GRAMMAR.
94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by
Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo
Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of
every earnest _student_ who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto
style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends,
Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto,
Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well
Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.
It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short
Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is
given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples,
will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.
COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.
Alphabet.
The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars.
1-4.
N.B.--Printing offices which do not possess the letters _ĉ_, _ĝ_,
_ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, can use instead of them _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_,
_sh_, _u_.
PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.
Alfabeto.
Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee,
Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii,
Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn,
Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt,
Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.
_Rimarko._--Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_,
_ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, povas anstataŭ ili uzi _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_,
_sh_, _u_.
Rules.
I.
The Article.--There is no indefinite article; there is only a
definite article (_la_), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.
N.B.--The use of the article is the same as in other languages.
People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not
at first use it at all.
(See pars. 96-102.)
Reguloj.
I.
_Artikolo_ nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita
(_la_), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.
_Rimarko._--La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj
lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas
malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.
II.
The Substantive.--Substantives have the termination _o_. For the
formation of the plural the termination _j_ is added. There are only
two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from
the nominative by the addition of the termination _n_. The other
cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by
_de_, the dative by _al_, the ablative by _per_ or other
prepositions according to sense).
(See pars. 103-106.)
II.
La _substantivoj_ havas la finiĝon _o_. Por la formado de la
multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon _j_. Kazoj ekzistas nur du:
nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo
per la aldono de la finiĝo _n_. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj
per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per _de_, la dativo per _al_,
la ablativo per _per_ aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).
III.
The Adjective.--The adjective ends in _a_. Cases and numbers as with
the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word _pli_,
the superlative by _plej_; with the comparative the conjunction _ol_
is used.
(See pars 107-114.)
III.
La _adjektivo_ finiĝas per _a_. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la
substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto _pli_, la
superlativo per _plej_; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion
_ol_.
IV.
The Numerals.--The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are:
_unu_, _du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_,
_dek_, _cent_, _mil_. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple
junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals,
the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple--the
suffix _-obl_, for the fractional--_on_, for the collective--_op_,
for the distributive--the word _po_. Besides these, substantival and
adverbial numerals can be used.
(See pars. 115-124.)
IV.
La _numeraloj_ fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: _unu_,
_du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_, _dek_,
_cent_, _mil_. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo
de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la
finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj--la sufikson _-obl_, por
la nombronaj--_on_, por la kolektaj--_op_, por la disdividaj--la
vorton _po_. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj
adverbaj.
V.
The Pronouns.--Personal pronouns = _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_
(referring to thing or animal), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; the
possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival
termination. Declension is as with the substantives.
(See pars. 125-138.)
V.
_Pronomoj_ personaj: _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_ (pri objekto aŭ
besto), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; la pronomoj posedaj estas
formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas
kiel ĉe la substantivoj.
VI.
The Verb.--The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the
verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination
_-as_; the past tense (the time been, or having been) _-is_; the
future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) _-os_; the
Conditional mood _-us_; the Imperative (ordering) mood _-u_; the
Indefinite (infinitive) mood _-i_. Participles (with an adjectival
or adverbial sense): active present _-ant_; active past _-int_;
active future _-ont_; passive present _-at_; passive past _-it_;
passive future _-ot_. All forms of the passive are formed by help of
a corresponding form of the verb _esti_ and a passive participle of
the required verb. The preposition with the passive is _de_.
(See pars. 159-237.)
VI.
La _verbo_ ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de
la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon _-as_; la tempo
estinta _-is_; la tempo estonta _-os_; la modo kondiĉa _-us_; la
modo ordona _-u_; la modo sendifina _-i_. Participoj (kun senco
adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta _-ant_; aktiva estinta
_-int_; aktiva estonta _-ont_; pasiva estanta _-at_; pasiva estinta
_-it_; pasiva estonta _-ot_. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas
formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo _esti_ kaj
participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo
estas _de_.
VII.
The Adverb.--Adverbs end in _e_; degrees of comparison as with
adjectives.
(See pars. 238-248.)
VII.
La _adverboj_ finiĝas per _e_; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la
adjektivoj.
VIII.
The Preposition.--All prepositions require the nominative.
(See pars. 249-261.)
VIII.
Ĉiuj _prepozicioj_ postulas la nominativon.
IX.
Pronunciation.--Every word is read as it is written.
(See pars. 5-19.)
IX.
Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.
X.
Accent.--The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.
(See par. 17.)
X.
La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.
XI.
Compound Words.--Compound words are formed by the simple junction
of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical
terminations are also regarded as independent words.
(See pars. 39-50.)
XI.
Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la
ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas
rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.
XII.
Negation.--When another negative word is present the word _ne_ is
omitted.
(See pars. 59-62.)
XII.
Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto _ne_ estas forlasata.
XIII.
Direction.--In order to show direction, words take the termination
of the accusative.
(See par. 67.)
XIII.
Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.
XIV.
Use of Prepositions.--Every preposition has a definite and constant
meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense
does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take,
then we use the preposition _je_, which has no meaning of its own.
Instead of the preposition _je_ we can also use the accusative
without a preposition.
(See par. 251.)
XIV.
Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni
devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian
nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion _je_,
kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio _je_ oni
povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.
XV.
Foreign Words.--The so-called foreign words, that is, those which
the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in
the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the
orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one
root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to
form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the
Esperanto language.
(See pars. 39, 52.)
XV.
La tiel nomataj vortoj _fremdaj_, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de
la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto
sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe
diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la
vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la
reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.
XVI.
Elision.--The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be
dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.
(See pars. 56, 57.)
XVI.
La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti
forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.
COMMENTARY
ON THE
GRAMMAR.
PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).
95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most
other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo),
Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb
(Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio),
Interjection (Interjekcio).
Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive
terminations. If a word ends in _-O_, it is a noun; if in _-A_, an
adjective; if in _-E_, an adverb; if in _-I_, _-U_, _-AS_, _-IS_,
_-OS_, or _-US_, a verb. If it ends in _-N_, it is in the accusative
case, and if in _-J_, it is plural.
Examples.--_Domo_ = a house. _Facila_ = easy. _Feliĉe_ = happily.
_Doni_ = to give (Infinitive). _Batu lin_ = beat him (Imperative and
Accusative). _Mi vidas la homojn_ = I see the men (Present tense and
Accusative plural). _Vi diris_ = you said (Past tense). _Ni iros_ =
we shall go (Future tense). _Se ili estus bonaj_ = If they were good
(Conditional mood and plural adjective).
THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).
96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It
is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English
requires it.
Examples.--_Tio estas floro_ = That is a flower. _Patrino kaj filo_ =
Mother and son. _Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo?_ = Do you see a
bird on that tree?
97. The definite article is la = _the_. It is, as in English, the
same for all genders, numbers, and cases.
Examples.--_La patro_ = The father. _La patrino_ = The mother. _Donu
al mi la libron_ = Give me the book. _Ili estas la lernantoj
diligentaj_ = They are the diligent scholars.
98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite
article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of
something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.
Examples.--_En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda
vilaĝo_ = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the
neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each
defined by the article _la_, as they are also in English by "the."
But if we omit the article the sentence runs:--_En la mezo de korto
mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo_ = In the middle of a yard I
saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children
might have been in _any_ yard, and have belonged to _any_ village in
the neighbourhood of the speaker.
99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in
Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also _vice versa_.
(_a_). It is usually used before nouns denoting the _totality_ of
persons or things.
Examples.--_La homo estas mortema_ = Man is mortal. _La homoj estas
mortemaj_ = Men are mortal. _La medicino estas scienco kaj la
pentrado arto_ = Medicine is a science and painting an art. _Kelkaj
kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano_ = Some
doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. _Sen la akvo nia
terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto_ = Without water our earth would
rapidly become a desert. _La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo_ =
The night was as dark as pitch. _La azenoj amas la kardojn_ = Donkeys
love thistles. _La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj
landoj_ = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this
case _la vento_ means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but
"To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: _Hodiaŭ ni
havos venton_.) _Hajlo falas_ = Hail is falling (viz., some hail),
but _La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero_ = Hail is very
injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.
(_b_). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason
that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In
English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.[13]
Examples.--_Danubo_ = The Danube. _Tibro_ = The Tiber. _Mediteraneo_
= The Mediterranean. _Alpoj_ = The Alps. _Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj
Amerikaj_ (or, _Usono_) = The United States of America.
Footnote:
[13] This is too strict. In practice the definite article is often
used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) _la Alpoj_, _la
Mediteraneo_, etc.
(_c_). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word,
the article is used.
Examples. _La glora poeto, Dante_ = The famous poet, Dante. _La
imperiestro de Japanujo_ = The Emperor of Japan. _La bona reĝino
Viktorio_ = The good Queen Victoria.
100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a
possessive pronoun.
Examples.--_Li havas doloron en la kapo_ = He has a pain in his (the)
head. _Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon_ = She offered me her hand. _Mi
malkovris la okulojn_ = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(_a_)).
(_a_). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in
speaking of one's own relatives, or when there is no doubt as to the
person to whom the article la refers.
Examples.--_Mi amas la patron_ = I love my (the) father. _Iru al la
patrino_ = Go to your (the) mother. _Kie estas la kuzo?_ = Where is
your (the) cousin? _La patro staras apud la filo_ = The father stands
by (at the side of) his (the) son.
101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives
showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.
Example.--_Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto_ = To-day is
the 27th of March.
(_a_). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also
before each separate noun or adjective.
Examples.--_En la vintro_, or, _En vintro_ = In the winter. _En la
somero_, or, _En somero_ = In the summer. _La arboj, la floroj kaj la
kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno_ (or, _La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj_) =
The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.
(_b_). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = _all_, or, _all the_.
Example.--_Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno_ = I did not see
all the trees in the garden.
(_c_). It is not used after da (see par. 259).
N.B.--From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English
student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be
careful to use it with words defining a _class_ or the _totality_ of
persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will
carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or
Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.
In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is
better to omit it.
102. Elision.--The final _A_ of the article may be omitted in
certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).
THE NOUN (La Substantivo).
103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the
accusative, ends in _-O_. The accusative is formed by the addition of
_N_. In the plural it ends in _-OJ_, and the accusative plural is
formed by adding _N_ to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made
into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:--
Arb-o = _a tree_ (nominative, singular).
Arb-on = _a tree_ (accusative, singular).
Arb-oj = _trees_ (nominative, plural).
Arb-ojn = _trees_ (accusative, plural).
Examples.--_Domo_ = A house. _La domo_ = The house. _La domoj_ = The
houses. _Rigardu la domojn_ = Look at the houses. _Knabo_ = A boy.
_La knabo_ = The boy. _Mi vidis la knabon_ = I saw the boy. _Knabino_
= A girl. _La knabino_ = The girl.
Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.
104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz.,
the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is
obtained from the nominative by adding _N_ to the singular or plural.
Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:--
Nominative Mia bona patro = _My good father_.
Accusative Mian bonan patron = _My good father_.
Genitive or} {_Of my good_
Possessive } De mia bona patro = {_father, or, My_
} {_good father's_.
Dative Al mia bona patro = _To my good father_.
{ De mia bona patro = _From_ (_by_, see par. 259 (9))
{ _my good father_.
Ablative { Kun mia bona patro = _With my good
{ father._
{ Per bona glavo = _With (by means
{ of) a good sword._
Note that per = _by_ is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by
means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = _with_ means "in company
with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in
English, e.g., _I held him with both hands_ = Mi lin tenis per
ambaŭ manoj, not _kun_ ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).
Plural.
(_a_). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of
the plural termination _J_, as:--
Genitive De miaj bonaj filoj = _Of my good sons._
Accusative Miajn bonajn filojn = _My good sons._
Examples.--_La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas_ = The brother is
writing and the sister reading. _La patro donis la libron al sia
filo_ = The father gave the book to his son. _Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka
ringo_ (or, _ringo el kaŭĉuko_) _estas por la infaneto_ = This
india-rubber ring is for the baby. _Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo_ =
I saw Joseph with his cousin. _Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de
la mondo_ = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. _Mi
lin salutis per la mano_ = I saluted him by the hand. _La domo estas
kovrita per ardezoj_ = The house is covered with slates. _Mi vidis
vian patron kun liaj du filoj_ = I saw your father with his two sons.
_Kie estas la domo de via patro?_ = Where is your father's house?
105. Ellipsis.--The case (nominative or accusative) of words in
Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in
a phrase, and unless we write the sentence in full, or think what
the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express
our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it
is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:--
_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi_ (_konas lin_) = I know him better than
you (do, _or_ know him).
_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin_ (_ol mi konas vin_) = I know him
better than you (than I know you).
_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom_ (_li amas_) _Johanon_ = Peter loves
Paul as much as (he loves) John.
_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano_ (_amas lin_) = Peter loves
Paul as much as John (loves him).
N.B.--In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning
until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is
at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).
_Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi_ (_iris_) = He went there as well as
you (went).
_Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ_ (_mi vidis_) _vin_ = I saw him there
as well as (I saw) you.
_Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia_ (_estas_) _via_ = I never saw such
a dog as yours.
105 (_a_). Elision.--The final _O_ of a noun may be omitted (par.
57, and Rule 16, par. 94).
106. Possession is (_a_) expressed by help of the preposition de.
Examples.--_La domo de la patro_ = The father's house, _or_, the
house of the father. _La libro de mia patrino_ = My mother's book,
_or_, the book of my mother. _La tranĉilo de Georgo_ = George's
knife. _Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj_ = That is my brothers'
house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)
(_b_). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in
_ES_, viz.:--ies = _someone's_, _somebody's_, ĉies = _everyone's_,
kies = _whose_, nenies = _nobody's_, ties = _that one's_, _of those_
(see par. 154).
Examples.--_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was
different. _Kies domo estas tiu?_ = Whose house is that? _Ĝi estas
nenies domo_ = It is nobody's house. _Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies
tranĉilo?_ = Is this anyone's (someone's) knife? (see par. 154).
(_c_). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we
employ an apostrophe.
Examples.--_Unutaga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de unu tago_) = One
day's work. _La unuataga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de la unua tago_) =
The first day's work. _Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj
poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo_ = His first day's work
was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day's work in the
house. _Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon_ = I awaited the captain's
reply.
(_d_). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not
translated.
Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La Kolonio
Natalo_ = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (_a_)).
For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for
predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of
accusative with proper names, par. 69 (_d_); for the infinitive used
as a noun, par. 180.
THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).
107. The Adjective always ends in _-A_ in the singular. _J_ is
added to _A_ to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the
addition of _N_ to the singular or plural termination.
Examples.--_Forta_ = Strong. _Saĝa_ = Wise. _Brava_ = Brave. _Forta
homo_ = A strong man. _Saĝa patro_ = A wise father. _Saĝaj patroj_
= Wise fathers. _La brava filo_ = The brave son. _La bravaj filoj_ =
The brave sons.
108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:--(_a_) Qualifying or
attributive (apudmetita = _put adjacent_), and (_b_) Predicative
(predikateca).
(_a_). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its
noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).
Examples.--_Johano havas bonan panon_ = John has good bread.
_Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_ = William sharpened the
blunt knives.
(_b_). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb,
denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or
denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them
in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).
Examples.--_La pomo estas bona_ = The apple is good. _Vilhelmo trovis
la tranĉilojn malakraj_ = William found the knives blunt. If the
adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would
be quite altered, for, _Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_
would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was
looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective
shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is
generally _esti_. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence
might be as follows:--William found (that) the knives (are)
blunt--_Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj_. If we
elide _ke_ and _estas_, the substantive takes the accusative
(_tranĉilojn_) and the adjective (_malakraj_) remains in the
nominative. Other examples are:--_La kutimo faris lin_ (_ke li
estu_) _indiferenta por tio ĉi_ (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to
be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. _Kion vi intencas nun
fari, por vin montri_ (_ke vi estas_) _inda filo de via kara patro?_
(Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that
you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on
ellipsis).
109. Predicative Noun.--A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).
Examples.--_La patro nomis sian filon Johano_ = The father named his
son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the
name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son
whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the
name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (_Johanon_,
so:--_La patro nomis sian filon Johanon_ = The father named (made
mention of) his son John. _Ili nomis lin Adolfo_ = They called him
(gave him the name of) Adolphus.
110. Nominative or Accusative.--The rule, therefore, for qualifying
and predicative adjectives or nouns is:--
(_a_). The word will be in the accusative if the object already
possesses the quality in question.
(_b_). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it
did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given
to the object.
111. Participial Adjectives.--Participles are often used in
Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality
true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are
called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).
Examples.--_Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj_ = John and George were
lost. _Ni trovis ilin mortantajn_ = We found them (who were) dying.
_Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis_ = We had finished when you
arrived (see par. 209 (_b_)).
112. Comparison of Adjectives.
(_a_). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = _as_,
_so_ ... _as_.
Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = _John is as strong as
George._
(_b_). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = _more_
... _than_.
Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = _John is stronger than George._
(_c_). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = _less_
... _than_.
Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = _John is less strong
(weaker) than George._
(_d_). The other modes of expressing comparison are:--
tia ... kia = _such_, _such a_, _such kind_ ... _as_.
sama ... kia = _the same_ ... _as_.
same ... kiel = _the same_ ... _as_.
Ju pli ... des pli = _the more_ ... _the more_.
Ju malpli ... des malpli = _the less_ ... _the less_.
Ju pli ... des malpli = _the more_ ... _the less_.
Ju malpli ... des pli = _the less_ ... _the more_.
Examples.--_Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata_ = Such a house
as that is rarely seen. _Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via_, or,
_Mia bastono estas same, kiel via_ = My stick is the same as yours.
_Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas_ = The more I know him,
the more I esteem him. _Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la
bezonon dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to
sleep. _Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The more
I see him, the less he pleases me. _Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi
trinkas_ = The less I eat, the more I drink.
_Be careful to note_ that the second term in a comparison is in the
nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or
complement, e.g., Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = _I
love my brother more than my sister (loves him)_. Mia fratino is in
the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton
pli, ol mian fratinon = _I love my brother more than my sister_.
Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly
clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example
to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister
does" (see par. 105).
113. Superlatives (_Superlativoj_).
(_a_). The superlative of superiority is la plej = _the most_.
(_b_). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = _the
least_.
The preposition el = _out of_, _of_, is used with the superlative
when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group,"
"society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or
position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate
preposition is used.
Examples.--_Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj_ = John is the
strongest of the boys. _Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj_ =
Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. _Georgo estas la malplej
kuraĝa knabo en la domo_ = George is the least courageous boy in the
house. _Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis_ = She was
the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. _Tiuj ĉi estas la plej
grandaj arboj en la arbaro_ = These are the largest trees in the
wood. _Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo_ (_klubo_,
_societo_) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club,
society). _Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon_ = Put the
largest glasses upon the table. _Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn
en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn_ (_malplej grandajn_) = Do not
throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least
large).
(_c_). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre = _very_, or
treege = _exceedingly_, or troe = _excessively_, or some other
suitable adverb.
Example.--_Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa_ = That
woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.
114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the
aid of the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ with or without an adverb. The
suffix _-EG-_ is stronger in its application than the adverb tre =
_very_. For instance, take the adjective bela = _beautiful_, or
_fine_. Tre bela = _very beautiful_, or _very fine_; but belega =
_magnificent_, or _superb_. So, the diminutive _-ET-_ shows more
diminution than the adjective malgranda = _small_, or _little_,
would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero =
_a small river_, but rivereto = _a brook_, or _stream_. The
following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of
intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes
tre varmega = _broiling hot_ and tre malvarmega = _intensely
cold_, supposing we were speaking of the weather:--
Tre varmega = _Broiling hot_. Tre malvarmega = _Intensely cold_.
Varmega = _Hot_. Malvarmega = _Bitterly cold_.
Tre varma = _Very warm_. Tre malvarma = _Very cold_.
Varma = _Warm_. Malvarma = _Cold_.
Iom varma = _Warmish_. Iom malvarma = _Coldish_.
Varmeta = _Mild_. Malvarmeta = _Cool_.
See remarks on the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_, par. 277.
NUMERALS.
Cardinal Numbers (_Numeraloj fundamentaj_).
115. The cardinal numbers are:--
(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok,
(9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.
Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.
(_a_). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek
before the first nine, as:--(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek
tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep,
(18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.
(_b_). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by
the addition cent, or mil, as:--(101) cent unu, (102) cent du,
(110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses,
(1,114) mil cent dek kvar.
(_c_). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one
of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:--(20) dudek,
(30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900)
naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.
(_d_). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are
formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:--(21) dudek
unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121)
cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu,
(8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.
(_e_). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or
number.
Examples.--_La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn_ = The two
children divided between themselves seven apples. _Unu prenis tri kaj
la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj_ = One took three and the other took
four of the apples. _Kvin kaj sep faras_ (or, _estas_) _dek du_ = 5
and 7 make (are) 12.
(_f_). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means
_some_. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = _others_.
Examples.--_El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj
malbonaj_ = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and
others bad. _Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj
aliajn malbonaj_ = He examined the apples, and found some good and
others bad. Note that _bonaj_ and _malbonaj_ are predicative
adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108
(_b_)).
(_g_). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is
employed as a numeral.[14]
Example.--_Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu
mian_ = Since we have each _a_ dictionary, take yours and leave mine.
Footnote:
[14] This use of _unu_ is not recommended.
Ordinal Numbers (_Numeraloj ordaj_).
116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto,
made such in the usual way by adding _A_ to the cardinals,
as:--unua = _first_, dua = _second_, tria = _third_, kvara =
_fourth_, kvina = _fifth_, sesa = _sixth_, sepa = _seventh_,
oka = _eighth_, naŭa = _ninth_, deka = _tenth_.
(_a_). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, _A_ is
added to the last only, as:--dek-unua = _eleventh_, dek-dua =
_twelfth_, dek-naŭa = _nineteenth_, dudeka = _twentieth_,
dudek-unua = _twenty-first_, cent-tridek-naŭa = _hundred and
thirty-ninth_.
N.B.--Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.
(_b_). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and
number.
Examples.--_Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran_ = Give him the
third, and take the fourth. _La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas
tre altaj_ = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.
(_c_). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours,
days, months, years, kings, etc.
Examples.--_Paĝo trideka_ = Page thirty. _Vidu paĝon kvardekan_
(or, 40an) = See page forty (40). _Henriko kvara_ = Henry IV. _La
dek-unua horo_ = 11 o'clock. _En la dek-sesa_ (_tago_) _de Aprilo_ =
On the 16th of April. _En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa_ = In
1899. _Mil-naŭcent-kvara_ = 1904.
In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often
used.
Examples.--_Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion?_ = On what page did you
see that? _Kioma paĝo estas?_ = What page is it? _Kioma horo estas?_
= What o'clock is it? _Estas la dua_ = It is two o'clock. _Kiun daton
ni havas?_ = What is the date (or, day of the month)? _Hodiaŭ estas
la dudek-sepa_ (or, 27a) _de Marto_ = To-day is the 27th of March.
117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding _E_ to the cardinals,
as:--unue, _firstly_, due, _secondly_, sepe, _seventhly_, etc.
118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding _O_. They
have various meanings, as:--Unuo = _a unit_, or _a one_. Duo = _a
duet_, or _a two_ (of cards). Trio = _a trio_, or _triplet_, or _a
three_ (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = _a four_, etc. (of cards, etc., up
to ten). Dek-duo = _a dozen_. Deko = _half a score_. Dudeko =
_a score_. Cento = _a hundred_. Milo = _a thousand_. Miliono =
_a million_.
Examples.--_Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj
milojn da birdoj_ = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and
thousands of birds. _Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso
kera_ = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts.
_Tiu cifero estas oko_ = That figure is an eight.
Multiples (_Numeraloj multoblaj_).
119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix _-OBL-_ to
the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the
adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive
verbs by the suffix _-IGI-_, or intransitive by the suffix _-IĜI-_.
Examples.--_Unuobla_ = Single. _Unuoble_ = Singly. _Duobla_ = Double,
twofold. _Duoble_ = Doubly. _La duoblo_ = The double. _Duobligi_ = To
double, to duplicate. _Duobliĝi_ = To become double. _Triobla_ =
Triple, threefold. _Trioble_ = Trebly. _La trioblo_ = The treble
(of). _Triobligi_ = To treble, to triplicate. _Kvarobla_ = Fourfold,
quadruple. _Kvaroble_ = Quadruply. _Kvaroblo_ = A quadruple.
_Kvarobligi_ = To quadruple, to make fourfold. _Kvarobliĝi_ = To
become quadruple. _Sepobla_ = Sevenfold, septuple. _Centoblo_ = A
centuple. _Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin_ = Five times (fivefold) 7
is 35. _Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72.
_Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses_ = Four times four is 16. _Dudek estas
la kvaroblo de kvin_ = Twenty is the quadruple of five. _Duobla
fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla_ = A double thread is stronger than
a single (one). _Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de
tri_ = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.
Fractional Numbers (_Numeraloj nombronaj_).
120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix
_-ON-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the
adjective, adverb, or noun, as:--Duona = _half_, duone = _by
halves_, duono = _a half_ (1/2), triona = _third_, trione = _by
thirds_, triono = _a third_ (1/3).
Examples.--_La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du,
tio estas ses_ = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6.
_Unu triono_ = One third (1/3). _Tri okonoj_ = Three eighths (3/8).
_Neniam faru ion poduone_ = Never do anything by halves. _Duone ses
estas tri_ = half of six is three.
The Collectives (_Numeraloj kolektaj_).
121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix
_-OP-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_ or _E_ to mark
adjectives or adverbs, as:--Duopa = _double_, _two together_,
duope = _by twos_, _in pairs_, triope = _in threes_, _in
triplets_, dekope = _by tens_.
Example.--_Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at a
time) they threw themselves upon me.
Reiteratives (_Numeraloj ripetaj_).
122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the
cardinals, as:--Unufoje = _once_, dufoje = _twice_, trifoje =
_thrice_, kvarfoje = _four times_.
Examples.--_Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje_ (or, _unu fojon_), _sed
hodiaŭ dufoje_ (or, _du fojojn_) = Yesterday I met him once, but
to-day twice.
N.B.--Note that when the substantive _fojo_ is used, it is in the
accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (_b_)).
Distributives (_Numeraloj disdividaj_).
123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before
the cardinals, meaning _at the rate of_, _in the proportion of_.
Examples.--_Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj_ = I
paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. _Tiu ĉi
libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek
kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book
contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the
rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "_po_"
in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).
The Time of Day (_La horo_).
124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day.
"A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:--
(_a_). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = _three-quarters of the 3rd_ (_hour_).
(_b_). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = _the 2nd_ (_hour_) _and three-quarters_.
(_c_). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = _a quarter before the 3rd_ (_hour_).
The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by
an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence
we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is,
however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway
time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general
use. Therefore to the question:--_Kioma horo estas?_ = What time
(hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:--
2.0 =_La dua_ (_horo_).
2.15 =_La dua_ (_horo_) _kaj dek kvin_ (_minutoj_).
3.5 =_La tria_ (_horo_) _kvin_.
10.2 =_La deka_ (_horo_) _du_.
11.45 =_La dek-unua_ (_horo_) _kvardek kvin_.
In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to
twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:--4.10 p.m. in
Italy = 16.10 = _La dek-sesa_ (_horo_) _dek_.
PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).
125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:--(1) Personal, (2)
Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6)
Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.
As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with
other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two
classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as
correlative words (see pars. 139-157), so under the head of
"Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.
Personal Pronouns (_personaj pronomoj_).
126. The personal pronouns are:--
Nominative.
Singular. 1st Person. Mi = _I_.
" 2nd Person. Vi = _you, thou_. (Ci = _thou_ is rarely used).
" 3rd Person. Li = _he_, Ŝi = _she_, Ĝi = _it_.
Plural. 1st Person. Ni = _we_.
" 2nd Person. Vi = _you_, _ye_.
" 3rd Person. Ili = _they_.
Accusative.
Singular. 1st Person. Min = _me_.
" 2nd Person. Vin = _you, thee_. (Cin = _thee_ is rarely used).
" 3rd Person. Lin = _him_, Ŝin = _her_, Ĝin = _it_.
Plural. 1st Person. Nin = _us_.
" 2nd Person. Vin = _you_.
" 3rd Person. Ilin = _them_.
Oni = _one_, _people_, _they_, _we_ (like the French "on"), is an
indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or
plural.
Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to
oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the
accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are
occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular,
and may be used without hesitation if desired.
Si = _self_, _selves_, _oneself_, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd
person, singular or plural.
Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural,
but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it
take the plural form.
Ĝi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also
persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.
Examples.--_Mi lin amas_ = I love him. _Li min vidas_ = He sees me.
_Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno_ = They found him and me in
the garden. _Vi ne vidis nin_ = You did not see us. _Vi_ (plural)
_estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas)_ = You are wiser than they are.
_Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro_ = She saw them in the bedroom.
_Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion"_ = They (people) say
(it is said), "With money one (_or_, we) can buy everything. _Mi
vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda_ = I saw the house, but
it was too small. _Se oni estus riĉa_, or _riĉaj_ = If one were
rich.
(_a_).--In words like infano = _child_, persono = _person_,
individuo = _individual_, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is
it in the general name of an animal, as:--leono = _a lion_, hundo
= _a dog_, birdo = _a bird_, etc., unless we add the feminine
suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use
the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to
demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively.
Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and
of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is
known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is
nevertheless legitimate if desired.
Examples.--_La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi_ (or _li_ if
we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. _Tio estas
bela ĉevalino, ĝi_ (or, _ŝi_) _trotas bone_ = That is a fine mare,
she trots well. _Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke
ĝi revenu morgaŭ_ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me
whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.[15]
Footnote:
[15] This use of _ĝi_ for a person is not recommended, and _li_ (or
_tiu_) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.
127. The word mem = _self_ or _selves_ is sometimes used with a
personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.
Examples.--_Mi mem ĝin vidis_ = I myself saw it. _Ni mem ĝin
trovis_, or, _Ni ĝin trovis mem_ = We found it ourselves. _Vi venu
mem_ = Come yourself. _Ŝi mem parolos_ = She herself will speak. _Li
mem respondu_ = Let him answer (for) himself. _La virinoj venu mem_ =
Let the women come themselves.
128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore
cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.[16] We
cannot say _Mi lavas sin_, or _Ni_, or _Vi lavas sin_, for "I wash
myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." We must, in each
of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb,
as:--Mi lavas min--Ni lavas nin--_Vi lavas vin_ = _I wash
myself_--_We wash ourselves_--_You wash yourself_ (or if vi = _you_
is plural), _You wash yourselves_. Si, therefore, is used for the
3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the _subject_ of
the verb. It takes the accusative termination _N_ when necessary, and
then represents "_himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _oneself_,
_themselves_."
Examples.--_Li razis sin_ = He shaved himself. _Petro razis sin_ =
Peter shaved himself (_Petro razis lin_ would mean Peter shaved
_him_, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). _Ŝi diris
al si_ = She said to herself (_Ŝi diris al ŝi_ would mean "She said
to her," viz., some other woman). _Ĝi vundis sin_ = It wounded
itself (_Ĝi vundis ĝin_ would mean "It wounded it," viz., some
other animal). _Ili mortigis sin_ = They killed themselves. _Li
pensis en si mem, ke ..._ = He thought to (in) himself that ... _La du
fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed,
tiel farante, ili vundas sin_ (or, _sin mem_) = The two brothers meet
the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing,
they wound themselves. _Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion
por si, kaj nenion por ŝi_ = My sister has a friend, who does
everything for herself, and nothing for her. _Oni kelkfoje tro
laŭdas sin_ = One (_or_ people) sometimes praises oneself (_or_
praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb,
par. 170).
Footnote:
[16] The reason for the use of si is the avoidance of ambiguity.
Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, because there is no
possibility of ambiguity in these cases.
129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see
par. 164).
Examples.--_Kiu estas tie? Estas mi_ = Who is there? It is I.
_Neĝas_ = It snows. _Pluvis_ = It rained. _Necesas, ke oni manĝu_ =
It is necessary to eat.
Possessive Pronouns (_Pronomoj posedaj_).
130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival _A_ to
the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow
the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the
accusative.
131. They are mia = _my_, _mine_, via = _your_, _yours_, _thy_,
_thine_ (cia = _thy_, _thine_, like its personal pronoun, ci, is
rarely used), lia = _his_, ŝia = _her_, _hers_, ĝia = _its_,
nia = _our_, _ours_, ilia = _their_, _theirs_, sia = _his_
(_own_), _her_ (_own_), _hers_, _its_ (_own_), _their_ (_own_),
_theirs_, _one's_ (_own_).
Examples.--_Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj
onklinoj, estas en la domo_ = My father, your brother, his sister,
her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. _Mi vidis vian libron,
lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo_ = I
saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station.
_Mi havas viajn librojn_ = I have your books. _Ĝia koloro estas
ruĝa_ = Its colour is red. _Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj
viajn amikojn_ = My sister met your brother and your friends.
132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the
following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the
writer's option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the
ground that it is superfluous.
Examples.--_Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas_ (or, _ĉar ĉiu el ni havas_) _unu
vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian_ = Since we have each a
dictionary, take yours and leave mine. _Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli
grandaj, ol (la) viaj_ = Her children are bigger than yours.
Note in the first example that _ĉiuj_ is in the plural because it is
in apposition to _ni_ (see par. 69 (_c_)).
133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.
Examples.--_Patrino mia_ = Mother mine, or Mother dear. _Fratino mia_
= Sister dear.
134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may,
as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the
possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.
Example.--_Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino_, or, _liaj patro,
patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo_ = His father, his mother, and
his sister were in the house.
134 (_a_). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are
sometimes used in a possessive sense.
Examples.--_Mi kovris al mi la orelojn_ = I covered my (to myself
the) ears. _Li fermis al si la okulojn_ = He closed his (to himself
the) eyes (see also par. 100).
135. Sia, Lia, etc.--Great care must be taken not to use sia,
when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd
person, or _vice versâ_. Sia can _only_ refer to the _subject_ of
the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and _being
reflexive_, it can never form _part_ of the _subject_ of a sentence,
as:--_Li diris al ni, ke_ lia (not, sia) _hundo ĵus mortis_ = He
told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used
for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own),
her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one's (own)."
Since sia, being reflexive, can never form _part_ of the _subject_
of a sentence, we cannot say _Li_ kaj sia _edzino iris Parizon_,
because _li_ and _edzino_ are equally subjects of the _same_ clause.
But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the _sole_
subject, and we can correctly say, _Li_ kun sia _edzino iris
Parizon_, or, _Li iris Parizon_ kun sia _edzino_ = He went to Paris
_with_ his wife. If we use kaj we must say, _Li_ kaj lia _edzino
iris Parizon_ = He _and_ his wife went to Paris.
136. In the four following examples sia _refers to the subject_ of
the sentence:--
_Mia patrino forgesis sian libron_ = My mother forgot (_or_, has
forgotten) her book. _Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn_ = Those
children have lost their parents. _La hundo amas sian mastron_ = The
dog loves its master. _Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem_ =
One must love one's neighbour as oneself. N.B.--_Sin_ is here in the
accusative owing to ellipsis, the words _oni amas_ after _kiel_ being
understood (see par. 105).
137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun _does
not refer to the subject_ of the sentence, and therefore we use
lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:--
_Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon_ = He saw my friend and his
(his friend's) wife. _Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu
ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi_ = She came to me yesterday in order that I
might return her letters to her. _La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian
filon_ = The king loves John and his son.
N.B.--Here the English does not show whether it is John's son or his
own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is
John's son, otherwise it would be _sian filon_; _lian filon_ is
in the accusative here, because the conjunction _kaj_ connects
like cases (see par. 266).
(_a_). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in
accordance with the construction of the sentence.
_El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion_ = Of all her friends
(female), she loves Mary best. (Here _siaj_ refers to _ŝi_).
_El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata_ = Of all her
friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here _ŝiaj_ refers to some woman
not mentioned.)
_Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading (having read) his
book, he fell asleep. (Here _sian_ refers to _li_, understood in
_leginte_ = When _he_ had read his book, _he_ ...). _Leginte lian
libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here
_lian_ refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the
book.)
_Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo_ = John, while
reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.
138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the
advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national
languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:--
_Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon_ = Peter
wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (_sian_ refers to Paul because
_li_ = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and _sia_ always, as we have
said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if,
therefore, _lian_ had been the possessive, it would have been Peter's
dog.)
_Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino_
= After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here _sia_ would
refer to _filo_, the son's cousin, but _lia_ to _reĝo_, the king's
cousin.
_Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino
sian/ŝian libron._ This sentence in English, whichever of the
possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to
give (that she give) to her sister her book." Now the mother is
the first subject in this sentence, therefore _sian filinon_
is the mother's daughter (_ŝian_ would mean someone else's
daughter). But afterwards _ŝi_ (the daughter) becomes the subject,
therefore _sia fratino_ would be the daughter's sister, and _ŝia
fratino_ the mother's. For the remainder of the sentence _ŝi_ (the
daughter) still remains the subject, therefore _sian libron_ would be
the daughter's book, and _ŝian libron_ the sister's or the mother's
book. _Ties libron_ would definitely specify it as the sister's book.
138 (_a_). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and
138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia
always refer to the _subject_ (noun or pronoun) of _their own_
clause.
(_b_). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to
which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.
Example.--_Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian_ (or, _la_) _ĉapelon!_ =
That is a new method of brushing one's hat!
(_c_). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be
regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied:
i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the
full sentence implied.
Examples of Infinitive.--_Estas bone ne trompi_ (_ke oni ne trompu_)
_sin_ = It is well not to deceive oneself. _La patrino lasis
Marion legi_ (_ke ŝi legu_) _sian libron_ (Mary's book); _ŝian
libron_ (the mother's book). _La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi_
(_ke li rigardu_) _lin_ (him) _sin_ (himself). _La patro petis sian
filon, helpi_ (_ke la filo helpu_) _sian_ (the son's) _amikon_;
_lian_ (the father's) _amikon_.
Examples of Participle.--_La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante_
(_kiam ili renkontis_) _lin, eliru. La princo montris viron,
starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn_
(_kiuj ludas_) _per sia_ (their own) _pupo_--_per lia_ (with his)
_pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte_ (_kaj ne sciigis_) _sian
ministron pri sia_ (the king's) _devo_--_pri lia_ (the minister's)
_devo._
(_d_). Boirac names _lia_, _ŝia_, _ĝia_, etc., the direct or normal
form of the pronoun, "_La rekta formo_," and _sia_ the secondary or
accessory form, "_flanka kaj akcesora_." He points out that where the
use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of
the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is
nevertheless not _obligatory_. It is even possible, as shown by
Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be
somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "_La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn
signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn
samajn signojn en ilia_ (instead of _sia_) _lingvo_ (_F.K._, p. 258).
In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form.
It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used,
than to omit it when it might be used.
CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)
139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very
important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their
uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they
have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan.
They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.
140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many
of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also
expressions which require several English words to define clearly.
141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series
horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical
series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal
series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter _I_
is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a
central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first
letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal
letters following _I_ show how that idea is applied, and consequently
the full meaning of the word.
(_a_). The initial letters convey the following ideas:--
I- that the word is "indefinite."
Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective."
K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative."
NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, _not_,
and _N_ added for euphony).
T- that the word is "demonstrative."
(_b_). The terminal letters following _I_ denote that the idea is
to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:--
-A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival).
-AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial).
-AM in relation to "time" (adverbial).
-E in relation to "place" (adverbial).
-EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial).
-ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal).
-O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal).
-OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial).
-U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).
142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some
of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations
when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels
_A_, _E_, _O_, _U_, must not _necessarily_ be presumed to be the
parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not
_grammatical_ terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how
the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those
ending in a vowel all take the accusative _N_, and those ending in
_A_ and _U_ also take the plural _J_.
Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in _O_ also to take
the plural _J_; but in practice this is seldom useful.
143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = _that_ (thing), tiu =
_that one_, _the former_, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the
separate word ĉi = _near_, to express the demonstrative pronoun,
"this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as
before stated. Thus tio = _that_ (thing), tio ĉi = _this_
(thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = _this_
(thing). Tiu = _that one_, _the former_, tiu ĉi = _this one_,
_the latter_. Tiuj = _those_, tiuj ĉi = _these_ (lit., "those
here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:--Ĉi tiu = _this one_. In
fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi
before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally
correct. Ĉio ĉi = _all this_.
144. The adverb, tie = _there_, is also followed by ĉi to
denote "here." Thus tie = _there_, tie ĉi = _here_, tien
(accusative) = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_. Occasionally ĉi
is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.
145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing
with _K_) may be followed by the word ajn = _ever_, as kia ajn =
_whatever kind of_, kial ajn = _for whatever reason_, kiam ajn =
_whenever_, kie ajn = _wherever_, kiel ajn = _however_, kies
ajn = _whosesoever_, kio ajn = _whatever_, kiom ajn = _however
much_, _whatever quantity_, kiu ajn = _whoever_, _whichever_.
Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof
himself has rarely used it except after the series _kia_, _kial_,
etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when
asked the question whether it could be employed after the series
_ia_, _ial_, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto,
any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (_c_) (_d_).
146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the
correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, etc., as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are
given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used
in writing.
_Ĉiam-a_ = Everlasting, continual. _Ĉiam-e_ = Everlastingly,
forever. _Ĉie-a_ = Of everywhere. _Ĉi-tie-a_ (_ĉi tiea_) = Of
here. _Tie-a_ = Of there. _Ĉi-tie-ulo_ (_ĉi tieulo_) = A man of
this place. _Tie-ulo_ = A man of that place. _Kiom-a_ = Of what
quantity. _Kioma horo estas?_ = What time is it? _Neni-igi_ = To
reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. _Neni-iĝi_ = To become
nothing, to vanish. _Tiam-a_ = Of then, of that time. _Tiam-ulo_ = A
man of that time, a contemporary. _La kial-o_ = The why and
wherefore, the reason (cause). _Tiel-e_ = In that way.
147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.
Indefinite. Distributive, Interrogative Negative. Demonstrative.
General or and Relative.
Collective.
Quality IA ĈIA KIA NENIA TIA
Kind of some (any) kind every kind of what kind of? no kind of that kind of
(adjectival) or sort of every of what kind? no, no such such a
some (any) of every kind what a! of no kind of that kind
of some kind ... as (not any
kind of)
Motive IAL ĈIAL KIAL NENIAL TIAL
Reason for for some (any) for every for what for no for that
(adverbial) reason or cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause
for all why? wherefore therefore
reasons
Time IAM ĈIAM KIAM NENIAM TIAM
(adverbial) at some always at what time? at no time at that time
(any) time every time when never then
ever for all time
once ever
Place IE ĈIE KIE NENIE TIE
(adverbial) in some in every place in what place in no place in that place
(any) place everywhere where nowhere there
somewhere (not yonder
(anywhere) anywhere)
Manner IEL ĈIEL KIEL NENIEL TIEL
(adverbial) in some (in) every in what in no in that
manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way
somehow (in) every way how? nohow thus, so,
(anyhow) all ways ... as by no means like (that)
(in any manner) like not at all as ...
in such a manner
Possession IES ĈIES KIES NENIES TIES
(pronominal) somebody's everybody's whose no one's that one's
(someone's) everyone's of which nobody's of that
(anyone's) each one's of none of those
of each, of all
Thing IO ĈIO KIO NENIO TIO
(not specified) something everything what (thing) nothing that (thing)
(substantival (anything) all things which not anything
or pronominal) all
Quantity IOM ĈIOM KIOM NENIOM TIOM
(adverbial) some quantity every quantity what quantity no quantity that quantity
somewhat all, the whole how much none so much/many
rather, some all of it how many none at all as much/many
a little,
at all
(any)
Individuality IU ĈIU KIU NENIU TIU
Person or thing some one each one, each which one no one that one
(pronominal or (anyone) everybody who, he who nobody the former
adjectival) _ĉiuj_=all, which, that
all the ...
Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.
148. In the following examples (pars. 149-157) we have taken the
correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since
in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.
149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.
Ia = _some sort of_, _some_, _a_, _an_.
Ĉia = _every_ (_each_) _kind of_, _every sort of_.
Kia = _what a_! _what kind of_? _of what kind_, _... as_.
Nenia = _no_, _no such_, _no kind of_, _of no kind_, _not any kind of_.
Ia ajn, _of any kind_ (_whatever_).
Tia = _such a_, _that kind of_, _of that kind_.
Tia ... kia = _such ... as_.
Examples.--_Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion?_ = Have
you not some book which will explain that?
_Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some (_or_, an) idea how
to do it.
_Ekster ĉia dubo_ = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.
_Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj_ = Such (kind of) phrases are
found in all kinds (sorts) of (_or_, in any) books.
_Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas_ = We do not
know how they became what (such as) they are.
_Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa_ = No (kind of) previous
experience is necessary.
_Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas_ = Such a woman one always esteems.
_Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas_ = I gave him the book
such as it was.
_Kiun aĝon li havas?_ = How old is he? (what age has he?)
_Kia estas la vetero?_ = How (what kind) is the weather?
_Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento_ = Commencing at any (whatever)
moment.
_Kia bela domo!_ = What a beautiful house!
_Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj?_ = What are the stipulations (or terms)?
_Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj_ = They are proud, we are not so.
_Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni_ = She
began to feel something such as she herself at first could not
understand.
_Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi_ = I have just
learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).
_Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis_ = Here is the
monument such as they described.
_Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato_ = Your age is the
same as your brother's.
N.B.--Do not confuse the series ending in _A_ with that ending in _U_.
Examples.--_Kian libron vi bezonas?_ = What (sort of) book do you
want? _Kiun libron vi bezonas?_ = What (_or_ which) book do you want?
_Tia homo_ = Such a man, that sort of man. _Tiu homo_ = That man.
_Ĉiaj libroj_ = All (kinds of) books. _Ĉiuj libroj_ = All (_or_,
all the) books. _Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas_ = I shall take it
whatever (sort of thing) it is.
150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.
Ial = _for some reason or cause_ (_for any reason_)
Ĉial = _for all reasons_, _for every reason_, _for every cause_.
Ial ajn, _for any reason_ (_whatever_).
Kial = _why?_ _wherefore_, _for what reason_.
Nenial = _for no reason, or cause_.
Tial = _therefore_, _for that reason_.
Examples.--_Ial li subite forlasis Londonon_ = For some reason he
suddenly left London.
_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is the best.
_Kial vi ne respondis?_ = Why did you not answer?
_Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi_ = He for no reason ceased writing to
me.
_Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin_ = She
never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.
_Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris_ = I cannot imagine why
ever he did it.
151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.
Iam = _ever_, _at some time_ (_any time_), _once_, _one day_, _once
upon a time_.
Ĉiam = _always_, _for all time_, _ever_, _at every time_.
Kiam = _when_, _at what time_, _as_ (relating to time).
Neniam = _never_, _at no time_.
Tiam = _then_, _at that time_.
Examples.--_Se iam mi venos_ = If ever I come (shall come).
_Ĉiam skribu legeble_ = Always write legibly.
_En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io_ = On such occasions something is
always wanting.
_Kiam vi skribis tiel?_ = When did you write like that (thus)?
_Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron_ = When the priest comes
(shall come), tell him the truth.
_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam mi estis
riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa_ = At that time when (_or_, when) I
was rich I was not happy, _or_, When I was rich then I was not happy,
or the sentence might be simply _Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis
feliĉa_ = When I was rich I was not happy.
_Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn_ = I never write long letters.
_Mi neniam aŭdis tion_ = I never heard that.
_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me whenever he
comes.
_Kiam ajn li venos?_ = Whenever will he come?
N.B.--Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time"
except antaŭ = _before_, when ol is generally used, though
kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).
Examples.--_Unutage, kiam_ = One day, when. _Iun tagon, kiam_ = On a
day, when. _Tuj kiam_ = As soon as, immediately when. _Samtempe,
kiam_ = At the same time, when. _De l' tempo kiam_ = From the time
when, since. _Post kiam_ = After. _Antaŭ ol li venis_ = Before he
came.
152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.
Ie = _somewhere_ (_anywhere_), _in some_ (_any_) _place_.
Ĉie = _everywhere_, _in every place_, _in all places_.
Ie ajn, _anywhere_ (_whatever_).
Kie = _where_, _in what place_, _in which place_.
Tie = _there_, _yonder_, _in that place_. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi =
_here_, _in this place_.
Examples.--_Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro_ = I could
_not_ find my book _any_where in the room.
_Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?
_Ĉie mi trovis amikojn_ = Everywhere I found friends.
_Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie_ = That can be bought (one can buy)
anywhere (everywhere).
_Kien vi iras?_ = Where are you going?
_Mi iras nenien_ = I am going nowhere.
_Kie estas la poŝtoficejo?_ = Where is the post office?
_Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo_ = It is there where that house
stands.
_Kien vi iras?_ = Whither are you going?
_Mi iras tien_ = I am going thither.
_Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie?_ = Are you here?
_Li venas ĉi tien_ = He is coming here.
_Kie ajn li estas?_ = Wherever is he?
_Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi_ = Wherever he is, he is not
here.
153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.
Iel--_somehow_ (_anyhow_), _in some way_, _in some manner_.
Iel ajn, _in any way_ (_whatever_).
Ĉiel = _in every way_, _in every manner_, _in all ways_.
Kiel = _how_, _in what manner_, _like_, ... _as_.
Neniel = _nohow_, _in no manner_, _not at all_, _by no means_.
Tiel = _thus_, _in that manner_, _like_ (_that_), _so_, _as_ ...
Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = _as ... as_; _so ... as_.
Examples.--_Iel li ĉiel sukcesas_ = Somehow he succeeds in every
way.
_Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari_ = I had no idea how to do it.
_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? _or_, How are you?
_Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon
francan_ = She could nohow (_or_, not at all) understand him as long
as he spoke in the French language.
_Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto
estas donita al la besto_ = Just as reason has been given to man, so
instinct has been given to beasts.
_Kaj tiel plu_ (often written _k.t.p._) = And so on, and so forth.
_Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.)_ = As soon as possible.
_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.
_Kiel ajn malmulte_ = However little.
154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing
or person, singular or plural.
Ies = _somebody's_, _someone's_ (_anyone's_, _anybody's_).
Ĉies = _everyone's_, _each one's_, _of each_, _of all_.
Kies = _whose_, _of whom_, _of which_.
Nenies = _no one's_, _nobody's_, _of none_.
Ties = _that one's_, _of that_, _of those_.
Examples.--_Ĉies devo estas nenies_ = Anybody's (everybody's) duty
is nobody's.
_Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno_ = Someone's loss is not always
somebody's gain.
_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was different.
_Kies libro estas tiu ĉi?_ = Whose book is this?
_Kies plumon vi uzas?_ = Whose pen are you using?
_La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro_ = The
house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.
_El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj_ = From
all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.
_Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas_ = That book is very
dirty, whosesoever it is.
_Ties opinio ne multe valoras_ = That one's opinion is not worth
much.
_Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon_ = I never take (follow) that one's
(his, her, their) advice.
N.B.--Be careful not to use _kies_ for "of which," when these words
do not mean possession. We cannot say _La afero kies ni parolis_ for
"The affair of which we spoke"; we must say _La afero, pri kiu ni
parolis_.
155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite),
substantival or pronominal.
Io = _something_.
Io ajn, _anything_ (_whatever_).
Ĉio = _everything_, _all things_, _all_.
Kio = _what_ (_thing_), _which_.
Nenio = _nothing_, _not any thing_.
Tio = _that_ (_thing_). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = _this_ (_thing_).
Examples.--_Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas?_ = What is that (_or_,
that which) you are writing?
_Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie_ = Something was
under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.
_Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis_ = He saw something he liked very
much.
_Estas tempo por ĉio_ = There is a time for everything.
_Ĉio_ (_tio_) _ĉi montras, ke_ ... = All this shows that ...
_Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas_ (_la_) _via_ = All I have is yours.
_Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas?_ = What is this that I see?
_Nenio estas preta_ = Nothing is ready.
_Mi nenion trovis_ = I found nothing.
_Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas_ = It (that) has a bad
smell, whatever it is.
_Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi_ (or, _ĉio ĉi_) _al
iu_ = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.
156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.
Iom = _somewhat_, _some quantity_, _rather_, _a little_, _some_.
Ĉiom = _all_, _all of it_, _the whole_, _every quantity_.
Kiom = _how much_, _how many_, _what quantity_.
Neniom = _none_, _none at all_, _no quantity_.
Tiom = _so much_, _so many_, _as much_, _as many_, _that quantity_.
Tiom ... kiom = _as much_ (_many_) ... _as_.
Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat
(a little) warmer.
_Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom_ = Here is sugar, take
some, but not all (the whole).
_Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have you?
_Mi havas neniom_ = I have none (none at all).
_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better.
_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to remember.
_Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino_ = Give me as much water as
wine.
_Kiom vi scias_ = As far (much) as you know.
_Kiom eble_ = As far (much) (many) as possible.
_Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble
tiom_ = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can)
hold, this one will hold twice as much.
157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal
or adjectival.
Iu = _someone_, _somebody_.
Iu ajn, _anyone (whatever)_.
Ĉiu = _everyone_, _each one_. Ĉiuj = _all_, _all (of) the_....
Kiu = _who_, _which_, _that_, _which one_.
Neniu = _nobody_, _no one_, _no_.
Tiu = _that (one)_, _the former_. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = _this one_,
_the latter_. Tiuj, _those_; Ĉi tiuj, _these_.
Examples.--_Iu estas tie_ = Someone is there.
_Mi ne vidis iun_ = I did not see anyone (someone).
_Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn_ = Each age has its duties.
_Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi_ = She read every book
she could get.
_Kiu estas en la ĝardeno?_ = Who is in the garden?
_Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis_ = I knew every man whom I
met.
_Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi_ = I read all the
books that you lent to me.
_Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa_ = That bread is
new, but this is newer.
_Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn_ = He who has the black hair.
_Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun_ = No one was there, therefore
I saw nobody.
_Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo_ = That man, whoever
he is, is not a fool.
_Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol_
ĉiun _alian_ = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker,
whom she knew better than _any_one (everyone) else.
Ĉiu _vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia_ = Any (each) word
can be combined with _any_ (each) other word.
_Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol_ (k)iu _ajn el liaj parencoj_ =
He was more sincerely sorry for him, than _any_ of his relations.
_La pafilo povos en_ ĉiu _tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita_ = The gun
can be (will be able to be) loaded at _any_ time.
_Li ne permesos al_ (k)iu ajn _tion fari_ = He will not allow
_anyone_ (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (_d_)).
158. General Remarks.--The foregoing remarks on the correlative
words show the importance of a correct knowledge of their true
meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page
of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of
those ending in:--
(_a_). -_AL_ and -_EL_. It will be noticed that the series _AL_
represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:--"for some
reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series _EL_ the
phrases commence with "in," as:--"in some way," "in every way." Bear
in mind that -_AL_ relates to _motive_, and -_EL_ to _manner_. Note
the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke.
Tial, ke = _for the reason that_, _forasmuch as_, _because that_.
Tiel, ke = _in such a manner that_, _so that_. Some beginners seem
to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which
is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li
faras tion? = _Why_ (_for what reason_) _is he doing that?_ Kiel li
faras tion? = _How_ (_in what way_) _is he doing that?_
(_b_). -_O_ and -_U_. The series _O_ is rarely used in the plural; it
relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a
personal pronoun. _Examples_.--Kio estas tio? = _What is that?_
Kiu estas tiu? = _Who is that?_ Tiu estas mia frato, kiu
promenadas kun sia edzino = _That is my brother who is walking with
his wife._ Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = _That is what I wanted._
Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = _That which is
growing in my garden is a tree._ Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia
ĝardeno, estas kverko = _That tree, which is growing in my garden,
is an oak._
Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and
things, as:--_Tio_ (or, _ĝi_) _estis mi, kiu lin vidis_ = It was I
who saw him. _Tio estas ponto_ = It (that) is a bridge.
(_c_). -_I_: "_ANY_" (= _SOME_). It will be seen from the table of
Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column
commencing with _I_ have as their main idea _indefiniteness_,
corresponding to the English _some_ (_or other_). Thus: Li estas ie
= _he is somewhere_ (_or other_). Mi manĝos ion = _I shall eat
something_ (_or other_). Iu faris tion = _Someone_ (_or other_)
_did that._
In English, especially in a sentence which is negative,
interrogative, or suppositional, the word _any_ is often used in this
sense instead of the word _some_. In such cases (as shown in brackets
in the table) the i- words may be translated with _any_; thus: Ĉu
vi manĝis ion? = _Did you eat anything_ (_something_)_?_ Mi ne
manĝos ion = _I shall not eat anything._ Se li estus ie en la
ĉambro = _If he were anywhere_ (_somewhere_) _in the room._ Ĉu iu
faris tion? = _Did anyone_ (_someone_) _do that?_ Mi ne konas iun,
kiu povus = _I do not know anyone who could._ Se iu faris tion
= _If anyone did that_....
(_d_). "_ANY_" (= _ANY WHATEVER_). Sometimes, however, the word _any_
is used not with the meaning of _some_ (as in the preceding
paragraph), but with the meaning _any whatever_. Take, for example,
the questions: _What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go?_
The answers might be: _Oh, anything_ (_you like_, _it doesn't matter
what_); and _Anywhere_ (_you like_). This meaning of _any_ (_any
whatever_) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word
followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas
or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by
ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by
Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a
ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: _Anyone could do that_,
may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion
fari.
(_e_). _AJN_. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the
preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to
the English _-ever_ (see par. 248 (_b_)). It is also occasionally
used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin
ĉie ajn = _I looked for him absolutely everywhere._ Li estas nenie
ajn = _He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere._
THE VERB (La Verbo).
159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is
conjugated exactly the same.
160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs,
from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see
pars. 214-236), three moods (see pars. 171-202), and six
participles (see pars. 203-213).
TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)
-AS, Present, as: Mi faras = _I do_, or, _make_.
-IS, Past, as: Vi faris = _you did_, or, _have_ (or, _had) done_.
-OS, Future, as: Ili faros = _they will do_.
CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.
-US, as: Se mi farus = _if I did_, or, _should_ (or, _would) do_,
or, _were to do._
IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.
-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = _tell him to do that_
(lit., _that he do that_). Ni faru tion = _let us do that_.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
-I, as: Fari = _to do_.
PARTICIPLES.
-ANTA, Active, Present, as: Faranta = _doing_.
Farante (adv.) = _in_ (_when_, or, other prep.) _doing_.
-INTA, Active, Past, as: Farinta = _having done_.
Farinte (adv.) = _in having done_.
-ONTA, Active, Future, as: Faronta = (_being_) _about to do._
Faronte (adv.) = _on being about to do_.
-ATA, Passive, Present, as: Farata = _being done_, or, _done_.
Farate (adv.) = _on being done_.
-ITA, Passive, Past, as: Farita = _been done_, or, _having been done_.
Farite (adv.) = _on having been done_.
-OTA, Passive, Future, as: Farota = (_being_) _about to be done_.
Farote (adv.) = _on being about to be done_.
N.B.--For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.
CLASSES OF VERBS.
There are two classes of verbs--transitive and intransitive.
Transitive Verbs (_transitivaj verboj_).
161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and
the passive.
(_a_). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting
upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be
in the accusative case; as:--Johano batis la hundon = _John beat
the dog_. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the
object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.
(_b_). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject
is acted upon; as:--La hundo estis batata de Johano = _The dog was
(being) beaten by John_. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding
the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De
is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:--La
domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = _The house
built by my father is (having been) covered with slates_.
Intransitive Verbs (_netransitivaj verboj_).
162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the
actor, as:--Johano dormas = _John sleeps_, or, _is sleeping_.
Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.
Auxiliary Verb (_helpa verbo_).
163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = _to
be_. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the
compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = _to have_ is
in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting
ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron =
_I have a book_.
In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where
English would usually employ "to be," viz., kuŝi = _to lie_;
sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = _to find oneself_; troviĝi
= _to be found_; stari = _to stand_; farti, or, stati = _to be_
(_well_ or _ill_).
Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo_ = The pencil is
(lies) on the table. _Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en
kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis
(estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton_ = On the hearth
was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling
water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out
into (on to) the yard. _Kiel statas via tuso?_ = How is your cough?
Impersonal Use of Verbs.
164. Verbs used impersonally (_senpersone_) express a fact or
action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In
English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by
"it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following
are cases of their impersonal use:--
(_a_). Verbs which relate to the weather.
Examples.--_Pluvas_ = It rains. _Pluvos_ = It will rain. _Fulmis_ =
It lightened. _Neĝus_ = It would snow. _Hajlis_ = It hailed.
(_b_). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but
occasionally without.
Examples.--_Okazas_ = It happens. _Ŝajnos_ = It will seem.
_Prosperis al mi trovi_ = It was my fortune to find.
(_c_). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb,
or passive participle-adverb.
Examples.--_Estas pli bone forkuri_ = It is better to run away.
_Estas dirite, ke_ ... = It is said that ...
(_d_). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial
form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see
par. 245).
Examples.--_Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri_ =
If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been
able to go out. _Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte_ = I
shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.
Reflexive Verbs (_refleksivaj verboj_).
165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They
are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in
many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of
the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive
verb).
Examples.--_Mi lavas min_ = I wash myself. _Li lavis sin_ = He washed
himself. _Vi razos vin_ = You will shave yourself. _Ili vestis sin_ =
They dressed themselves.
166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one
to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression
unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is
not repeated.
Examples.--_Ili batis sin reciproke_, or, _Ili batis unu la alian_ =
They beat one another. _Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la
alia_ = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another's heads.
167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.
The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid
of which all the _compound_ tenses in the active voice and _all_ the
tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed.
The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = _I am
being_, etc., are very rarely used.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Esti = _to be_.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Estanta = being.
Past, Estinta = _been_, or, _having been_.
Future, Estonta = _about to be_, or, _going to be_.
Note that participles take the plural _J_ and accusative _N_ if
required (see par. 207); also the adverbial _E_ (see par. 209 (_c_)).
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Mi estas = _I am._
Vi, ci estas = _You (thou) are (art)._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, oni estas = _He_, _she_, _it_, _one is_.
Ni estas = _We are._
Vi estas = _You are._
Ili estas = _They are._
N.B.--The pronoun ci = _thou_ is rarely used.
Past.
Mi estis = _I was._
Vi estis = _You were._
Li, etc. estis = _He was._
Ni estis = _We were._
Vi estis = _You were._
Ili estis = _They were._
Future.
Singular. Mi estos = _I shall be._
Vi estos = _You will be._
Li, etc. estos = _He will be._
Plural. Ni estos = _We shall be._
Vi estos = _You will be._
Ili estos = _They will be._
CONDITIONAL MOOD.
The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can
show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently
introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the
past, present, or future.
Sing. (Se) Mi estus = _(If) I should be_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Li, etc. estus = _(If) he would_, _were_, _had been_.
Plural. (Se) Ni estus = _(If) we would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Ili estus = _(If) they would_, _were_, _had been_.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
The imperative or U mood has no tenses.
The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see
par. 199).
Singular. Mi estu = _Let me be._
Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be thou_.
Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu = _Let him_, _her_, _it be_.
Plural. Ni estu = _Let us be._
Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be ye_.
Ili estu = _Let them be_.
The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is
usually introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_ (par. 200).
Sing. (Ke) Mi estu = _(That) I_ }
(Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ }
(Ke) Li, etc. estu = (That) _he_ }(_may_, _might_, _should_) _be_.
Plural. (Ke) Ni estu = (That) _we_ }
(Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ }
(Ke) Ili estu = (That) _they_ }
168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.
The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When
simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to
the compound forms.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple _Present_, Teni = _To hold._
Compound _Present_, Esti tenanta = _To be holding._
Compound _Past_, Esti teninta = _To have held._
Compound _Future_, Esti tenonta = _To be about_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.
PARTICIPLES.
_Present_, Tenanta = _Holding._
_Past_, Teninta = _Having held._
_Future_, Tenonta = _About_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present (Simple).
Sing. Mi tenas = _I hold_, _am holding_, _do hold_.
Vi (or, ci) tenas = _You hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Li, ŝi, ĝi tenas = _He_, _she_, _it holds_, _is holding_,
_does hold_.
Plural. Ni tenas = _We hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Vi tenas = _You_ (or, _ye_) _hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Ili tenas = _They hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
N.B.--Ci = _thou_ is rarely used. Vi = _you_ is used, as in
English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the
participle in compound tenses takes the plural _J_.
Past (Simple).
Mi, vi, etc., tenis = _I_, _you_, etc., _held_, _have_ (or,
_had_) _held_, _was holding_, _did hold_.
Future (Simple).
Mi, vi, etc., tenos = _I_, _you_, etc., _shall hold_, or,
_shall be holding_.
CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).
The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context,
viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were,"
"had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced
by the conjunction se = _if_ (see pars. 190-194).
(Se) mi tenus = (_If_) _I held_, or, _should hold_, or, _should
be holding_, or, _were holding_, or, _were to hold_, or, _had held_.
IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).
Singular. Mi tenu = _Let me hold._
Tenu = _Hold._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu = _Let him, her, it hold._
Plural. Ni tenu = _Let us hold._
Tenu = _Hold._
Ili tenu = _Let them hold._
Sing. (Ke) mi tenu = (_That_) _I_ }
(Ke) vi (or, ci) tenu = (_That_) }
_you_ (or, _thou_) }
(Ke) li tenu = (_That_) _he_ }_may_, _might_, _should hold._
Plural. (Ke) ni tenu = (_That_) _we_ }
(Ke) vi tenu = (_That_) _you_ }
(or, _ye_) }
(Ke) ili tenu = (_That_) _they_ }
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202).
CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.
169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and
passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and
imperative moods:--For the three persons of the plural add _J_ to the
participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).
The Present in the
Present
Mi estas tenanta = _I am holding._
Mi estas tenata = _I am_ (_being_) _held._
Past
Mi estis tenanta = _I was holding._
Mi estis tenata = _I was_ (_being_) _held._
Future
Mi estos tenanta = _I shall be holding._
Mi estos tenata = _I shall be_ (_being_) _held._
The Past in the
Present
Mi estas teninta = _I have held._
Mi estas tenita = _I have been_, or, _was held._
Past
Mi estis teninta = _I had held._
Mi estis tenita = _I had been held_, or, _was held_,
if the action is completed.
Future
Mi estos teninta = _I shall have held._
Mi estos tenita = _I shall have been held._
The Future in the
Present
Mi estas tenonta = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._
Mi estas tenota = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._
Past
Mi estis tenonta = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._
Mi estis tenota = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._
Future
Mi estos tenonta = _I shall be about to hold._
Mi estos tenota = _I shall be about to be held._
CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
Se mi estus tenanta = _If I should be_, or, _were_, _holding_.
Se mi estus tenata = _If I should be_ or, _were (being) held_,
or, _if I be held._
Se mi estus teninta = _If I should have held_, or, _if I had held._
Se mi estus tenita = _If I should have been held_, or, _if I had
been_, or, _were, held._
Se mi estus tenonta = _If I should be_, or, _were, about to hold._
Se mi estus tenota = _If I should be about to be held._
N.B.--In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present
and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to
emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not
have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to
show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so
we say:--_Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin_. If we use the
simple form, _Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin_, it would be
read:--"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context
clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the
adverb _antaŭe_ instead of the compound form, and say:--_Li ne
frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin_ = He would not have struck me if
you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (_a_)
and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190-194).
IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
(Por ke) mi estu tenanta = _(In order that) I may be holding._
(Por ke) mi estu tenata = _(In order that) I may be held._
(Por ke) mi estu teninta = _(In order that) I may have held_, or,
_might hold_.
(Por ke) mi estu tenita = _(In order that) I may have been held_,
or, _might be held_.
(Por ke) mi estu tenonta = _(In order that) I may be about to hold._
(Por ke) mi estu tenota = _(In order that) I may be about to be held._
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202.)
170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.
(INDICATIVE MOOD).
Present (Simple).
Singular. Mi lavas min = _I wash myself._
Vi lavas vin = _You wash yourself._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin = _He, she, it washes himself_,
_herself, itself_.
Plural. Ni lavas nin = _We wash ourselves._
Vi lavas vin = _You_, _ye wash yourselves._
Ili lavas sin = _They wash themselves._
Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Ili ne estas lavantaj sin = _They are not washing themselves._
Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin? = _Have we washed ourselves?_
(lit., _are we having washed ourselves?_)
Mi estas lavonta min = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to wash myself_.
Past (Simple).
Ŝi ne lavis sin = _She did not wash herself._
Ĉu ni lavis nin? = _Did we wash ourselves?_
Ĉu ili ne lavis sin? = _Did they not wash themselves?_
Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin? = _When were you washing yourselves?_
Ni estis lavintaj nin = _We had washed ourselves._
Kiam li estis lavonta sin? = _When was he about_ (or, _going_)
_to wash himself_?
Future (Simple).
Ĉu ni lavos nin? = _Shall we wash ourselves?_
Li ne lavos sin = _He will not wash himself._
Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Ŝi estos lavanta sin = _She will be washing herself._
Kiam li estos lavinta sin? = _When will he have washed himself?_
Mi estos lavonta min = _I shall be about_ (or, _going_)
_to wash myself_.
CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).
Se li lavus sin = _If he should wash himself._
Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...? = _Would she wash herself, if...?_
Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam.... = _If we should be washing
ourselves when_....
Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se.... = _Would they have washed
themselves if_...?
Se li estus lavonta sin kiam.... = _If he should be about to
wash himself when_....
IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).
Singular. Mi lavu min = _Let me wash myself._
Mi ne lavu min = _Let me not wash myself._
Lavu vin = _Wash yourself._
Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourself._
Li lavu sin = _Let him wash himself._
Li ne lavu sin = _Let him not wash himself._
Plural. Ni lavu nin = _Let us wash ourselves._
Ni ne lavu nin = _Let us not wash ourselves._
Lavu vin = _Wash yourselves._
Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourselves._
Ili lavu sin = _Let them wash themselves._
Ili ne lavu sin = _Let them not wash themselves._
MOODS (Modoj).
171 (_a_). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English.
They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and
Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In
Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three tenses:--Present,
ending in _-AS_, Past, in _-IS_, Future, in _-OS_; the Conditional
(kondiĉa) mood in _-US_, the Imperative (ordona) mood in _-U_,
and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in _-I_; the three Active
Participles:--Present, _-ANT-_, Past, _-INT-_, Future, _-ONT-_,
and the three Passive Participles:--Present, _-AT-_, Past, _-IT-_,
Future, _-OT-_. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all
the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the
forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use
of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses _-AS_, _-IS_,
_-OS_, by that name.
(_b_). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This
mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since
conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear
that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see
remarks on ke, par. 198).
The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented
by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and
Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries
"may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by
the aid of such verbs as _permesi_, _povi_, or some word expressing
possibility, as _eble_ (see par. 237 (_m_)).
172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the
meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely
logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our
own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we
wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into
Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner,
although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman.
For instance, our verbs in the present and past tenses of the
Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the
first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In
Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as "If they
were rich, they would be happy," we must be careful to use the proper
mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or
suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically
employed, as:--Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = _If they
were rich, they would be happy_. There is nothing of the past in the
first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has
not occurred, but which might occur.
THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).
173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding
_-I_ to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the
auxiliary verb esti = _to be_ with one of the active participles
_-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ of the verb for the compound tenses, as:--
Present (simple), Skribi = _To write_.
Present (compound), Esti skribanta = _To be writing_
(lit., _to be being-writing_).
Past (compound), Esti skribinta = _To have written_
(lit., _to be having-written_).
Future (compound), Esti skribonta = _To be about to write_
(lit., _to be being-about-to-write_).
174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the
passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.
Present, Esti skribata = _To be written_ (lit., _to be
being-written_).
Past, Esti skribita = _To have been written_ (lit., _to be
having-been-written_).
Future, Esti skribota = _To be about to be written_.
175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the
verb.
176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a
preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always
precedes the verb.
Examples.--_Mi volas lerni danci_ = I wish to learn to dance. _Li
devigis min kuri_ = He compelled me to run. _Mi hontas esti laŭdata
de li_ = I am ashamed to be praised by him. _Mi devas peni atingi
tiun rezultaton_ = I must try to attain that result.
177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive
are:--(_a_). Por = _To_, or, _in order to_. (_b_). Anstataŭ =
_Instead of_. (_c_). Antaŭ ol = _Before_. (_d_). Krom =
_Except_, or, _besides_.
178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the
word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to";
or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle
instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).
Examples.--_La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin_.... = The best
methods to (in order to) obtain it (_or_, for, _or_, of obtaining
it).... _Mi havas ion por diri al vi_ = I have something to (for to)
say to you. _Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi?_ = What have you
still to (for to) write? _La tempo por legi_ = The time to read (for
reading). _Tio estas malfacila por kompreni_ = That is difficult (for
to) understand.
179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the
infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.
Examples.--_Anstataŭ trinki_ = Instead of drinking. _Anstataŭ agi
honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto_ = Instead of acting honestly, he
became a thief. _Antaŭ ol manĝi_ = Before eating. _Antaŭ ol
foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn_ = Before going away (before they
went away), they put on their (the) hats. _Ne ekzistas alia bono por
la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki_ = There is nothing better for a man,
than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred.
II, 14; III, 12).
180. As in English, the infinitive is used:--
(_a_). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.
Examples.--_Erari estas home_ = To err is human. _Bone pensi kaj bone
agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe_ = To think well and to act
well suffice for living well and happily.
(_b_). As the complement to explain an idea.
Examples.--_Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas_ = To live is
to act; he who acts not, lives not. _Li ĉesis kuri_ = He ceased to
run (running, _or_, from running).
181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but,
of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word,
used as its predicate, takes the adverbial _-E_. The infinitive, when
used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by
substituting _-O_ or _-ADO_ for _-I_; the noun then takes the
article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (_a_)).
Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = To know (_or_, to have knowledge) is
useful; or, _La scio estas utila_ = Knowledge is useful. _Legi estas
agrabla okupo_, or, _La legado estas agrabla okupo_ = Reading is an
agreeable occupation.
182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a
gerundial phrase in English.
Examples.--_Promenadi estas sanige_, or, _La promenado estas saniga_
= Walking is healthy. _Instrui infanojn diligentajn_ (or, _La
instruado al infanoj diligentaj_) _estas agrabla okupo_ = Teaching
diligent children is an agreeable occupation.
183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix _-EBLA_
is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (_c_)).
Examples.--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ (or, _venante_) = You did
well to come (that you came). _Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu_ =
Tell him, then, to answer me. _Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros
domen_ = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we
shall not walk). _Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol
lia_ = It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than
his. _Ŝi ŝajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino_ = She
seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman.
184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the
participle.
Examples.--_Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti_ = I shall
take my skates and go skating. _Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom
de bruo_ = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise.
_Mi kredis vidi ŝipon_ = I thought I saw a ship.
185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive
(present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or
participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed,
as:--
_La deziro morti_ = The desire of dying (to die). _La ĝojo esti
venkinta_ = The joy of having conquered. _Tro laca marŝi_ = Too
tired for walking. _Lerta paroli_ = Clever in speaking. _Bona por
manĝi_ = Good for eating.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
186. As stated in par. 171 (_a_), the indicative is not an Esperanto
mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the
English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto
verbs.
The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations,
viz., _-AS_ for the Present, _-IS_ for the Past, and _-OS_ for the
Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb
esti = _to be_, is used with one of the three Active participles of
the verb, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_.
187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one
of the Passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.
188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true,
either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is
therefore the mood of certainty.
Examples.--_La patro venas_ = Father comes, _or_, is coming. _Patrino
venis_ = Mother came, has come, _or_, did come. _Kiam mia frato
venos, ni foriros_ = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go
away. _Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin_ = If he is ill, I
excuse him. _Li estis juste rekompencita_ = He had been justly
rewarded. _Oni devas pardoni al li_ = One must pardon him. _Li estis
amata de ĉiuj_ = He was (being) loved by all. _Mi estas vestita du
horojn_ = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am
having-been-dressed two hours).
189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after
verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive
manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.
Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ_ = I hope that he will
come to-day. _Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis_ = She is not
sure whether Peter succeeded (_or_, has succeeded). _Mi ne dubas, ke
li venos_ = I do not doubt that he will come. _Mi timas, ke la
respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta_ = I fear that the answer
will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. _Mi timas, ke li
venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon_ = I fear that he will come,
and possibly (perhaps) damage (_or_, and may damage) the garden. _Mi
ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos_ = I do not doubt that
she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. _Ĉu vi opinias,
ke li estas juste rekompencita?_ = Do you think that he has been
justly rewarded?
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).
190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding
_-US_ to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by _ESTUS_ and
one of the participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ for the compound
forms. These compound forms are not often used.
191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by _ESTUS_ and one of the
participles _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.
192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that
it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past),
and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have
happened if something else actually occurred. In English the
pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood
represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.
193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the
chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in
Esperanto, when the act is conditional.
Examples.--_Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn_ = If he were
rich, he would have many friends. _Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa_ =
If you wished, you would be happy. _Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus
defendintaj vin_ = If we had been (should have been) warned, we
should have defended you. _Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne
trovus lin_ = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his
(the) mother would not find him.