with) = _forlasi, ne bezoni_.
Get.
237 (_k_). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance
with its numerous meanings. For instance:--
(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by iĝi
= _to become_, or the suffix _-IĜ-_.
Examples.--_Edziĝi_ = To get married (man). _Edziniĝi_ = To get
married (woman). _Leviĝi_ = To get up. _Alproksimiĝi_ = To get
near. _Laciĝi_ = To get tired. _Tediĝi_ = To get bored. _Ĉu vi
pretiĝas_ = Are you getting ready? _Mi malsatiĝas_ = I am getting
hungry. _Mi kutimiĝas je tio_ = I am getting accustomed (used) to
that. _Mallumiĝas_ (or, _Iĝas mallume_) = It is getting dark. _La
tagoj pli mallongiĝas_ = The days are getting shorter. _La infanoj
kuŝiĝis_ = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). _La
vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas_ = The dinner is getting cold; but
_malvarmumi_ = to get (or catch) a cold.
(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by
igi = to make, or the suffix _-IG-_ added to a verb.
Examples.--_Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado_ = Get her to come to our
dance. _Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ_ = I shall get the book printed
soon.
(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not
translated.
Examples.--_Mi havas_ (or, _posedas_) _du ĉevalojn_ = I have got two
horses. _Kion vi havas?_ = What have you got?
(4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by
havigi, or, venigi.
Examples.--_Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos_ = I shall get as
much as I can. _Venigu al mi veturilon_ = Get me a carriage. _Venigu
la kuraciston_ = Send for (get) the doctor.
(5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its
meaning. Note the following examples:--
_Alveni en_ = To get to, to arrive at.
_Alkonduku mian ĉevalon_ = Get my horse.
_Alportu al mi la mustardon_ = Get me the mustard.
_Mi ricevis vian leteron_ = I got your letter.
(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in
accordance with the sense of the phrase.
Examples:--
To get across = _transiri_.
To get along, forward, on = _antaŭeniri_.
To get at (attain, reach) = _atingi_.
To get back (something lent) = _rericevi_, (to a place) = _reveni_.
To get down = _deiri_, _malsupreniri_.
To get off (be acquitted) = _senkulpiĝi_, (escape) = _forkuri_,
(a horse or coach) = _deiri_.
To get dirty = _malpuriĝi_.
To get on (a horse or coach) = _supreniri_, (in learning) = _progresadi_,
(in business) = _prosperi_.
To get on with (continue) = _daŭrigi_.
To get out (of doors) = _eliri_, (publish) = _eldoni_, or, _elirigi_.
To get over (across) = _transiri_, (surmount) = _venki_.
To get ready = _pretigi_ (trans.), _pretiĝi_ (intrans.).
To get round (coax, allure) = _logi_, _allogi_, (persuade) = _konvinki_.
To get up (rise) = _leviĝi_, (ascend) = _supreniri_.
Can and Could.
237 (_l_). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = _to be able_,
except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (_m_) (3)).
Examples.--_Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe_ = I cannot see him at
present. _Li ne povis iri hieraŭ_ = He could not go yesterday. _Li
povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus_ = He could (would be able to) go to
day, if he would.
For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (_f_).
May and Might.
237 (_m_). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English
Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4)
possibility, (5) power or ability.
(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the
Esperanto Imperative mood.
Examples.--_Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe_ = He hastens
that he may arrive in time. _Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu
la vagonaron_ = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.
(2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also
used.
Examples.--_Vi estu feliĉa!_ = May you be happy! _Via deziro
efektiviĝu!_ = May your wish be realized! _Ĉielo vin benu!_ = May
Heaven bless you! _Nenio difektu vian feliĉon!_ = May nothing mar
your happiness! _Ĉia beno estu via!_ = May every blessing be yours!
In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and
English, some such words as _mi deziras, ke ..._ = I wish that...,
being omitted (par. 66 (_c_)). _Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora
deziro!_ = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! _Ke li vivu,
estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo!_ = That he might live, was my daily
prayer! _Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas!_ = May I die, if I am lying at
all!
(3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must
be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing
permission being omitted (par. 58 (_a_)). The English verb "can" is
sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in
that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = _to be able_.
Examples.--_Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi?_ = May (can)
I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) _Ĉu oni
permesas_, (or, _ĉu estas permesate_), _ke mi vidu la kastelon?_ =
May (can) I see the castle? _Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi
volas_, or, _Vi faru tion, se vi volas_ = You may (I permit that you)
do that, if you like. _Se mi estus permesita tion diri_ (or, _se
estus permesite_, or, _se oni permesus_, _ke mi tion diru_) = If I
might (were permitted to) say so (that).
The above questions may be shortened thus:--_Ĉu mi parolu kun vi?
Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon?_ in this sense. The ellipsis understood here
might, however, equally well be _Ĉu_ (_vi volas_, _ĉu necesas_,
_ĉu estas bone_, _ke_) _mi parolu? vidu la kastelon?_ = Shall I (Am
I to) speak (see the castle)?
(4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the
action is more or less a matter of doubt must be used, as eble =
_possibly_, kredeble = _probably_, etc.
Examples.--_Eble li venos_ = He _may_ come, _or_, Maybe (possibly) he
will come. _Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li
tranĉilon_ = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will)
give him a knife. _Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus_ = He might
(possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. _Se vi
tien irus, eble_ (_kredeble_) _vi lin vidus_ = If you went (were to
go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.
Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the
adverb used. "May" rendered by _eble_ throws greater doubt on the
contingency than _kredeble_.
(5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = _to be
able_ can be used.
Examples.--_La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj_ = The illness
may lead to complications. _Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus_
(or, _estus volinta_) _ĝin fari_ = He might (could) have done that,
if he had wished to do it.
Shall and Will.
237 (_n_). These verbs are used in English to denote:--
(1). Futurity.
(2). Determination or will.
As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student,
not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good
English Grammar.
(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in
_direct_ speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will"
for the second and third persons, as "_I_, or _we_, _shall go_,"
"_He_, _you_, or _they will go_," except in interrogation, when
"shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?"
But in _indirect_ speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as,
"_He says he shall come._" "_You say you shall write._" In any of
these cases they are translated by the future in _-os_.
(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but
_determination_ on the part of the speaker, then, in _direct_ speech,
"will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and
third persons, as, "I _will_ do it, you cannot stop me." "You _shall_
not kill that bird." "Thou _shalt_ not steal." But in _indirect_
speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he _will_ go"
(it is his determination to go). "You say you _will_ try it" (you are
determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not
the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or
"determination."
N.B.--In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above
senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear;
so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to
emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note
carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number
prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.
Examples.--(1). _Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros_ = I shall come back
when they go away. (2). _Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ
ne_ = I _will_ (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). _Vi
mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos_ = You will kill that bird if
you shoot straight. (2). _Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon_
= You _shall_ not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). _Mi
scias, ke vi ĝin faros_ = I know that you will do it. (2). _Mi
scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos_ = I know you can do it if
you _will_.
Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following
sentences:--I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early.
If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker
from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged;
therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the
sentence, as in English, by the future, as:--(1). _Mi ne vidos vin
morgaŭ, se vi ne_ (or, _krom se vi_) _venos frue_. But if "will" be
used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing
prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he _will_ not
(won't). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination,
and say (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi ne intencas_) _vin vidi morgaŭ,
krom se vi venos frue_ = I _will_ not (I do not intend to) see you
to-morrow unless you come early. (1). _Mi ne mortos sola_ = I shall
not die alone. (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi certe ne intencas_) _morti
sola_ = I _will_ not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1).
_Ĉu vi estos_ (or, _ĉeestos_) _tie ĉi morgaŭ?_ = Will you be here
to-morrow? (1). _Jes, mi estos_ = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here
repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall."
(1). _Li diras, ke li venos, sed_ (1) _ĉu li venos?_ or, (2) _ĉu li
volos?_ = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will
he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed,
viz.:--(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?
The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, _Ĉu
mi tion faros?_ = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, _Ĉu estos
plej bone tion fari_ = Is it best to do that? or, _Ĉu estos
profite_, _saĝe_, _k.c._ = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or,
_Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru?_ = Will it be proper (right) to do that?
or, _Ĉu vi volas_ (or, _deziras_), _ke mi tion faru_, or, _Ĉu mi
faru tion?_ = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). _Ĉu
vi iros?_ = Shall you go? (2). _Ĉu vi volas iri?_ = _Will_ you go?
_Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru?_ or, _Ĉu mi iru?_ = Shall I go? Am I to
go? (pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and
untranslatable!
Should and Would.
237 (_o_). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and
"will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:--
(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or
merely supposed (par. 192), as "_I should do it if I knew how._"
(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (_a_)) as "He _should_ not do that."
(3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he _would_ do it."
(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you
object to do that?"
(5). The future in _indirect_ speech (par. 232), as "_She said she
would (will) come._"
(6). Would, when it signifies _custom_ or _habit_, is sometimes
translated by adding the suffix _-AD-_ to the verb.
The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be
expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under
which class of meanings it comes.
Examples.--(1). _Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus_ = I should do it
if you would permit me. (1). _Li min frapus, se li ne timus_ = He
would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). _Li insistis ĝin fari
malgraŭ la danĝero_ = He _would_ do it in spite of the danger. (4).
_Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron?_ = Would you give me that book? (1).
_Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ_ (2) _vi devus diri al li, ke li ne
aĉetu tiun domon_ = If you should see John to-morrow, you should
tell him not to buy that house. (5). _Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos_
= She told me that she would (will) come. (1). _Mi iomete suspektis,
ke ili venos_ = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6).
_Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn
ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj_ = They
would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch
their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.
Must, Ought.
237 (_p_). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral
obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral
obligation or duty. Compare "_You must_ (_have to_, _are to_) _go_"
with "_You ought to go._" The former can be rendered by devi, and the
latter, "ought," by _deci_, or some word implying moral obligation.
Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this
case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194).
Care must be taken not to translate "must" when it signifies "have
to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see par. 237 (_a_) on devi).
Examples.--_Li devas labori_ = He must (has to) work. _Mi devas havi
tiun libron_ = I must have that book. _Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi
libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj_ = Everything
which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all.
_La "Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netuŝebla_ =
The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable
(untouchable). _Vi devus ne fari tion_, or, _Ne decas, ke vi tion
faru_ = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do
that. _Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron_ = You ought
to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. _Li devus ne
forgesi_ (or, _esti forgesinta_) = He ought not to have forgotten.
_Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo_ = I ought to offer
my services to the king. _Kiam vi devos vidi la homon?_ = When must
you (will you have to) see the man? _Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed
li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ_ = I ought to
have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till
to-morrow.
N.B.--Note, in the last example, that the adverb _hieraŭ_ =
yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore
unnecessary to use the past infinitive _esti vidinta_.
ADVERBS (Adverboj).
238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other
language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or
affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by
adding the adverbial termination _E_. This facility enables the
Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in
other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express
adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = _In such a manner_. Matene = _In
the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.
239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a
complement.
Example.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = "He speaks wisely," has the same
signification as _Li parolas kun saĝeco_ = He speaks with wisdom.
240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives,
or other adverbs.
Examples.--_Li agas bone_ = He acts well. _Tiu ĉi estas tre granda
domo_ = This is a very large house. _Li skribas treege bone_ = He
writes extremely well.
N.B.--When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really
qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:--Multe antaŭ la horo = _Much
before the time_ (_hour_).
241. Position.--Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow
the words which they modify (see par. 88).
242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the
sake of distinction we will call (_a_) "Primary" and (_b_)
"Grammatical."
(_a_). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary
words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.
(_b_). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding _E_
to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by
adding _E_ to a primary word.
A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.
243. No influence on case.--Adverbs exercise no influence on the
case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative,
it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:--Mi amas
Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = _I love John as warmly as my
brother_. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for
both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas.
Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John
equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative,
as:--Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = _I love John as
warmly as my brother_ (_does_). Ask yourself the question, "as my
brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are
obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is
quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).
244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.--When a preposition has no
complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial
termination _E_. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (_I
am standing by him_); apud here is a preposition because it is
followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must
alter the sentence, as:--Li staras apude = _He is standing by_
(_near_).
245. Subject not expressed.--When, in a sentence in Esperanto,
there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in
case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is
used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.
Examples.--_Mensogi estas honte_ (not _honta_) = To lie is shameful.
_Estas necese, ke...._ = It is necessary that.... _Estas bele, varme,
malvarme_ = It is fine, warm, cold. _Ne estas atendate, ke...._ = It
is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed,
then the adjective is used, as:--_La vetero_ (or, _ĝi_) _estas
bela_, _varma_, _malvarma_ = The weather (_or_, it) is fine, warm,
cold.
245 (_a_). Participle-Adverbs.--In Esperanto, when the participle
relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the
participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164
(_d_).
Examples.--_Legante, ni lernas_ = In (by, when, while) reading we
learn. _Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la
preĝejon_ = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the
church. _Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo_ = Being (as
she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. _Malferminte
la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato_ = Having opened
(_or_, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the
street. _Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon_ =
Having glanced (_or_, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the
table. _Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego_ = Having
been (_or_, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in
the forest. _Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis_ =
Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.
246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity,
usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.
Examples.--_Multe da homoj_ = Many men. _Nur malmulte da virinoj_ =
Only a few women. _Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have
you? _Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo_ = Much more beef than
mutton. _Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino_ = Less bread than wine. _Tro
da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon_ = Too many cooks spoil the
broth. _Ne estas sufiĉe da supo_ = There is not sufficient soup.
246. (_a_). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are
thus rendered:--
Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = _More or less_.
Plie = _In addition, besides_, _moreover_. Malplie = _Less and
less_.[18]
Pleje = _At (the) most_, _mostly_. Malpleje = _At (the) least_,
_least_.[18]
Troe = _In excess_, _too many_.
Footnote:
[18] These usages are seldom employed.
Examples.--_Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas_ = One apple more or
less does not signify. _Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke...._ =
Moreover, I must tell you that.... _Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep
malpleje_ = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. _En la
kesto mi trovis du librojn troe_ = In the box I found two books too
many (in excess).
247. Adverbs and the accusative case.--Adverbs exercise no
influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles
of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a
preposition (see par. 66 (_b_)).
After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc.,
it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable
preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al,
kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de =
_with the exception of_); spite de (see par. 258 (_a_)).
248. Comparatives and superlatives.--These are marked in the same
way as adjectives (see pars. 112-114).
Examples.--_Pli rapide, ol bone_ = More quickly than well. _Malpli
forte, ol kutime_ = Weaker (less strong) than customary. _Tiel
dolĉe, kiel eble_ (or, _kiel eble plej dolĉe_) = As sweetly as
possible. _Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj_ = She sings best of all.
_Li agis tre saĝe_ = He acted very wisely.
248 (_a_). Adverbs and adjectives.--Be careful not to use the
adjective for the adverb.
Examples.--_Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _Parolu pli laŭte_
(not _laŭta_) = Speak louder (more loudly). _Ŝi vidis lin
piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime_ = She saw him walking (that he
was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.
N.B.--Note that _piediranta_ is predicative (see par. 209 (_b_)).
LIST OF ADVERBS.
248 (_b_). The following list of adverbs contains all those found
amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of
useful grammatical adverbs.
Adiaŭ = _Adieu_, _farewell_, _good-bye_.
Example.--_Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris_ = He said good-bye to
her, and departed.
Afrankite = _Post-paid_.
Ajn = _Ever_. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words
beginning with _K_, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative
words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but,
unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).
Examples.--_Kia ajn_ = Whatever kind of. _Kiam ajn_ = Whenever,
whensoever. _Kie ajn_ = Wherever, wheresoever. _Kiel ajn_ = However.
_Kies ajn_ = Whosesoever. _Kio ajn_ = Whatever, whatsoever. _Kiom
ajn_ = However much. _Kiu ajn_ = Whoever, whosoever, whichever,
whichsoever.
Aliloke = _Elsewhere_.
Alivorte = _In other words_.
Almenaŭ = _At least_.
Example.--_Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito_ = Give me
at least the half of that biscuit.
Alvenante, Alveninte = _On arrival_.
Ambaŭ = _Both_, _one and the other_ (pronoun).
Examples.--_Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo_ = They both ran to the
station.
Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_.
Examples.--_Li ankaŭ ĝin faris_ = He, too, did it. _Nek mi ankaŭ_
= Nor I either (also).
Ankoraŭ = _Yet_, _still_. (See remarks on Jam).
Examples.--_Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi?_ = Is he still here? _Mi
ankoraŭ ne vidis lin_ = I have not seen him yet.
Antaŭe = _Formerly_, _previously_, _beforehand_, _in front_.
Aparte = _Aside_, _apart_, _separately_, _specially_.
Apenaŭ = _Hardly_, _scarcely_.
Example.--_Mi apenaŭ pensas tion_ = I hardly think that (_or_, so).
Baldaŭ = _Soon_.
Example.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ_ = I hope he will (may)
come soon.
Bis = _Once more_, _again_, _encore_.
Example.--_Bis!_ = Encore!
Bonstate = _In good condition_.
Certe = _Certainly_.
Ĉi = _The nearest_ (tio = _that_, tio ĉi or ĉi tio =
_this_), (tiu = _that_, _the former_, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu =
_this_, _the latter_), (tie = _there_, tie ĉi or ĉi tie =
_here_), (tien = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_), (ĉio =
_all_, ĉio ĉi = _all this_) (par. 143).
Examples.--_Restu ĉi tie_ = Remain here. _Venu ĉi tien_ = Come
hither.
Ĉial = _For all reasons_, _for every reason_ (par. 150).
Example.--_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is
the best.
Ĉiam = _Always_, _ever_ (par. 151).
Example.--_Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin_ = He always comes
when one does not want him.
Ĉiame = _Perpetually_, _continually_.
Example.--_La infano ploras ĉiame_ (or, _senĉese_) = The child
cries perpetually.
Ĉie = _Everywhere_ (par. 152).
Examples.--_Ĉie mi lin vidas_ = Everywhere I see him. _Li iras
ĉien_ = He goes everywhere.
Ĉiel = _In every (manner) way, all ways_ (par. 153).
Example.--_Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo_ = That is in every
way the best seat.
Ĉiom = _All of it, the whole, all, every quantity_ (par. 156).
Example.--_Prenu iom, ne ĉiom_ = Take some, not the whole.
Ĉirkaŭe = _Round about_.
Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = _whenever_.
Ĉiujare = _Yearly, annually, every year_.
Ĉiumonate = _Monthly, every month_.
Ĉiusemajne = _Weekly, every (each) week_.
Ĉiutage = _Daily_. Laŭtage = _By the day_. Tage = _By day_.
Nokte = _By night_.
Ĉu = _Whether_. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a
direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows
that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it,
we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to
preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has,"
"is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc.
etc.
Examples.--_Ĉu vi komprenis?_ = Did you understand? _Ĉu Johano
skribas?_ = Is John writing? _Ĉu vi povas fari tion?_ = Can you do
that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).
Ĉu = _whether_ (or _if_ in the sense of _whether_) (a conjunction)
is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."
Examples.--_Diru al mi, ĉu li venos_ = Tell me if (whether) he will
come. _Diru al mi, se li venos_ = Tell me if he comes.
Ĉu ... Ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.
Example.--_Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros_ = Whether
he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul
will depart.
Dekstre = _On the right._ Maldekstren = _To the left._
Denove = _Afresh_, _again_, _once again_.
Due = _Secondly_, _in the second place_.
Dum = _While_, _whilst_, _as_ (also a preposition and conjunction).
Dume = _Meanwhile._
Eble = _Possibly_, _perhaps_.
Eĉ = _Even._
Examples.--_Li eĉ pensis, ke...._ = He even thought that.... _Eĉ la
infanoj insultis min_ = Even the children abused me.
Efektive = _In fact_, _really_, _as a matter of fact_.
Ekstere = _Outwardly._ Interne = _inwardly_, _internally_,
_within_, _inside_.
Entute = _On the whole_, _as a whole_.
Facile = _Easily._ Malfacile = _With difficulty._
Fine = _In conclusion_, _lastly_.
For = _Away_, _forth_.
Example.--_For de ĉi tie fripono!_ = Get thee hence (away), rascal!
Forme = _In shape_, _in form_.
Galope = _At a gallop._
Grandnombre = _In great numbers._
Ĝisdate = _Up to date._ Ĝisnune = _Up to now_, _hitherto_.
Ĝisplue = _Until further notice._
Ĝissate = _Till satiety (is reached)._
Ĝustatempe = _Opportunely_, _to time_.
Hieraŭ = _Yesterday._
Examples.-_-Mi lin vidis hieraŭ_ = I saw him yesterday.
_Antaŭhieraŭ_ = The day before yesterday.
Hieraŭ matene = _Yesterday morning._
Hodiaŭ = _To-day._
Example.--_Li alvenos hodiaŭ_ = He will arrive to-day.
Hodiaŭ vespere = _This (to-day) evening._
Ial = _For some_ (_any_) _reason_, _or cause_ (par. 150).
Example.--_Ial li venis Londonon_ = For some reason he came to
London.
Iam = _At some_ (_any_) _time_, _once_, _ever_ (par. 151).
Examples.--_Venu iam morgaŭ_ = Come some time to-morrow. _Ĉu vi iam
renkontis lin?_ = Did you ever meet him?
Ie = _Somewhere_, (_anywhere_) (par. 152).
Examples.--_Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro_ = I cannot find
it anywhere in the room. _Ĝi estas ie_ = It is somewhere. _Ĉu vi
metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere?
Iel = _Somehow_, _in some way_, _in some manner_, _anyhow_, (_in
any way_) (par. 153).
Examples.--_Iel li sukcesas en ĉio_ = Somehow he succeeds in
everything. _Respondu iel_ = Answer in some manner.
Iom = _Somewhat_, _some quantity_, _a little_, _some_ (par. 156).
Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat
(a little) warmer. _Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom?_ = Here
are cigars, do you want some?
Iomete = _A very little_, _in a very slight degree_, _at all_.
Example.--_Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo_ = It was slightly
larger than a gnat.
Intence = _Intentionally_, _on purpose_.
Ja = _In fact_, _indeed_.
Examples.--_Li ja alvenos morgaŭ_ = He in fact will arrive
to-morrow. _Ja_ may be used to express the emphatic English use of
"do," "did," as:--_Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi_ = I do wish he
were here (par. 217).
Jam = _Already_, _as yet_, _by now_, _now_.
Examples.--_Vi jam diris tion_ = You said (have said) that already.
_Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon?_ = Have you _as yet_ found your
watch? _Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis_ = I have _not yet_ looked for
it. _La knabo jam ne ridas_ = The boy does not laugh _now_ (no longer
laughs).
N.B.--Compare _jam_ with _ankoraŭ_. Jam shows that the circumstances
are changed; _ankoraŭ_, that there is no change. Ex.:--_La infano
jam dormas_ = The child is _now_ sleeping (it was not sleeping
before). _La infano ankoraŭ dormas_ = The child is _still_ sleeping.
Jen = _Behold_, _here_. Jene = _As follows_.
Examples.--_Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas_ = Here is what (that
which) you want. _Jen estas la libroj_ = Here are the books.
Jes = _Yes_, _it is so_ (par. 63). Jese = _Affirmatively_.
Examples.--_Jes, vi estas prava_ = Yes, you are right. _Mi vin
certigas, ke jes_ = I assure you that it is so.
Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas_ = The more I
know him, the more I love him.
Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less._
Example.--_Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The
more I see him, the less he pleases me.
Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_.
Example.--_Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon
dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of
sleeping.
Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.
Example.--_Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi manĝas_ = The less I
drink, the more I eat.
Ĵus = _Just_, _at the_ (_past_) _moment_, _just now_.
Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis ŝin_ = I have just seen her. _Mi ĵus
diris al vi lian nomon_ = I have just told you his name. _Lia ĵusa
parolo_ = The speech he has just made.
Kaŝe or sekrete = _In secret_.
Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = _Sometimes_. Iafoje = _At times_.
Multfoje = _Many times_.
Kia ajn = _Whatever_ (_kind of_) (par. 145).
Example.--_Mi aĉetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn ĝi estos_ = I will
buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be.
Kial = _Why_, _wherefore_ (par. 150).
Example.--_Kial vi silentis?_ = Why were you silent?
Kiam = _When_, _at what time_ (par. 151).
Example.--_Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive?
Kiam ajn = _Whenever_, _whensoever_ (par. 145).
Example.--_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me
whenever he comes (shall come).
Kie = _Where_, _in what place_ (par. 152).
Examples.--_Kie kreskas tiuj floroj?_ = Where do those flowers grow?
_Diru al mi, kie li estas_ = Tell me where he is. _Kien_ (accusative)
= Whither. _Kien vi iras?_ = Whither (_or_, where) are you going? _De
kie li venis?_ = Whence did he come?
Kie ajn = _Wherever_, _wheresoever_ (par. 145).
Examples.--_Kie ajn li estas, li estas ŝatata_ = Wherever he is, he
is liked. _Kien ajn_ = Whithersoever. _Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li
irus_ = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). _De
kie ajn ĝi venis, ĝi estas tre bela katido_ = Whencesoever (from
wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten.
Kiel = _How_, _in what manner_, _like_ (in comparison = _... as_).
Examples.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? (how are you, _or_,
fare you?) _Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some idea how
to do it. _Tiel longe kiel_ = As long as. _Se vi estus kiel mi_ = If
you were (should be) like me. _Kiel eble plej bone_ = As well as
possible (as possibly, most well). _Kiel bona vi estas!_ = How good
you are! (par. 153).
Kiel ajn = _However_, _in whatever manner_ (par. 145).
Example.--_Kiel ajn vi ĝin faros, faru ĝin bone_ = In whatever way
you (will) do it, do it well.
Kiom = _How much_, _as much as_, _as far as_ (par. 156).
Examples.--_Kiom kostas tio?_ = How much does that cost? _Kiom mi
scias_ = As far as I know. _Kiom li povos_ = As much as he can (will
be able).
Kiom ajn = _However_ (_many_) _much_, _whatever quantity_.
Examples.--_Mi ĝin aĉetos, kiom ajn ĝi kostos_ = I shall buy it,
however much it may (will) cost. _Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom
sufiĉas_ = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is
sufficient (par. 145).
Kompare = _Comparatively_, _in comparison_.
Kompate = _Compassionately_, _mercifully_. Senkompate =
_Pitilessly_.
Kompreneble = _Of course_.
Kondiĉe = _Conditionally_, _on condition_.
Konforme = _Conformably_, _in accordance_.
Konsekvence = _Consistently_.
Konsente = _By consent_.
Kontente = _Contentedly_. Malkontente = _Discontentedly_.
Kontentige = _Satisfactorily_, _in a satisfactory manner_.
Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_, _opposite to_, _vice versâ_.
Kredeble = _Likely_, _probably_.
Kune = _Together_, _jointly_. Kune kun = _Together with_, _along
with_. Malkune = _Separately_.
Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_, _as it were_ (also conjunction).
Examples.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas fantomon_ = He stood as
though he saw (sees) a phantom. _Li parolis, kvazaŭ li vidis ŝin_ =
He spoke as if he had seen her.
Laŭlarĝe = _In breadth_, _broadways_, _transversely_.
Laŭlonge = _In length_, _lengthwise_.
Laŭvole = _At option_, _at will_.
Laŭte = _Loudly_, _in a loud voice_. Mallaŭte = _Softly_, _in a
soft voice_.
Lerte = _Cleverly_. Mallerte = _Awkwardly_.
Longe = _Long_, _for a long time_. Mallonge = _Briefly_, _in
short_. Antaŭ ne longe = _Recently_, _not long ago_, _a short time
ago_. De longe = _Long ago_, _long since_, _for a long time_.
Male = _On the contrary_, _contrarily_.
Malpleje = _Least_, _at least_.
Examples.--_Li malpleje donis_ = He gave least. _Ni estos tri
mapleje_ = We shall be three at least (see _pleje_).
Malpli = _Less_ (for comparatives) (par. 112).
Example.--_Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano_ = George is less
strong than John.
Malproksime = _Afar_, _away_, _far off_, _in the distance_.
Matene = _In the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.
Mem = _Self_, _selves_, _very_ (pronoun) (par. 127).
Examples.--_Mi mem iros_ = I shall go my_self_. _Eĉ la virinoj mem
laboris sur la kampoj_ = Even the women them_selves_ (_or_, the very
women) were working in the fields. _Ĉe la pordo mem_ = At the very
door (door it_self_).
Morgaŭ = _To-morrow_.
Examples.--_Mi iros tien morgaŭ_ = I shall go there to-morrow. _Li
alvenos postmorgaŭ_ = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.
Multe pli multe da ... = _Many_ (_much_) _more of_ ... Nemulte =
_Not much_, _not many_. Malmulte = _Little_, _few_.
Ne = _No_, _not_, _nay_.
Examples.--_Ĉu vi deziras kafon?_ = Do you wish for coffee? _Ne, mi
jam havas_ = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).
Ne tute = _Not entirely_, _not altogether_, _not quite_.
Example.--_Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris_ = He was
not altogether wrong in what he said.
Nenial = _For no cause_ (_reason_) (par. 150).
Example.--_Nenial li ĉesis skribi al mi_ = For no reason he ceased
writing to me.
Neniam = _Never_ (par. 151).
Example.--_Mi neniam vidis lin_ = I never saw him.
Nenie = _Nowhere_, _in no place_ (par. 152).
Examples.--_Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon_ = Nowhere could they
find my dog. _Mi iras nenien speciale_ = I am going nowhere in
particular.
Neniel = _Nohow_, _by no means_, _in no way_ (par. 153).
Example.--_Li neniel povis kompreni ŝin_ = He could in no way (not
at all) understand her.
Neniom = _None_, _nothing_, _nothing at all_, _no quantity_
(par. 156).
Example.--_Li havas neniom_ = He has none at all.
Nepre = _Unfailingly_, _surely_, _infallibly_, _without fail_.
Example.--_Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi_ = That book certainly
belongs to me.
Norden = _Northwards_, _to the north_. Suden = _Southwards_, _to
the south_. Orienten = _Eastwards_, _to the east_. Okcidenten =
_Westwards_. Okcidente = _In the west_.
Nun = _Now_.
Examples.--_Mi nun foriras_ = I am now going out. _Mi ne povas lin
vidi nun_ = I cannot see him now.
Nune = _At present_.
Example.--_Mi estas okupata nune_ = I am busy at present.
Nuntempe = _Now-a-days_, _at the present time_.
Nur = _Only_ (_but_, in the sense of _only_), _merely_.
Example.--_Li havas nur du ĉevalojn_ = He has but (only) two horses.
N.B.--Care should be taken to place _nur_ in such a position in a
sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is
best generally to place it before the word to which it specially
refers (see par. 88).
Pace = _In peace_, _peacefully_.
Page = _In payment_. Senpage = _Gratuitously_.
Parkere = _By heart_.
Parole = _Verbally_, _by word of mouth_. Skribe = _In writing_.
Example.--_Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe_ = He
communicated that to me verbally and in writing.
Pasie = _With passion_, _passionately_. Kolere, _angrily_.
Pere = _Indirectly_. Senpere = _In a direct way_, _direct_.
Persone = _Personally_, _in person_.
Piedire = _On foot._
Example.--_Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire_ = I traversed the wood on
foot.
(la) Plej = (_the_) _Most_ (for superlatives), _most_ (par. 113).
Examples.--_La plej bela el ĉiuj_ = The finest of all. _Vi agis plej
saĝe, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that.
Pleje = _Most_, _mostly_, _mainly_, _at most_.
Examples.--_Ŝi donis pleje_ = She gave most. _Pleje_ (or,
_plejofte_) _mi forgesas, ke ..._ = Mostly (frequently) I forget
that ... _Ni estos kvin pleje_ = We shall be five at most (see
_malpleje_).
Plezure = _With pleasure._
Pli = _More_ (for comparatives), _rather_ (par. 112).
Examples.--_Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon_ = He will not live more
than one day. _Pli kaj pli mi ŝin amas_ = More and more I love her.
_Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi_ = I preferred to work than to play.
Plie = _Further_, _moreover_.
Plivole = _Preferably_, _rather_ (par. 112).
Plu = _Further_, _farther_, _more_. Ne ... plu = _No longer._
Examples.--_Mi ne faros unu paŝon plu_ = I shall not go (make) one
step further. _Li ne plu faros tion_ = He will not do that any longer
(more), or, He will no longer do that.
Plue = _Furthermore._
Poduone = _By half_, _by halves_.
Poste = _Afterwards_, _after_, _then_.
Precipe = _Especially_, _particularly_.
Prefere = _Preferably_, _rather_.
Preskaŭ = _Almost_, _nearly_, _well-nigh_.
Examples.--_Li preskaŭ falis_ = He nearly fell. _Ni preskaŭ pensas,
ke ..._ = We almost think that ...
Pripensinte = _On reflection._
Proksime = _Near._ Malproksime = _Far off._
Proksimume = _Approximately._
Prunte = _On loan._
Example.--_Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte_ = I took (gave) the
money on loan.
Rapide = _Rapidly_, _quickly_, _apace_. Malrapide = _Slowly_,
_tardily_.
Rapidire = _With speed_, _by express_. Malrapidire = _By slow
train._
Rave = _Enchantingly_, _delightfully_.
Ree = _Again_, _in return_.
Rekte = _Straightforwardly_, _direct_. Malrekte = _Aslant._
Renversite = _Topsy-turvy_, _upset_.
Returne = _Back._ Returnen = _Backwards._
Ŝajne = _Seemingly._
Samtempe = _At the same time_, _simultaneously_.
Sekve = _Consequently_, _therefore_. Intersekve =
_Consecutively_, _successively_.
Sendube = _No doubt_; _without doubt_, _doubtless_.
Senintermanke = _Continuously_, _without intermission_.
Skribe = _In writing._
Sovaĝe = _In a wild state._ Malsovaĝe = _In a tame state._
Somere = _In summer._ Vintre = _In winter._
Speciale = _Specially._
Sube = _Beneath_, _below_, _under_, _underneath_.
Sufiĉe = _Enough_, _sufficiently_.
Supre = _Above_, _up_. Supren = _Upwards._ Malsupre = _Below._
De supre = _From above._
Surgenue = _On one's knees_, _kneeling_.
Surprize = _By (with) surprise._
Tial = _Therefore_, _accordingly_, _for that (such) reason_.
Example.--_Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li_ = For that reason
(therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).
Tiam = _Then_, _at that time_. The correlative is kiam, and
tiam, kiam = _then_, _when_ (or, _when_) (par. 151).
Examples.--_Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno_ = We shall at that time
be able to go to the meeting. _Mi vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos
Londonon_ = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London.
Tiamaniere = _In this (such a) manner_, _thus_.
Tie = _There_, _yonder_. Tien = _Thither_ (par. 152).
Examples.--_Ĉu iu estos tie?_ = Will anyone be there? _Vi ne vidos
iun tie._ = You will not see anyone there. _Ĉu vi iras tien?_ = Are
you going thither (there)?
Tie ĉi, or, Ĉi tie = _Here._ Tien ĉi, or, Ĉi tien =
_Hither_, _here_ (par. 143).
Examples.--_Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi?_ = Are your brothers here?
_Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here (hither). _Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da
viroj kaj virinoj_ (or, _geviroj_) = Here we saw crowds of men and
women.
Tiel = _Thus_, _in that way_, _like that_, _so much so_. Its
correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = _as ... as_
(par. 153).
Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.
Tiel ... ke = _So ... that._
Example.--_Li tiel kriegis, ke li raŭkiĝis pro tio_ = He shouted
so, that he became hoarse through it.
Tiom = _As much_, _as many_, _so much_, _so many_. Its correlative
is kiom, and tiom, kiom = _as many as_, _as much as_ (par. 156).
Examples.--_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to
remember. _Li tiom laboris, kiom vi_ = He worked as much as you.
_Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj_ = Give me as many apples as
pears.
Tiom pli = _So much the more._
Examples.--_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better. _Tiom pli malbone_ =
So much the worse.
Trae = _Right through._
Tre = _Very_, _much_.
Examples.--_Li estas tre dika_ = He is very corpulent. _Mi tre
estimas lin_ = I esteem him much.
Treege = _Extremely_, _exceedingly_.
Example.--_Ŝi estas treege kolera_ = She is extremely angry.
Trie = _Thirdly._
Triumfe = _Triumphantly_.
Tro = _Too_, _too much_.
Examples.--_Li estas tro grasa_ = He is too fat. _Mi lin tro amas_ =
I love him too much.
Troe = _In excess_.
Example.--_Dudek funtoj troe_ = Twenty pounds in excess.
Tuj = _At once_, _immediately_, _just_ (_at the moment to come_).
Examples.--_Li tuj iris hejmen_ = He went home immediately (at once).
_Tuj kantonta_ = just about to sing.
Tuj kiam = _As soon as_ (_immediately when_).
Example.--_Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte_ = As soon as
I saw him, I ran to meet him.
Tute = _Entirely_, _quite_, _utterly_, _stark_.
Examples.--_Vi estas tute prava_ = You are quite right. _Li estas
tute freneza_ = He is stark mad.
Tute ne = _Not at all_.
Example.--_Mi tute ne komprenas vin_ = I don't at all understand you.
Unue = _First_, _firstly_, _at first_.
Verŝajne = _Probably_, _presumably_.
Vete = _Emulously_.
Vole = _With one's will_. Kontraŭvole = _Against one's will_.
Memvole = _Voluntarily_. Senvole = _Involuntarily_.
Vole-nevole = _Willy-nilly_.
Volonte = _Willingly_, _readily_.
248 (_c_). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used
in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).
Examples.--_Ŝi estas nigre vestita_ = She is dressed in black. _Li
donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro_ = He gave me two
shillings in payment for the book. _Forme ĝi estis simila al krono_
= In shape it was like a crown. _La libro estas angle skribita_ = The
book is written in English. _Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten_ =
Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word
_Esperanten_ the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).
PREPOSITIONS.
The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the
paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be
found:--
Par.
Al _To, towards_ 259 (1).
Anstataŭ _Instead of_ 259 (2).
Antaŭ _Before, in front of_ 259 (3).
Apud _Beside, close by_ 259 (4).
Ĉe _At, with_ 259 (5).
Ĉirkaŭ _About, around_ 259 (6).
Da _Of_ 259 (7).
De _Of, from, by_ 259 (8).
Dum _During_ 259 (9).
Ekster _Outside_ 259 (10).
El _Out of_ 259 (11).
En _In_ 259 (12).
Ĝis _Till, as far as_ 259 (13).
Inter _Between_ 259 (14).
Je _(Indefinite)_ 259 (15).
Kontraŭ _Against, opposite_ 259 (16).
Krom _Besides, except_ 259 (17).
Kun _With_ 259 (18).
Laŭ _According to_ 259 (19).
Malgraŭ _Notwithstanding_ 259 (20).
Per _By means of_ 259 (21).
Po _At the rate of_ 259 (22).
Por _In order to, for_ 259 (23).
Post _After, behind_ 259 (24).
Preter _Beyond, past_ 259 (25).
Pri _Concerning, of, about_ 259 (26).
Pro _Because of, for_ 259 (27).
Sen _Without_ 259 (28).
Sub _Under_ 259 (30).
Super _Above, over_ 259 (31).
Sur _On_ 259 (32).
Tra _Through_ 259 (33).
Trans _Across_ 259 (34).
PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).
249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how
some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other
thing, action, or quality.
Examples.--_La riveroj fluas al la oceano_ = Rivers flow towards the
ocean. _Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo_ = He eats before midday. _Nia
domo staras ekster la arbetaro_ = Our house stands outside the
plantation.
250. Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and
definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the
preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful
examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the
errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its
apparent corresponding one in Esperanto.
251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a
definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a
preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can,
however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or
pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to
arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence,
as:--Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = _He rejoices at_ (or,
_over_) _that_. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly
the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this sense. We might,
perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at,"
or, "to rejoice over." The nearest Esperanto preposition would be
pri or pro = _about_, or, _because of_, and we could say Li
ĝojas pro tio = _He rejoices because of that_ (see Rule 14, par. 94).
(_a_). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the
complement of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the
accusative without a preposition is equally correct.
Examples.--_Profunda_ (_alta_, _longa_) _je kvin futoj_ (or, _kvin
futojn_) = Five feet deep (high, long). _La rivero estas larĝa je
kvindek metroj_ (or, _larĝa kvindek metrojn_) = The river is fifty
metres wide. We could, however, say, _La rivero havas kvindek metrojn
da larĝo_ (or, _da larĝeco_).
252. Adverb for preposition.--An adverb is often used instead of a
preposition and its complement (par. 248 (_c_)).
Examples.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = He speaks with wisdom, instead of,
_Li parolas kun saĝeco_. _Li estis frapata perfortege_ = He was
being struck with great violence, instead of, _Li estis frapata kun
perfortego_.
253. Preposition omitted.--Not only the preposition Je (par.
251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in
Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated
in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the
omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not
make the phrase ambiguous.
Examples.--_Li venos la mardon proksiman_ (or, _en la mardo
proksima_) = He will come next Tuesday. _Mi iros Madridon_ (or, _al
Madrido_) _morgaŭ_ = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. _Mi lin vidis
la dekan_ (or, _en la deka_) _de Julio_ = I saw him on the 10th of
July. _Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn_ (or, _dum du horoj_) = We
remained two hours in the carriage.
(_a_). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives,
when the word nomata = _named_ could be understood (par. 106 (_d_)), as:--
_La urbo_ (_nomata_) _Parizo_ = The city of (named) Paris. _La monato
Septembro_ = The month of September. _Li uzadas la lingvon
internacian_ (_nomatan_) _Esperanto_ = He uses the international
language Esperanto.
(_b_). The preposition el = _of_, _out of_, is sometimes omitted in
such an expression as:--
_Tri miaj parencoj_ = Three of my relatives (_or_, three relations of
mine).
254. Prepositions as prefixes.--Prepositions are frequently used as
prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is
often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.
Examples.--_Mi eliris el la korto_ = I went out of the courtyard. _Li
eniris en la ĉambron_ = He entered (into) the room. _La birdo
deflugis de la arbo_ = The bird flew from the tree. _Li eliris el la
domo_ = He went out of the house. Or we could say, _Li iris el la
domo_, omitting the joined preposition.
255. Prepositions and case.--In contrast to prepositions in
English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in
Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a
preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the
preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the
direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is
made (par. 67).
256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.--As already
stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or
otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards
which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition,
then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with
the following rules:--
(_a_). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its
complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that
prepositions govern that case.
(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then
movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative
(par. 67).
257. Prepositions denoting movement.--The following two
prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is
never in the accusative:--Al = _To_, _towards_. Ĝis = _Up to_,
_as far as_.
As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose
complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards
something is implied:--Antaŭ = _Before_. Ĉirkaŭ = _Around_,
_about_. En = _In_. Kontraŭ = _Against_. Sub = _Under_.
Super = _Over_. Sur = _On_, _upon_. Tra = _Through_. Trans =
_Across_.
Examples.--_Li staris momente antaŭ la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis
antaŭ la reĝon_ = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass,
and then came before (into the presence of) the king. _La infano
dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la ĝardenon_ = The child
danced _in_ (not _into_) the courtyard, and then ran _into_ (not
_in_) the garden. _Ĵetu tion sub la tablon_ = Throw that under the
table. _Ĵetu la ŝtonon super la muron_ = Throw the stone over the
wall. _Mi prenas sur min tiun ĉi aferon_ = I take upon myself this
business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since _sur_ does not
of itself show movement). _La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans
ĝi trovis aliajn knabojn_ = The boy waded across the river, and, on
the other side of it, found other boys.
258. Prepositional expressions.--Adverbs are not unfrequently
followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions
which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions.
Examples.--_Meze de la kampo_ = In the middle of the field. _Funde de
kesto_ = At the bottom of a box. _Flanke de la malliberulo_ = At the
side of the prisoner. _Proksime de la preĝejo_ = Near the church.
_Dekstre de la vojo_ = On the right of the road. _Supre de la muro_ =
At the top of the wall. _Dank' al lia konsilo_ = Thanks to his
advice. _Li venis kune kun sia frato_ = He came together (along) with
his brother. _Li estas for de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Oni
plantis arbon proksime de la puto_ = They planted a tree near the well.
_Metu vian manon for de mia kolo!_ = Take your hand off (away from) my
neck.
(_a_). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are
sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in
the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the
omission (par. 253).
Examples.--_Koncerne tiun aferon_ (or, _Koncerne je tiu afero_) =
Concerning that matter. _Konforme tion_ (or, _Konforme al_, _kun_ or,
_je tio_) = In conformity with that. _Rilate lian karakteron_ (or,
_Rilate al lia karaktero_) = With regard to (relative to, as regards,
referring to) his character (par. 247)
N.B.--These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We
might, in some cases, use _pri_ for _koncerne je_ or _rilate al_, and
_laŭ_ for _konforme al_.
(_b_). Two prepositions sometimes are used.
Examples.--_"Eniru!" ekkriegis voĉo de en la pordo_ = "Come in!"
shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. _Li rampis de sub la
sofo_ = He crept from under the sofa. _La ŝtono havis la alton_ (or,
_altecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon_ (or,
_larĝecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj_ = The stone had the
height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five
centimetres. _El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton_ = Out
from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. _Ne
rapidu foriri de antaŭ li_ = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go
away from before him).
259. The relation of prepositions to their complement.--English
grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in
Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257,
denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need
pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and
time; and of these, two only, viz., antaŭ = _before_, and post
= _after_, require care in making their meaning clear.
In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their
use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering
would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance
with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a
defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This _defined_ meaning is
given at the _head_ of each preposition. The meanings given in the
_classes_ are only the _various English renderings_ that can be given
to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).
REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS.
259 (1). Al = _To, towards._
Denotes approximation or addition.
Approximation = _To, towards._
Examples.--_Li venis al ni_ = He came to (_or_ towards) us. _Mi iras
al Parizo_, or, _Mi iras Parizon_ = I am going to Paris. If _al_ be
omitted, _Parizon_ must be in the accusative of direction. _Ni ne
vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj_ = We do not
see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.
N.B.--_Kaŝata al_, not _de_, which, after a passive participle,
means "by"; but independently of this, _al_ is logically used after
_kaŝi_, in the sense of "to hide from"; as:--_Sed pro kio kaŝi al
li vian amon?_ = But why conceal from him your love?
Addition = _To._
Examples.--_Mi donis akvon al la birdoj_ = I gave water to the birds.
_La rozo apartenas al Teodoro_ = The rose belongs to Theodore. _Donu
vestaĵon al la malriĉuloj_ = Give clothing to the poor.
N.B.--With some verbs _al_ is often used with the complement in the
nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:--_Li
konsilis al mi fari tion_ = He advised me to do that. _Ordonu al li_
(or, _Ordonu lin_), _ke li ne faru tion_ = Order him not to do that.
_Al_ is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive
sense, as:--_Li lavis al si la manojn_, or, _Li lavis siajn manojn_ =
He washed his hands (see par. 134).
As a prefix, _al_ signifies "to," "towards," as:--_Alveni_ = To
come to, arrive. _Alpreni_ = To take to, adopt. _Alpaŝi_ = To step
towards, approach.
259 (2). Anstataŭ = _Instead of._
One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see
remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).
Substitution = _Instead of_, _for_, _in place of_, _as a substitute
for_, _in room of_.
Examples.--_Anstataŭ li, oni sendis lian fraton_ = Instead of him,
they sent his brother. _Anstataŭ kafo li donis al mi teon_ = Instead
of coffee he gave me tea. _Anstataŭ eliri, li restis en la domo_ =
Instead of going out, he remained in the house. _Anstataŭ unu el la
oficistoj_ = In place of one of the officials.
Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph,
anstataŭ, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative,
nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use
helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission
of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ
Vilhelmo = _Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so_, with
Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, _Peter beat
Paul instead of_ (_beating_) _William_.
As a root-word, _Anstataŭi_ = To replace (intrans.).
_Anstataŭigi_ = To replace (trans.), to substitute. _Anstataŭulo_ =
A proxy (person instead of).
259 (3). Antaŭ = _Before_, _in front of_.
Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction.
Place = _Before_, _in front of_.
Examples.--_Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron_ = They put before me a
table service. _Morgaŭ mi petos permeson veni antaŭ viajn reĝajn
okulojn_ = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal
presence (kingly eyes). _Antaŭ nia militistaro staris pafilegoj_ =
In front of our army were (stood) cannon.
Time = _Before_, _ago_.
Examples.--_Antaŭ ne longe_ = Not long ago. _Antaŭ kelkaj semajnoj_
= Some (a few) weeks ago.
N.B.--Since _antaŭ_ and also _post_ are frequently used both in the
sense of "time" and "place," care must be taken to word a phrase so
that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, _antaŭ
ol_ or _antaŭ kiam_ should be used when time is implied.
_Examples._--_La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj_ = The
betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of
the parents). _La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol_ (or, _antaŭ
kiam_) _la gepatroj alvenis_ = The betrothed met before the parents
arrived (= time, viz., before the parents _arrived_). _Johano venis
antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ
ol Johano alvenis_ = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left
the court before John's arrival.
As a prefix, _Antaŭdiri_ = To foretell. _Antaŭiri_ = to precede.
259 (4). Apud = _Beside_, _close by_.
Place = _By_, _near_, _near to_, _close by_.
Examples.--_La batalo apud Farsalo ŝanĝis multajn aferojn en Romo_
= The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. _Li estas
apud la pordo_ = He is near the door. _Li staris apud Johano_ = He
stood by John. _Mi vespermanĝos ĉe tiu tablo apud la fenestro_ = I
shall dine at that table close by the window.
As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Apudeco_ = Contiguity.
_Apudesti_ = To be present, or near.
259 (5). Ĉe = _At_, _with_.
Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either
of place, time, or connection.
Place = _At_, _with_, _to_, _on_.
Examples.--_Li estas ĉe ni_ = He is with us (at our _house_). _Ni
estis ĉe via patro_ = We were at your father's. _Ŝi estas ĉe la
pordo_ = She is at the door. _Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato_ = On
the other side of the street. _Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj
Smith_ = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs.
Smith).
Time = _At, on._
Example.--_Ĉe nia alveno la hundo bojis_ = At (on) our arrival the
dog barked.
Connection = _In, to, with, on._
Examples.--_Brakon ĉe_ (or, _en_) _brako_ = Arm in arm. _Koron ĉe
koro_ = Heart to heart. _Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi
diras...._ = I believe that with every word you say.... _Ĉe la
komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol"_ = With the comparative the
conjunction "ol" is used. _Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi
sendas...._ = To settle my account with you, I send.... _Ĉe tia
vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita_ = With such weather, you will
soon be restored to health. _Ĉe tio_ = On that.
As a prefix, _Ĉeesti_ = To be present. _Inter la ĉeestantoj ni
rimarkis...._ = Amongst those present we observed....
259 (6). Ĉirkaŭ = About, around.[19]
Denotes place, time, manner, quantity.
Place = _About, around, round._
Examples.--_Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj_ = At about three paces. _La
hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi_ = The dogs played and jumped
around her.
Time = _About._
Example.--_La koncerto daŭris ĉirkaŭ tri horojn_ (or, _dum
ĉirkaŭ tri horoj_) = The concert lasted about three hours.
Manner = _Round_.
Example.--_Li premis sian edzinon ĉirkaŭ la talio_ = He squeezed
his wife round the waist.
Quantity = _About_.
Example.--_Mi volas aĉeti ĉirkaŭ kvar funtojn_ = I wish to buy
about four pounds.
As a prefix or root-word, _ĉirkaŭ_ has the signification of
"encircling," as:--_Ĉirkaŭfrazo_ = Periphrase, circumlocution.
_Ĉirkaŭpreni_ = To embrace. _Ĉirkaŭi_, _ĉirkaŭigi_ = To
surround.
Footnote:
[19] It will be seen from the examples that the preposition
_ĉirkaŭ_ may be followed by the accusative of direction: _Jakobo
metis sakon ĉirkaŭ siajn lumbojn_ (Rabistoj, 52, 2); _La virino
ĵetis ambaŭ brakojn ĉirkaŭ la kolon de la knabino_ (Marta, p.
8); _Ĵetante siajn brakojn ĉirkaŭ lian kolon_ (Faraono, II, 57).
259 (7). Da = _Of_.
Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number,
etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the
second.
Quantity = _Of_.
Examples.--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas.
_Dudeko da homoj_ = A score of people. _Funto da teo_ = A pound of
tea. _Sur la arbo sin trovis multo_ (or, _multe_) _da birdoj_ = On
the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.
Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes
the _quantity_ required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the
_thing_ required (teo).
Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or
pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi.
Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a
piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li manĝis pecon da
pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.
N.B.--_Glaso da vino_ = A glass of wine. _Glaso de_ (or, _por_)
_vino_, or, _vinglaso_ = A wineglass. _Alportu al mi tetason, kaj
elverŝu por mi tason da teo_ = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a
cup of tea.
Note.--Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da,
de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English
preposition "of." Note the following examples:--
Da.--_Cento da pomoj_ = A hundred (of) apples. _Dekduo da kuleroj_
= A dozen (of) spoons. _Miliono da loĝantoj_ = A million (of)
inhabitants. _Kvar metroj da ŝtofo_ = Four metres of material.
_Ducent kilometroj da longo_ = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length.
De.--_Tri estas duono de ses_ = Three is half of six. _Ok estas
kvar kvinonoj de dek_ = Eight is four-fifths of ten. _La domo de mia
frato_ = The house of my brother, _or_, My brother's house. _Doktoro
de juro_ = A doctor of laws.
El.--_Ĉiu el la infanoj_ = Each of the children. _Unu el ni_ = One
of us. _Ni faru uzon el tio_ = Let us make use of that. _Domo
konstruita el ŝtono_ = A house built of stone. _La plej bela floro
el la ĝardeno_ = The most beautiful flower of the garden.
259 (8). De = _Of_, _from_, _by_.
De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and
disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or
possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea:
_origin_.
De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the
preposition "of," where nomata = _named_ might be inserted between
two substantives.
Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La monato Julio_
= The month of July (par. 106 (_d_)).
Care must be taken not to confuse de with da.
Possession = _Of_.
Examples.--_La libro de Petro_ = The book of Peter, _or_, Peter's
book. _La domo de mia kara patro_ = My dear father's house.
Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _on_, _from_.
Examples.--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on the
number of words. _Tio venis de_ (or, _el_) _lia unua eraro_ = That
came from his first error. _Li estas doktoro de medicino_ = He is a doctor of medicine. _Li venis
de_ (or, _el_) _Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino_ = He came from Paris
and is now going to Berlin. _Kaj Dio diris: "Kolektiĝu la akvo de
sub la ĉielo en unu lokon"_ = And God said: "Let the waters (water)
(from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into
one place."
Place = _From_, _of_, _to_.
Examples.--_For de tie ĉi, fripono!_ = Away from here, rascal! _Li
forestas de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Li staris meze de la
malamikoj_ = He stood in the midst of the enemy. _Proksime de la domo
staris arbo_ = Near (to) the house stood a tree. _Ne malproksime de
la dometo staris preĝejo_ = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a
church.
Time = _From_, _since_, _for_.
Examples.--_De tiu tempo_ = From (since) that time. _De la kreo de la
mondo_ = Since the creation of the world. _De tri semajnoj mi estas
malsana_ = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.
Cause = _From_, _of_, _with_.
Examples.--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started (jumped) with
surprise. _Li mortis de febro_ = He died of (from) fever. _Kaŭze de
tio_ = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.
Agency = _By_ (after a passive verb, to show the _agent_). To show
the _means_ per is used.
Examples.--_Mi estas amata de mia patro_ = I am loved by my father.
_La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj_ = The
house built by my father is covered with slates.
Disconnection or Abstraction = _From_.
Example.--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from
the hay.
As a prefix, _de_ signifies "off," "from," as:--_Li deprenis la
libron de la breto_ (or, _li prenis la libron for de sur la breto_) =
He took the book off the shelf. _Li demetis la ĉapelon_ = He took
off his (the) hat.
259 (9). Dum = _During_.
Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates
to duration of time (see note below).
Time = _During_.
Examples.--_Dum la tuta tago_ (or, _La tutan tagon_) _li restis sola_
= During the whole day he remained alone, _or_, He remained alone the
whole day. _Dum_ (or, _En la daŭro de_) _kelkaj monatoj, ŝi ne
eliradis el sia ĉambro_ = During (for the space of, for) some months
she did not leave (go out of) her room. _Li dormis dum la tuta
koncerto_, or, _Li dormis la tutan koncerton_ = He was sleeping
during the whole (all through the) concert. _Dum ilia konsiliĝo_
(or, _Dum ili konsiliĝis_) _mi restis en la apuda ĉambro_ = During
their consultation (_or_, whilst they were consulting) I remained in
the adjoining room.
Note.--Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr.
Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our
preposition "during" he generally uses the accusative of duration, or
the prepositional expression en la daŭro de, or simply en, or
turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle.
259 (10). Ekster = _Outside_.
Place = _Outside_. Ekster is the opposite of en = _in_.