into the house, but I remained outside it. _Li loĝas ekster la urbo_
= He lives outside the town.
Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a
synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)).
Examples.--_Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj, ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside
(besides, _or_, in addition to) these laws others exist. _Ekster tiuj
ĉi leĝoj ne ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside (beside, _or_, apart from)
these laws others do not exist.
As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Eksteraĵo_ = The exterior,
outside. _Eksterlande_ = Abroad.
259 (11). El = _Out of_.
El is the opposite of en = _in_, but only when movement in and
out is implied.
Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of
which also signify "of," that English preposition with so many
meanings. El means essentially "out of," denoting that the noun
specified is a _portion of_ something, or is _made of_ some
particular material, or _issues from_ something (see par. 259 (7)).
Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _with_, _from_.
Examples.--_Mi estas la plej riĉa el ĉiuj_ = I am the richest of
all. _Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of us will be chosen. _Li faris
uzon el ĉio_ = He made use of everything. _Mi faros uzon el la
okazo_ = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. _Kion ni faros
el hundo?_ = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? _El la dirita
regulo sekvas, ke_ ... = From the said rule, it follows that ... _Mi
ricevis leteron el Parizo_ = I received a letter from Paris.
Disconnection = _Out of_, _from_.
Examples.--_Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto_ = Three mice jumped
out of the drawer. _Mi eliris el la domo ĝuste kiam li eniris en la
veturilon_ = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the
carriage. _La violono falis el la violonujo_ = The violin fell out of
the violin case. _El sub la lito_ = Out of (out from under) the bed.
As a prefix, _el_ signifies "out," and also denotes something done
thoroughly well or completely, as:--_Elpensi_ = To think out, to
invent. _Elfosi_ = To dig out. _Elirejo_ = An exit, way out.
_Ellabori_ = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate.
_Eltrinki_ = To drink up. _Ellerni_ = To master, to learn thoroughly
(to study).
259 (12). En = _In_, _into_.
May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the
meaning of "into."
Place = _In, into, within, at_.
Examples.--_Li estas en la ĝardeno_ = He is in the garden. _Li iris
en la ĝardenon_ = He went into the garden. _Mi loĝas en Parizo_ = I
live in Paris. _La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la
ĉambro, kaj flugas en ĝi)_ = The bird is flying within the room (it
is in the room, and is flying in it). _La birdo flugas en la ĉambron
(ĝi estis ekster la ĉambro, kaj nun flugas en ĝin)_ = The bird is
flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into
it). _Helpu min porti tiujn ĉi kestojn en mian fiakron_ = Help me to
carry these trunks to (into) my cab. _Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem
restis ester ĝi_ = He went into the house, but I myself remained
outside of it. _La ĉefa vorto staras en la fino_ = The chief word
stands at the end.
Time = _In, on, at, during_.
Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In (during) spring flowers
appear. _En la tago_ = On the day. _En la unua tempo_ = At the outset
(first time), at first. _Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi
laboros en ĉiu tago po ok horoj_ = I shall finish the job (little
task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in
each day at the rate of 8 hours).
Origin or Dependence = _Of, into_.
Examples.--_Apartamento konsistanta en_ (or, _el)[20] unu
manĝoĉambro, unu salono, kaj tri dormoĉambroj_ = A flat
(apartment), consisting of one dining-room, one drawing-room, and
three bedrooms. _Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon_ = Alexander was
turned into dust.
Footnote:
[20] _El_ is preferable. _En_ cannot be correctly used here.
Connection = _In_.
Example.--_Manon en mano_ = Hand in hand.
259 (13). Ĝis = _Till, as far as_.
Place = _To, down to, up to, as far as_.
Examples.--_Ni akompanis ilin ĝis ilia domo_ = We accompanied them
as far as (to) their house. _Iru ĝis la rivero_ = Go to (down to, as
far as) the river.
Time = _Till, until, to_.
Examples.--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday.
_Ni devas atendi ĝis Junio_ = We must wait till June. _Ĉu ne estus
pli bone atendi ĝis ni havos la hundon?_ = Would it not be better to
wait till we have the dog? _Ĝi povas kuŝi ok ĝis naŭ jarojn_ = It
can lie eight to nine years.
N.B.--_Jarojn_ is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (_b_)), for
_ĝis_ has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the
phrase; but if a preposition be placed before _ok_, then the
preposition will influence its complement "_jaroj_," which will be in
the nominative; as:--_Ĝi povas kuŝi dum_ (or, _je_) _ok ĝis naŭ
jaroj_ = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years.
259 (14). Inter = _Between, among_.
Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is
actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that
something is between, or among, some other things.
Place = _Between, among_.
Example.--_Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo_ = Between
Russia and France is Germany.
Time = _Between_.
Example.--_Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian
amikon_ = Between 10 and 11 o'clock in the morning I met my friend.
Manner = _Among, amongst_.
Example.--_Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn_ = They divided amongst
themselves twelve apples.
As a prefix, _inter_ has much the same meaning as in English,
as:--_Intermeti_ = To interpose. _Intermiksi_ = To intermingle.
_Interkonsenti_ = To agree mutually.
259 (15). Je.
The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we
have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense
requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it
(Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).
The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:--
Cause = _At, over, of._
Example.--_Mi enuas je la hejmo_, or, _Mi enuas la hejmon_ = I am
weary (tired) of home.
Manner = _By, on._
Examples.--_Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia
li batis lin sur la vizaĝon_ (or, _li frapis al li la vizaĝon_) =
He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he
struck him on the face (struck to him the face). _Mi gratulas vian
princan moŝton je_ (or, _pri_) _la reveno Danujon_ = I congratulate
your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to
Denmark.
Time = _At, on._
Examples.--_Je la kvara horo_ = At 4 o'clock. _Je la lasta fojo_ (or,
_La lastan fojon_) _mi vidis lin ĉe vi_ = On the last occasion (last
time) I saw him with you.
Measure = _Of, by._
Example.--_Longa je dek futoj_, or, _Longa dek futojn_ = Ten feet
long.
259 (16). Kontraŭ = _Against, opposite._
Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative
of direction.
Place = _Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite._
Example.--_La fenestro kontraŭ la strato_ = The window overlooking
(towards) the street.
Opposition = _To, against, from._
Examples.--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to face. _Kontraŭ min
mem, sin turnis mia ruzo_ = Against myself my cunning turned (itself)
(Hamlet, V, 2). _Kien ili iras? Kontraŭ Polujon_ = Whither are they
going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). _Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi
estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la orienta vento_ = I was sitting on a stone
where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. _Li batalis
kontraŭ la grekoj_ = He fought with (= against) the Greeks.
As a prefix, _kontraŭ_ denotes opposition, as:--_Kontraŭdiri_ =
To contradict. _Kontraŭmeti_ = To oppose.
259 (17). Krom = _Not including_, _putting aside_, _apart from_.
One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).
Separation, Exclusion = _Besides_, _except_, _save_, _but_.
Examples.--_Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, riĉa_ = He is good, and,
besides that, rich. _Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan_ =
Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. _Mi estas anglo, kaj
mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra_ = I am an Englishman, and I
know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on
_ekster_ (par. 259 (11)).
259 (18). Kun = _With_.
Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which
something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).
Connection = _With_, _to_.
Examples.--_Li paroladis kun sia amiko_ = He was conversing with his
friend. _Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berta_ = He became engaged to
Miss Bertha. _Resti kun leono estas danĝere_ = To stay with a lion
is dangerous. _Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis_ =
He was walking with his friend when I met him.
Manner = _With_, _of_.
Examples.--_Li parolas kun granda saĝeco_ = He speaks with great
wisdom. _Li estas homo kun gusto_ = He is a man of (with) taste. _Li
estis atendata kun granda senpacienco_ = He was expected with
great impatience.
As a root-word or prefix, _Kunigi_ = To connect. _Kunulo_ = A
companion. _Kunveni_ = To come together, to assemble.
259 (19). Laŭ = _According to_.
Manner = _According to_, _from_, _in_, _in accordance with_.
Examples.--_Li agis laŭ sia opinio_ = He acted according to his own
opinion. _Tiu vazo estas farita laŭ modelo el_ (or, _en_) _nia
muzeo_ = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of
(in) our museum. _Li parolas laŭ saĝa maniero_ = He speaks in a
wise manner. _Ili ĝin faris laŭvice_ = They did it in turn. _La pli
juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laŭ sia boneco_ =
The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in
(according to) her goodness.
Place and Direction = _In_, _along_.
Examples.--_Ni foriris laŭ malsamaj direktoj_ (or, _en diversajn
flankojn_) = We went away in a different direction (_or_, in
different ways). _Aleksandro iris laŭ tiu ĉi rivero ĝis li venis
al la palaco_ = Alexander went along this river till he came to the
palace.
N.B.--_Laŭ_ is used in such expressions as:--_Laŭlonge_ =
Lengthways. _Laŭlarĝe_ = Across, athwart.
259 (20). Malgraŭ = _Notwithstanding_.
Opposition = _In spite of_, _notwithstanding_, _for_, _despite_.
Examples.--_Li sukcesis malgraŭ la malhelpoj_ = He succeeded in
spite of the hindrances. _Li faris sian eblon, sed malgraŭ ĉio, li
ne sukcesis_ = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that
(notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on _spite_, par. 259 (30)).
259 (21). Per = _By_, _by means of_.
Cause = _By_, _by means of_, _with_, _through_.
Examples.--_Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj aŭdas
per la oreloj_ = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and
hear with the ears. _Li mortigis lin per glavo_ = He killed him
with a sword. _Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that
through my brother.
Manner = _With_, _by_, _in_.
Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument;
de denotes the agent.
Examples.--_La domo, kiu estas aĉetita de mia patro, estas kovrita
per pajla tegmento_ = The house, which was bought by my father, is
covered with thatch (a straw roof). _Li tenis lin ĉe la kolo per
ambaŭ manoj_ = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. _Li
iris el la urbo per_ (or, _laŭ_) _flanka vojeto_ = He went out of
the town by a by-path. _Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto_ = My
uncle did not die (by) a natural death. _Per unu vorto_ (or,
_unuvorte_), _la ĉambro estis tute bela_ = In a word, the room was
quite beautiful.
As a prefix or root-word, _per_ is not much used. _Perlabori_ = To
acquire by one's labour, to earn. _Peri_ = To mediate, to interpose.
259 (22). Po = _At the rate of._
Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals
(see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.
Distribution = _At the rate of_, _in the proportion of_, _at_.
Examples.--_Mi aĉetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj_ = I bought four
apples at the rate of twopence (each). "_Por du pencoj_" would mean
"for twopence" (all four for twopence). _Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek
paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos
la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book has 60 pages; therefore,
if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall
finish the whole book in 4 days. _Silko po 5 ŝilingoj por ulno_ =
Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).
As a prefix, _Poduone_ = By half, or, by halves. _Pogrande_ =
Wholesale.
259 (23). Por = _For_, _for the sake_ (_benefit_) _of_, _in order
to_.
One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see
remarks on infinitive, par. 177).
Purpose = _In order to_, _to_, _for_, _at_, _for the purpose of_,
_of_, _on_.
Examples.--_Mi manĝas por vivi_ = I eat in order to live. _Por mi
ĝi havas bonan guston_ = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. _Li
sin kuracis por resaniĝi_ = He treated himself (took remedies) in
order to recover (be restored to health). _La plej bona metodo_
(_por_) _akiri ĝin_ = The best way of getting it (in order to get
it). _Mi havas multon por fari_ = I have much to do. _Por miaj kvar
infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn_ = For my four children I bought
twelve apples. _Litoj por du personoj_ = Beds for two people. _Tiu
ĉi ringo estas por vi_ = This ring is for you. _Por ĉio_ (or, _pro
ĉio_) _ni lin dankas_ = We thank him for everything. _Por tiu ĉi
prezo_ = At this price. _Ni devas konfesi por ŝia laŭdo, ke_ ... =
We must confess to her praise that ... _Mi ne havas tempon por fari
tion_ = I have not time to do that. _Kiam la momento por foriri
alvenis_, or, _Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis_ ... = When the
moment for departure arrived ... _Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla
por ĉiuj_ = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. _Li
aĉetis por unu penco da teo_ = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny)
of tea.
259 (24). Post = _After_, _behind_.
Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent
"after," care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance,
"He came after me" might mean (_a_) next in succession or behind me,
(_b_) after my arrival, (_c_) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we
should say:--(_a_). Li venis post mi. (_b_) Li venis post mia
alveno. (_c_). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ,
which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).
Place = _After_, _behind_.
Examples.--_Post la reĝo venis lia sekvantaro_ = After (behind) the
king came his suite. _"Da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ĉi vorto
havas signifon de mezuro_ = "_Da_" after any (some) word shows that
this word has the signification of measure.
Time = _After_, _in_, _by_, _hence_.
Examples.--_Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta
ĝin_ = Send back to me the book after you have read it through.
_Post tri monatoj estos la edziĝo_ = The wedding will be three
months hence (in three months). _Post kvarono da horo_ = In a quarter
of an hour. _Tagon post tago_ = Day by day.
Manner = _After_, _by_.
Examples.--_Ili sekvis unu post la alia_ = They followed one after
another. _Iom post iom ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by little she
became more tranquil.
As a prefix, _Postveni_ = To come after, to succeed. _Posttagmezo_
= Afternoon. _Postvivi_ = To survive.
259 (25). Preter = _Beyond_, _past_, _by_.
Differs from trans = _across_ (_beyond_), in that preter shows
the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else.
Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary,
or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).
Place = _Beside_, _by_, _past_.
Examples.--_Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo_ = I went by
(past, beside) the windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj iris preter
ni, kaj transiris la straton_ = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and
crossed the street.
Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.
Examples.--_Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo_ = I passed by the
windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin_ = Two ladies
went by (passed) us. _Mi preterlasis lin_ = I let him pass by (I let
him beyond). _Li preterlasis la okazon_ = He let the occasion
(opportunity) pass, _or_, he missed the opportunity.
259 (26). Pri = _Concerning._
Pri can be translated in various ways.
Reference = _Concerning_, _respecting_, _regarding_, _as regards_,
_with regard to_, _as to_, _as for_, _about_, _of_, _on_.
Examples.--_Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri_ ... = Concerning my
skill, I can say ... (In this sentence it will be observed that any
of the above meanings of _pri_ instead of "concerning" will give the
exact sense.) _Pri tio ne diru vorton_ = As to that, don't say a
word. _Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Li parolis
pri la pentrarto_ = He spoke about (the art of) painting. _Ili
miregis pri_ (or, _je_) _lia kolero_ = They were astounded at (about)
his anger. _Sed pri ŝia fratino, ni povas diri, ke_ ... = But of her
sister, we can say that ... _Tio estas verko pri la politiko_ = That
is a work on politics. _Vi estas prova pri tio_ = You are right in
that.
As a prefix, _Pripensi_ = To think about, to reflect.
See par. 258 (_a_) as regards the use of the prepositional
expressions _rilate_, _koncerne_.
259 (27). Pro = _Because of._
Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening
or being done. Do not confuse it with por.
Cause = _Because of_, _by reason of_, _on account of_, _for the
sake of_ (_cause_), _through_, _owing to_, _from_, _for_, _of_.
Examples.--_Li demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras_ = He asked her for
what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). _Li min mokis pro mia
kredemo_ = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. _Li estas
mortanta_ (or, _ekmortas_) _pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He is dying
of (from) hunger. _Ŝi agas pro ĵaluzemo_ = She acts from jealousy.
_Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco_ = He could not walk owing to
(on account of, through) his weakness. _Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani
vin_ = On that account, I cannot accompany you. _Li ĝin faris pro
sia edzino_ = He did it because of his wife.
Pro is not used much as a prefix. _Propeti_ = To intercede.
_Propekulo_ = A scapegoat.
259 (28). Sen = _Without_.
Sen always denotes disconnection.
Disconnection = _Without_, _less_, _minus_.
Examples.--_Li alvenis sen sia amiko_ = He arrived without his
friend. _Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo_ = Without you we should be
as without a head. _Dek sen tri estas sep_ = Ten less (minus) three
is seven.
Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our
English suffix "less," as:--_Sendube_ = Doubtless, without doubt.
_Sensenta_ = Senseless, without feeling. _Sensenca_ = Senseless,
without meaning. _Senhonta_ = Shameless, without shame.
259 (29). Spite = _In defiance of_.[21]
Spite, like malgraŭ, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense.
Spite means "in defiance of opposition," whilst malgraŭ has more
the sense of "notwithstanding." Spite is not a preposition, but an
adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "_in spite of_" it is
usually better to use malgraŭ.
Opposition = _In defiance of_, _defiantly_.
Examples.--_Spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la
infanon_ = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child's
face. _Spite mian malamikon_ = In defiance of my enemy.
Footnote:
[21] The root spit is often used as a verb: spiti, _to brave_,
_flout_, _act in defiance of_. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi
malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we get the
adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Hence there are
often found in the literature such forms as spite al vi, spite de
tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the
preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247).
259 (30). Sub = _Under_.
Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the
opposite of sur = _on_.
Place = _Under_, _beneath_.
Examples.--_La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu
kuŝis sub la tablo_ = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat
that was lying under the table. _Muso estas sub la kanapo_ = A mouse
is under the sofa.
Manner = _In_, _on_.
Examples.--_Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton_ =
Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. _Li iris sub
la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu_ = He went on (under) the
condition that no one should accompany him.
As a prefix, _Subetaĝo_ = A basement (floor below). _Submeti_ = To
put under, to subdue. _Subtegmento_ = A garret (under roof).
259 (31). Super = _Over_, _above_.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from
sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching
something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or
above something, but not in actual contact.
Place = _Over_, _above_, _beyond_.
Examples.--_La balono estis vidata super la urbo_ = The balloon was
seen over the town. _Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo_ = A bird flew
by, over my head. _Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron, sed li ne havis
sufiĉe da forto, kaj la ŝtono falis sur la muron_ = He threw a
stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the
stone fell upon (on to) the wall. _La spirito de Dio ŝvebis super la
akvo_ = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters
(water). _Mi konas nenion super tio_ = I know nothing beyond that.
Super is the root of _Superi_ = To surpass. As a prefix,
_Superflui_ = To overflow. _Superhoma_ = Super-human. _Supervesto_
(or, _palto_) = An overcoat.
259 (32). Sur = _On_, _upon_, _on to_.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub
and super. Do not confound sur with super.
Place = _On_, _upon_ (_resting on_, _touching_).
Examples.--_Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton_ = On his face I
saw a joyful smile. _Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo_ = You
will find the papers on the writing-table. _La birdo_ (_sur_)_flugis
sur la tegmenton_ = The bird flew on to the roof. _Li metis la
ĉapelon sur sian kapon_ = He put his (the) hat on his head. _Li
staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon_ = He
stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field
(note the accusatives of direction, _malsupren_ and _kampon_). _Laŭ
la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon_ = At the command "three"
you will shoot at (on to) the tree.
Dependence = _On_, _to_.
Examples.--_Tio ĉi povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero_ =
This can have much influence on the success of our business. _Sur la
danan tronon mi havas rajtojn_ = I have rights on (to) the Danish
throne.
As a prefix, _Surmeti_ = To put on.
259 (33). Tra = _Through_.
Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best
show the meaning of the three prepositions:--
Preterpasi = _To pass by_, _go beyond_.
Trapasi = _To pass through_, _to traverse_.
Transpasi = _To pass over_, _to cross over_.
Example.--_Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la preĝejon, kaj
poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto_ = Having passed through
(traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the
river by the bridge.
Place = _Through_, _across_.
Examples.--_Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon_ = He went
through the crowd and entered the house. _Tra la mondo iras forta
voko_ = Through the world goes a powerful call. _Li estas tiel dika,
ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarĝa pordo_ = He is so stout
(thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.
Adverb: _trae_ = right through.
Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when
this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity.
As a prefix, _Tralegi_ = To read through. _Trapasi_ = To pass
through, to traverse. _Traguti_ = To percolate.
259 (34). Trans = _Across_; _on the other side of_, _beyond_.
May be followed by the accusative of direction.
Place = _Across_, _beyond_, _on the other side of_.
Examples.--_La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar trans la rivero
sin trovis aliaj hirundoj_ = The swallow flew across the river,
because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found
themselves) other swallows.
As a prefix, _Transiri_ = To go over, to cross. _Transmigri_ = To
migrate. _Transvivi_ = To outlive, survive (a period of time).
ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS.
260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In
fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly,
five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give
the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance, "_by_"
has five different meanings in the following expressions:--"_He went
by the house._" "_He was hit by a stone._" "_By his advice._"
"_Little by little._" "_He stood by the door._"
261. The following common English prepositions are given with their
Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., "_At_, _by_,
_for_, _from_, _in_, _of_, _on_, _to_, _with_."
At.
261. (_a_). Represented by:--
Apud, as:--_La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro_ = The betrothed
stood at the altar.
Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe ĉiu paŝo kiun ŝi faris_ = At every step that she
took. _Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo_ = She is at the door.
De, as:--_Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego_ = He was
astonished at the lŭury of the court.
En, as:--_En la unua tempo_ = At (in) the outset. _En Parizo_ = At
Paris. _En la fino_ = At the end. _En la kunveno_ = At the meeting.
_En la interspaco de_ ... = At the distance of ...
Je, as:--_Je la kvara horo_ = At four o'clock.
Po, as:--_Piroj po du pencoj por funto_ = Pears at (at the rate of)
twopence a (for a) pound.
Por, as:--_Por tiu ĉi prezo_ = At (for) this price.
Pri, as:--_Ŝi ridetis pri_ (_je_) _lia kolero_ = She smiled at
(about) his anger.
Sur, as:--_Ili pafis unu sur la alian_ = They fired at one another.
Accusative, as:--_Ŝi mokadas lian kredemon_ = She jeers at his
credulity.
Adverb, as:--_Tuj_ = At once. _Almenaŭ_ = At least. _Iafoje_ = At
times. _Nune_ = At present, etc.
By.
261 (_b_). Represented by:--
Apud, as:--_Mi volus stari apud la patrino_ = I would like to stand
by mother.
Ĉe, as:--_Mi tenis lin ĉe la kruro per ŝnurego_ = I held him by
the leg with a rope.
De, as:--_Li estas amata de ĉiuj siaj amikoj_ = He is loved by all
his friends.
Laŭ, as:--_Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia kuracisto_ =
I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my
doctor.
Per, as:--_Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto_ = He left the
town by a by-path.
Post, as:--_Iom post iom, ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by
(after) little she became more tranquil.
Preter, as:--_En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj_ = At
that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us.
Adverb, as:--_Legante, ni lernas_ = By reading, we learn. _Tage_ =
by day. _Laŭtage_ = By the day. _Mi staris apude dum li paroladis_ =
I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking.
For.
261 (_c_). Represented by:--
Al, as:--_Ili ekiris al Berlino_ (or, _Berlinon_) = They started
for Berlin.
Anstataŭ, as:--_Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro_ = He wrote a
three for (instead of) a four.
De, as:--_Tro baldaŭ alvenis la horo de foriro_ = Too soon came
the hour for (of) departure. _De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana_ = For
three weeks I have been (am) ill.
Dum, as:--_Dum la tuta tago li restis sola_ = For (during) the
whole day he remained alone.
Laŭ, as:--_Ŝi estas granda laŭ sia aĝo_ = She is big for
(according to) her age.
Malgraŭ, as:--_Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa_ = For
(notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.
Por, as:--_Tiu ĉi monujo estas por vi_ = This purse is for you.
Pri, as:--_Li petis lin pri helpo_, or, _Li petis helpon de li_ =
He asked him for help. _Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia
ŝuldo_ = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation.
Pro, as:--_Oni laŭdis lin pro lia boneco_ = They praised him for
(because of) his goodness. _La domo estis vendita pro ŝuldoj_ = The
house was (had been) sold for debt. _Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem,
ne pro mia riĉeco_ = I want to he loved for myself, not for my
wealth.
Pro tio, ke, as:--_Li riproĉis min pro tio, ke mi foriris_ = He
reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went
away).
Tra, as:--_Li ne povas ĝin porti tra tia interspaco_ = He cannot
carry it for (through) such a distance.
Accusative, as:--_Li restis sola la tutan tagon_ = He remained
alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under
_dum_).
From.
261 (_d_). Represented by:--
Al, as:--_Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la
kurtenoj_ = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards)
us by the curtains.
De, as:--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from
the hay. _De tiu tempo_ = From that time. _De lundo ĝis vendredo_ =
From Monday to Friday.
El, as:--_Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro_ = I
concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer.
Kontraŭ, as:--_Tie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la vento_ = There I
was sheltered from (against) the wind.
Laŭ, as:--_Tiu ĉi figuro estas skulptita laŭ mia modelo_ = This
figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.
Per, as:--_Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that from (by
means of) my brother.
Pro, as:--_Li tremis pro_ (or, _de_) _timo_ = He trembled from
(because of) fear.
Sen, as:--_Ok sen du estas ses_ = Two from eight (lit., eight
without two) is six.
In.
261 (_e_). Represented by:--
Ĉe, as:--_Tio donas helpon ĉe la lernado de la vortoj_ = That
gives help in the learning of the words.
Da, as:--_Tri metroj da longo_ = Three metres in length.
En, as:--_Li estas en la domo_ = He is in the house.
Je, as:--_La suna disko ŝajne duobliĝis je grandeco_ = The sun's
disc apparently became doubled in size.
Laŭ, as:--_Laŭ mia opinio_ (or, _miaopinie_) _ili estas tute
pravaj_ = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. _Li
edukiĝis laŭ la timo al Dio_ = He was brought up in (according to)
the fear of God.
Per, as:--_La ambaŭ estis similaj per la vizaĝo kaj la karaktero_
= The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the)
character.
Post, as:--_Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj_ = We are (shall be)
going away in (after) two or three days.
Pri, as:--_La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui_ = The teacher
can instruct him in nothing.
Sub, as:--_Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas_ = Something, in
(under) the shape of a man, appears.
Sur, as:--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = While walking in
(on) the street, I fell.
Accusative, as:--_Li estis naskita la vintron de_ 1902a
= He was born _in_ the winter of 1902.
Adverb, as:--_Forme_ = In shape. _Troe_ = In excess. _Vespere_ = In
the evening. _Alivorte_ = In other words, etc.
Of.
261 (_f_). Represented by:--
Al, as:--_La amo al Dio_ = The love of (towards) God. _Ilia timo al
la morto estas granda_ = Their fear of (to) death is great. _Pro
malamo al mi li foriris_ = Through hatred of me he went away.
Da, as:--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas.
De, as:--_La unua vorto de la linio_ = The first word of the line.
_La amo de Dio_ = The love of (from) God, God's love.
Dum, as:--_Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj_, or, _Dekkvintaga vojaĝo_ =
A journey of (during) fifteen days.
El, as:--_Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of (out of) us will be
chosen. _El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta_ = Of (out of)
all my friends, he is the strongest.
En, as:--_La plej granda ĉambro en la domo_ = The largest room of
(in) the house.
Inter, as:--_La plej malgranda inter_ (or, _el_) _ĉiuj arboj en la
ĝardeno_ = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.
Kun, as:--_Ŝi estas virino kun gusto_ = She is a woman of (with)
taste.
Pri, as:--_Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Ŝi
parolis pri sia frato_ = She spoke of (about) her brother.
Pro, as:--_Li mortis pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He died of (owing
to) hunger.
Adjective, as:--_Li estas sperta homo_ = He is a man of experience
(an experienced man).
On.
261 (g). Represented by:--
Al, as:--_Peston al la tranĉilo!_ = Plague on the knife!
Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe_ (or better, _sur_) _la alia flanko de la strato_ =
On (at) the other side of the street. _Ĉe tio mi eliris el la
ĉambro_ = On that, I left the room.
Ĉirkaŭ, as:--_La rado turniĝis ĉirkaŭ sia akso_ = The wheel
turned on its axis.
De, as:--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on
(from) the number of words.
En, as:--_En la tago difinita_ = On (in) the appointed day.
Je, as:--_Mi gratulas vin je_ (or, _pri_) _via reveno_ = I
congratulate you on (concerning) your return.
Kun, as:--_Ŝi ĝin donis al mi kun_ (or, _sub_) _tiu kondiĉo_ =
She gave it me on (with) that condition.
Post, as:--_Post plua konsiderado_ = On (after) further
consideration.
Pri, as:--_Li gratulis min pri mia edziĝo_ = He congratulated me
on (concerning) my marriage.
Pro, as:--_Pro tio mi lin lasis_ = On that account I left him.
Sub, as:--_Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco_ =
He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation.
Sur, as:--_La paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo_ = The papers are lying
on the table.
Accusative, as:--_Li ĝin donis al mi lundon_ = He gave it me on a
Monday.
Adjective, as:--_La veturilo estas luebla_ = The carriage is on
hire (is able to be hired).
Adverb, as:--_Li staris dekstre_ = He stood on the right. _Li ĝin
faris intence_ = He did it on purpose. _Prunte_ = On loan.
To.
261 (_h_). Represented by:--
Al, as:--_Mi iras al Parizo_ = I am going to Paris. _Li diris al
mi_ = He said to me.
En, as:--_Li ridetis en si mem_ = He smiled to (in) himself. _Li
reiris en la urbon_ = He went back to (into) the town.
Ĝis, as:--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday to (till)
Tuesday. _Li amis ĝis freneziĝo_ = He loved to frenzy.
Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ =
You did well to come (that you came).
Kontraŭ, as:--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to (opposite)
face.
Kun, as:--_Li fianĉiĝis kun mia kuzino_ = He became engaged
(affianced) to my cousin.
Por, as:--_Mi havas multe_ (or, _multon_) _por fari_ = I have much
to do (for to do). _Ŝi estis muta por ĉiuj liaj demandoj_ = She was
dumb to (for) all his questions. _Tia agado estas danĝera por ni_ =
Such action is dangerous to (for) us.
Pri, as:--_Pri tio lasu min zorgi_ = Let me look to that.
Sub, as:--_Sub la sono de muziko_ = To (under) the sound of music.
Sur, as:--_Iri sur la kamparon_ = To go to (into) the country.
Adverb, as:--_Li iris dekstren_ = He went to the right. _Morte
kondamnita_ = Condemned to death.
Accusative, as:--_Mi iris Parizon_ = I went to Paris.
With.
261 (_i_). Represented by:--
Ĉe, as:--_Por esti ĉe li, mi fordonis ĉion_ = To be with (at)
him, I gave up everything.
De, as:--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started with (from)
surprise.
El, as:--_Kion ni faros el tio?_ = What shall we do (make) with
(out of) that?
Je, as:--_Li okupis sin je_ (or, _pri_) _meĥaniko_ = He occupied
himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.
Kontraŭ, as:--_Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko_ = He fought with
the enemy.
Kun, as:--_Li paroladas kun sia amiko_ = He is conversing (talking)
with (to) his friend.
Laŭ, as:--_Li kuris laŭ granda rapideco_ = He ran with great
rapidity.
Per, as:--_Li mortigis sin per glavo_ = He killed himself with (by
means of) a sword.
Pri, as:--_Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri_ = With regard to
(concerning) that, I have nothing to say.
Sub, as:--_Mi ĝin donis al li sub tiu kondiĉo_ = I gave it to him
with (under) that condition.
Adverb, as:--_Rilate vian leteron_ = With reference to (relating
to) your letter.
CONJUNCTIONS (Konjunkcioj).
262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.
Examples.--_Somero_ kaj _Vintro_ = Summer and Winter. _Tage_ aŭ
_nokte_ = By day or by night. _Li diras_, ke _vi estas mallaborema_
= He says that you are lazy. _Li estas fiera_, sed _vi estas
humila_ = He is proud, but you are humble.
263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating.
They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (_b_)).
264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two
members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are
of five classes:--
(1). Copulative, as:--_kaj_ = and; _kaj ... kaj_ = both ... and.
(2). Alternative, as:--_aŭ_ = or; _aŭ ... aŭ_ = either ... or;
_nek_ = nor, _nek ... nek_ = neither ... nor.
(3). Adversative, as:--_sed_ = but.
(4). Causative, as:--_ĉar_ = for.
(5). Illative, as:--_tial_ = therefore.
265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is
dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:--
(1). Manner or Degree, as:--_kiel_ = as, _kvazaŭ_ = as if, as
though, _ol_ = than, etc.
(2). Consequence, as:--_ke_ = that, _tiel ke_ = so that.
(3). Reason or Cause, as:--_ĉar_ = because, since, _tial ke_ =
inasmuch as, since, etc.
(4). Purpose, as:--_timante ke_ = lest, for fear that, fearing
that, etc.
(5). Condition, as:--_se_ = if, _esceptinte ke_, _krom se_ =
unless, except, _se nur_ = provided that, if only, etc.
(6). Concession, as:--_kvankam_ = though, although, _tamen_ =
however, notwithstanding, _eĉ se_ = even if, etc.
266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and
adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis
(see par. 105).
Example.--_Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon_ = I
saw him and his brother, but not his sister.
267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.
Examples.--_Li venis, li vidis, li venkis_ = He came, he saw, he
conquered! _Vi iros, Johano restos tie ĉi_ = You will go, John will
remain here.
268. Conjunctions and adverbs.--Some English words are sometimes
adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing
clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as
conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct
Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English "before,"
"after," and "since" are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.
Before (prep.) = _Antaŭ._
Example.--_Li staris antaŭ la reĝo_ = He stood before the king.
Before (adv.) = _Antaŭe._
Example.--_La reĝo neniam lin vidis antaŭe_ = The king never saw
him before.
Before (conj.) = _Antaŭ ol._
Example.--_Pripensu antaŭ ol paroli_ = Reflect before speaking.
After (prep.) = _Post_, or, _malantaŭ_.
Example.--_Post la hundoj, venis la homoj_ = After (behind) the dogs
came the men.
After (adv.) = _Poste_, or, _malantaŭe_.
Example.--_La rajdantoj iris antaŭe, kaj la hundoj venis poste_ (or,
_malantaŭe_) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after.
After (conj.) = _Post kiam_, or, _kiam_.
Example.--_Resendu
al mi la libron, post kiam_ (or, _kiam_) _vi estos ĝin
traleginta_ = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it
through.
Since (prep.) = _De_.
Example.--_De la kreo de la mondo_ = Since the creation of the world.
Since (adv.) = _De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam._
Example.--_Mi lin vidis hieraŭ, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo_ =
I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since.
Since (conj.) = _Ĉar_.
Example.--_Mi devas ĝin fari, ĉar vi insistas_ = I must do it,
since you insist.
LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS
(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).
268. (_a_). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions.
Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are
employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the
lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (_b_) and 259.
Alie = _Otherwise_, _or_, _else_.
Example.--_Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta_ = I did not
see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you.
Aliflanke = _On the other hand_.
Example.--_Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke,
aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo_ = Some persons say John is a knave;
on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton.
Almenaŭ = _At least_.
Example.--_Almenaŭ li provis ĝin fari_ = At least he tried to do
it.
Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_, _as well_ (also adverb).
Examples.--_Mi ankaŭ ĝin vidis_ = I, too, saw it. _Johano kaj
ankaŭ Mario estis tie_ = John and also Mary were there.
Antaŭ ol = _Before_, _ere_.
Examples.--_Antaŭ ol morti, li diris ..._ = Before dying he said ...
_Li vespermanĝis, antaŭ ol li foriris_ = He dined before he went
away. _Antaŭ ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime_ = Ere we
(shall) reach him, he will be far away. _Antaŭ ol iri Londonon, ni
veturis Berlinon_ = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.
Aŭ = _Or._
Example.--_Oni ne scias, ĉu li ploras aŭ ridas_ = One does not know
whether he is weeping or laughing.
Aŭ ... aŭ = _Either ... or._
Example.--_Aŭ vi aŭ mi devos ĝin fari_ = Either you or I must
(will have to) do it.
Cetere = _Besides_, _for the rest_, _for the matter of that_.
Example.--_Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus
vidinta_ (or, _vidus_) _lin_ = He did not come; besides, if he had
(should have) come, I should not have seen him.
Ĉar = _Because_, _for_, _since_.
Examples.--_Tion mi scias, ĉar tie mi estas_ = I know that, because
(for) I was there. _Ĉar vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas ĝin scii_ =
Since you were not there, you cannot know it.
Ĉiufoje kiam, ĉiun fojon kiam = _Every time when_, _each time
when_.
Example.--_Mi lin renkontadis ĉiufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon_ = I
met him every time (when) I went to London.
Ĉu = _Whether_, or, _if_ (see remarks on ĉu in the list of
adverbs, par. 248 (_b_)).
Ĉu ... aŭ = _Whether ... or._
Example.--_Mi iros, ĉu li venos aŭ ne_ = I shall go, whether he
come (will come) or not.
Ĉu ... ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.
Example.--_Ĉu li skribos, ĉu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li_
= Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to
him.
De l' tempo kiam, or, de kiam = _Since, from the time when._
Example.--_De l' tempo kiam li mortis...._ = Since he died....
Des pli = _So much the_. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli
(_which see_), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112).
Example.--_Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme_ = I must
warn you, that perhaps he will not be (_or_, that he may not be) at
home. _Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi_ = So much the
better, I don't at all wish to see him.
Do = _Then_, _therefore_, _consequently_ (argumentative).
Examples.--_Mi do povas dormi trankvile_ = Then I can sleep
tranquilly. _Estis do vidaĵo mirinda!_ = It was then a wonderful
sight! _Kion do Johano diros?_ = What then will John say?
Dum (also preposition) = _While_, _whilst_ (par. 259 (10)).
Examples.--_Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la ĉambro_ = Whilst
he was speaking, we went out of the room. _Li povas labori, dum mi
estas for_ = He can work, whilst I am away.
Dume = _Meantime_, _meanwhile_ (also adverb).
Example.--_Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la manĝaĵon_
= They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready.
Eĉ se = _Even if_.
Example.--_Ili ne volus iri, eĉ se ili estus invititaj_ = They would
not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited.
Foje kiam = _Once when_, _one day when_, _once upon a time._
Example.--_Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon_ = Once
(one day), when walking, I met your friend.
Ĝis (also preposition) = _Till_, _until_ (par. 259 (13)).
Example.--_Atendu, ĝis mi revenos_[22] = Wait till I (shall) return.
Footnote:
[22] N.B.--Some writers would say _ĝis kiam_. Zamenhof never
did--the second word appears superfluous.
Jen = _Behold_, _here_ (also an adverb and interjection).
Example.--_Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klariĝas_ = Here the
difference of the result is explained.
Jen ... jen = _Now ... now_, _sometimes ... at other times_.
Example.--_Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas!_ = Now he runs
rapidly, now he stops!
Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas_ = The less
he works, the less he earns.
Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.
Example.--_Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li manĝas_ = The less he
drinks, the more he eats.
Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less_.
Example.--_Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni manĝas_ = The more we
drink, the less we eat.
Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_.
Example.--_Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata_ = The better
you are, the more you will be loved.
Kaj = _And_.
Example.--_Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari_ = You and I must do it.
Kaj ... kaj = _Both ... and_.
Example.--_Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon_ = I saw both John
and George there.
Kaj ceteraj = _And the rest_, _et cetera_ (commonly written k.c.).
Kaj tiel plu = _And so forth_, _and so on_ (commonly written
k.t.p.).
Ke = _That_. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio,
kiu, tio, or tiu = _that_.
Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas
venena insekto_ = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand
is not a poisonous insect. _Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malĝuste
tradukita_ = I think that that word is wrongly translated.
Kial = _Wherefore_, _why_ (par. 150) (also adverb).
Example.--_Demandu lin, kial li tion faras_ = Ask him why he does
that.
Kiam = _When_, _as_, _after_ (kiam = _after_, when used with the
English pluperfect) (par. 151).
Examples.--_Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis_ (_alproksimiĝis_) _la
lagon_ = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. _Kiam mi
estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron_ = After (when) I
had collected the amount, I bought a new book.
Kiam ajn = _Whenever_ (par. 145).
Example.--_Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis_ = He stammered whenever
he spoke.
Kie = _Where_ (par. 152) (also adverb).
Example.--_Sciigu min, kie li estas_ = Tell (inform) me where he is.
Kie ajn = _Wherever_ (par. 145).
Example.--_Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas_ = I shall find him
wherever he is.
Kiel = _As_ (in comparison) (par. 153).
Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.
Kiel ajn malmulte = _However little_.
Example.--_Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos_ (or, _volas_) ... = However
little you may (will) wish....
Kiel ankaŭ = _As also_, _as well as_.
Example.--_Mia patro, kiel ankaŭ mi, pensas, ke...._ = My father, as
well as I, thinks that....
Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = _As soon as possible_ (lit., as possible,
most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:--
Examples.--_Kiel eble plej frue_ = As early as possible. _Kiel eble
plej rapide_ = As quickly as possible. _Sendu lin al mi kiel eble
plej baldaŭ_ = Send him to me as soon as possible.
Kiel ekzemple = _As for example_.
Example.--_Oni ne manĝas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn,
akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn_ = People do not eat
some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and
others.
Kio ajn okazos (or, _ĉiuokaze_) = _At all events_ (lit., whatever
shall happen).
Example.--_Mi venos morgaŭ, kio ajn okazos_ = I shall come to-morrow
whatever happens.
Kondiĉe, ke = _On condition that_.
Example.--_Mi vin forpermesos, kondiĉe, ke vi revenu postmorgaŭ_ =
I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the
day after to-morrow.
Konsente, ke = _It being agreed that_.
Example.--_Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankaŭ estu tie_ = I will go, it
being understood that (agreed that) you also be there.
Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_ (also adverb).
Example.--_Vi preferas la bovaĵon, mi, kontraŭe, preferas la
ŝafaĵon_ = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton.
Krom se = _Unless_.
Examples.--_Krom se ili rapidos_ (or, _se ili ne rapidos_), _ili
maltrafos la vagonaron_ = Unless they (will) make haste, they will
miss the train.
Krom tio = _Besides_, _moreover_, _apart from that_.
Example.--_Ŝi estis krom tio tre bela knabino_ = She was, besides
(moreover), a very beautiful girl.
Kun la kondiĉo, ke = _On_ (_with_) _the condition that_.
Example.--_Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondiĉo, ke li redonu
ĝin al mi postmorgaŭ_ = I lent him the book on the condition that
he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow.
Kvankam = _Although_, _though_.
Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ =
Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. _Kvankam mi konsentas vian
opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordiĝi kun vi_ = Though I agree with
your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.
Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_ (also adverb).
Example.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas teruraĵon_ = He stood as if
he saw a terrible object.
Laŭ tio ... ke = According as.
Example.--_Laŭ tio, ke vi estos atenta aŭ maldiligenta, la
lernejestroj vin laŭdos aŭ mallaŭdos_ = According as you are (will
be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you.
Malgraŭ ĉio = _In spite of all_ (_everything_), _after all_.
Example.--_Li foriris malgraŭ ĉio, kion mi diris_ = He went away in
spite of all I said.
Malgraŭ tio, ke = _Notwithstanding that._
Example.--_Malgraŭ tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris_ =
Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.
Malpli ... ol = _Less ... than_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Li estas malpli kuraĝa, ol lia frato_ = He is less
courageous than his brother.
Ne nur, ne sole = _Not only._
Example.--_Li ne nur ŝtelis, sed li mortigis ankaŭ_ = He not only
stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also.
Nek = _Nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).
Example.--_Li ne estis tie, nek mi_ = He was not there, nor I.
Nek ... ankaŭ = _Nor ... also_, _nor ... too_, _nor ... either_.
Example.--_Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankaŭ_ = You were not there, nor
I either.
Nek ... nek = _Neither ... nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).
Example.--_Nek vi nek mi estis tie_ = Neither you nor I was there.
_Ol_ = _Than_ (par. 112).
Examples.--_Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam_ = Better
late than never. _La libro ne kostos pli ol tri ŝilingojn_ = The
book will not cost more than three shillings.
Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.
Example.--_La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas
fluida, kaj ĉi tiu malfluida_ = Water differs from ice, in that the
former is fluid and the latter solid.
Pli ... ol = _More ... than_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Li estas pli forta, ol vi_ = He is stronger than you.
Plie = _Moreover_, _further_ (also adverb).
Example.--_Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ..._ = Moreover, I tell you
that....
Por ke = _In order that_, _so that_, _to the end that_. Por ke is
always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this
expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201).
Examples.--_Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi ĝin meritu_ =
In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you
merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi_ = I
wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, _or_, I
will do everything to please you.
Post kiam = _After_.
Example.--_Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen_ = After the
sun set we returned home.
Same kiel = _As_, _just as_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin_
= Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you.
Se = _If_.
Example.--_Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos_ = I shall do it if I can
(shall be able).
Se ne = _If not_, _otherwise_, _lest_.
Example.--_Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos!_ = Learn your
lesson, otherwise I shall cane you!
Se nur = _If only_, _provided that_.
Example.--_Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue_ = You will see
John, provided that you (will) arrive early.
Se okaze = _If perchance_, _in case_, _in the event of_.
Example.--_Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ĉi_ = If
perchance you should come late, John would not be here.
Se tamen = _If however_, _if still_, _if though_, _if
notwithstanding_.
Example.--_Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgaŭ matene, venu vespere_ =
If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow
morning, come in the evening.
Sed = _But_.
Example.--_Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas_ = He
reads, but does not understand what he reads.
Sed ankaŭ = _But also_.
Example.--_Ŝi donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankaŭ ĉevalon_ = She
gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.
Sed eĉ = _But even_.
Example.--_Ne sole viroj, sed eĉ infanoj estis tie_ = Not only men,
but even children were there.
Sekve = _Consequently_.
Example.--_Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen_ = It began to rain,
consequently we returned home.
Tamen = _However_, _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_, _but_.
Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ =
Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. _Mi ne povis veni
hodiaŭ, tamen mi venos morgaŭ_ = I could not come to-day, however,
I will come to-morrow. _Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis
malriĉulo_ = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a
poor man.
Tia, ke = _Such that_.
Example.--_Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton_ =
My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word.
Tial = _So_, _therefore_ (par. 150) (also adverb).
Example.--_Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin_ = He refused to
work, therefore (so) I dismissed him.
Tial, ke = _Inasmuch as_, _since_, _because_.
Example.--_Mi vin ne mallaŭdas, tial, ke tio ne estis
via eraro_ = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was
not your mistake.
N.B.--Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = _so that_.
Tiam, kiam = _Then when_, _when_ (par. 151).
Example.--_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam
mi estis riĉa,_ (_tiam_) _mi ne estis feliĉa_ = When I was rich,
(then) I was not happy.
Tiamaniere, ke = _In such a manner that_, _so that_.
Example.--_Parolu tiamaniere_ (or, _tiel_), _ke mi povu vin kompreni_
= Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand
you.
Tiel, ke = _So that_.
Example.--_Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la
alian_ = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one
another.
Tiel ... ke = _So ... that_.
Example.--_Li estas tiel bona, ke li ĉion pardonas_ = He is so good
that he pardons everything.
Tiel ... kiel = _As ... as_ (par. 112).
Example.--_Ŝi estas tiel bona, kiel_ (_ŝi estas_) _bela_ = She is
as good as she is beautiful.
Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = _For fear that_, _fearing
that_, _lest_.
Example.--_Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos_ = I said that,
fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future
tense here. "What is my fear?" I fear he will perhaps come.
Tio estas (t.e.) = _That is_, _that is to say_, _to wit_. The
initial letters are nearly always used just as we say _id est_ =
_i.e._
Tiom ... ke = _So many ... that_, _so much ... that_.
Example.--_Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni_ = I had
so many apples that I was obliged to give them away.
Tiom ... kiom = _As much ... as_, _as many ... as_.
Example.--_Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas_ = Give me as much (many)
as you can.
Tuj kiam = _As soon as_, _immediately when_, _directly_.
Example.--_Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris_ = I shut the door
as soon as (directly) he went out.
INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.
269. Interjections (_interjekcioj_) and interjectional expressions
vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that
it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our
English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would
have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at
present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more
widely spoken, more will be added.
Adiaŭ! = _Adieu! farewell! good-bye!_
Ah! Aha! = _Ah! hah!_
Aj! = _An exclamation of disgust_.
Antaŭen! = _Forward!_
Atentu! = _Look out! Take care! Attention!_
Aŭskultu! = _Hark! hist!_
Bis! = _Encore!_
Bone! = _Good!_
Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = _Welcome!_
Brave! = _Bravo! capital! splendid!_
Certe! = _Certainly!_
Ĉu estas eble! = _Is it possible!_
Ĉu ne! = _Isn't it! etc._ Ĉu! = _Is it! etc._
Ĉu ne vere! = _Is it not so!_
Dio gardu! = _God save us!_
Dio mia! = _God bless me!_
Dio min savu! = _God save me!_
Dio volu! = _Would to God! may God!_
Efektive! = _Really!_
Fi! = _Fie! for shame!_
For! = _Away! be off!_
For de tie ĉi! = _Begone! be off! avaunt!_
Ha! = _Ah! ha!_
Haltu! = _Stop!_
He! = _Halloo! hey!_
Helpon! Helpu! = _Help!_
Ho! = _O! oh! ho!_
Ho ve! = _Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay!_
Hontu! = _For shame!_
Hura! = _Hurrah! huzza!_
Ja! = _Indeed!_
Jen! = _Lo! there! behold! see!_
Kial do! = _Why indeed! why then!_
Kiel abomene! = _How abominable!_
Kion! = _What!_ Kion do! = _What then!_
Kompreneble! = _Of course!_
Kuraĝe! = _Courage!_
Ne! = _No!_
Nu! = _Well!_
Nu do! = _Well then!_
Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = _Be quiet! Patience!_
Peston! = _Plague on't!_
Pluen! Daŭrigu! = _Proceed! Go on!_
Pro Dio! = _For God's sake!_
Rapidu! Rapide! = _Quick!_
Silentu! Silenton! = _Hist! hush!_
Ŝŝ! = _'Sh! Hush!_
Ts! = _Hist!_
Ve! = _Woe!_
Vere! = _Really! True!_
Verege! Tre vere! = _Very true!_
Vivu! = _Long live!_
269 (_a_). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial
form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with
which they can agree, as:--_Neeble!_ = Impossible! (par. 245).
REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.
270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.
The suffix -aĉ- denotes _badness of quality or condition_, and is
used with any part of speech to show _disparagement_, _contempt_.
Fuŝi, _to botch_, _bungle_, _do blunderingly_, is sometimes used
as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used
than -aĉ.
Aĉa = _nasty_; domaĉo = _a hovel_; veteraĉo = _vile
weather_; ĉapelaĉo = _a shabby hat_; fuŝkonstrui, or,
konstruaĉi = _to jerry-build_.
The exclamation Fi = _fie! for shame!_ is used as a prefix to
denote _shamefulness_, _disgustingness_, _nastiness_. Fi- denotes
moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-,
which has a more general sense.
Fidomo = _a house of ill repute_; fivorto = _a naughty word_;
firakonto = _a low story_.
270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.)
(_a_). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is
habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus,
pafo = _a shot from a gun_ (the gun is fired, and the action is
over); but pafado = _a fusillade_ (a continuance of shots of more
or less duration).
Thus _dancado_ = dancing, _desegnado_ = designing, drawing, _kantado_
= singing, _legado_ = reading, _pentrado_ = painting, _skulptado_ =
(the art of) sculpture, _skribado_ = writing. These words signify not
momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to
denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc.
_Kanto_ = A song. _Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi_ = Her song pleases me.
_Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min_ = Her singing charms me.
(_b_). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling,
touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado,
pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such
faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.
(_c_). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that
some -ado is an art.
Examples.--_Danc-arto_ (_dancado_) = the art of dancing, _kant-arto_
(_kantado_) = the art of singing, _pentr-arto_ (_pentrado_) = the art
of painting.
N.B.--The hyphens are not necessary.
(_d_). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix
is seen in such words as:--
_Movo_ = a motion, _movado_ = movement (general), _progreso_ = a step
of progress, _progresado_ = progress (general), _parolo_ = word
(spoken), _parolado_ = speech, discourse, _fumo_ = smoke, _fumado_ =
smoking (habit of smoking), _verko_ = a work (literary or musical),
_verkado_ = composition (lit.).
(_e_). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action
is not merely momentary, but is being _continued_, _repeated_, or _is
habitual_; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often
expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc.
Examples.--_Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko_ = I jumped
(about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). _Viziti_
= To visit. _Vizitadi_ = To frequent, to haunt.
(_f_). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the
ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = _a
crown_; kronado = _coronation_; martelo = _a hammer_; martelado
= _hammering_, etc.
(_g_). Do not therefore use _-AD-_ without thinking of its
significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.
271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).
(_a_). _-AĴ-_ denotes something having the quality denoted by the
root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is
also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.
Examples.--_Ĉasi_ = to hunt, _ĉasaĵo_ = game. _Armi_ = to arm,
_armaĵo_ = armour. _Bovo_ = an ox, _bovaĵo_ = beef. _Ovo_ = an egg,
ovaĵo = an omelet.
(_b_). _-EC-_ denotes an _abstract_ quality, similar to the English
suffixes, _-nce_, _-ncy_, _-ness_, _-tude_, _-ity_.
Examples.--_Pura_ = clean, _pureco_ = purity, cleanness. _Feliĉa_ =
happy, _feliĉeco_ = happiness, felicity. _Sen_ = without, _seneco_ =
dearth, want. _Kuraĝa_ = courageous, _kuraĝeco_ = fortitude.
_Danki_ = to thank, _dankeco_ = gratitude, thankfulness. _Riĉa_ =
rich, _riĉeco_ = wealth.
(_c_). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used
as roots, as aĵo = _a thing_, eco = _a quality_, _a distinctive
mark_.
(_d_). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their
meaning.
_Amiko_ = a friend, _amikaĵo_ = a friendly act, _amikeco_ =
friendship. _Bona_ = good, _bonaĵo_ = a good (action or thing),
_boneco_ = goodness. _Fortika_ = solid, robust, _fortikaĵo_ = a
stronghold, _fortikeco_ = robustness. _Mola_ = soft, _molaĵo_ = a
soft substance, pulp, _moleco_ = softness. _Sprita_ = witty,
_spritaĵo_ = a witticism, _spriteco_ = wittiness. _Malsprita_ =
dull, stupid, _malspritaĵo_ = a stupidity, a _bêtise_, _malspriteco_
= stupidity, a state of silliness.
(_e_). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither
concrete (_-AĴ-_) nor abstract (_-EC-_), we add only the grammatical
termination to the root. For instance, la bono = _the good_,
_good (itself)_, and from this arises bonaĵo = _a good action_,
or, _something good_, the abstract quality being boneco = _goodness_.
Again, acido = _an acid_, acidaĵo = _an acid thing_, something
which has an acid taste, acideco = _acidity_. So, heroo = _a hero_,
heroaĵo = _an exploit_ (something heroic), heroeco = _heroism_.
The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to
over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca,
in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix,
and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate.
In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the
abstractness, the "_nessness_" of the idea.
Examples.--_La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco
ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn_ = The good that you are doing is
remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind
acts. _Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam
ambaŭ posedas acidecon_ = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a
sour fluid, although both possess acidity. _La heroo de la heroaĵo
montris grandan heroecon_ = The hero of the exploit showed great
heroism. _La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj_ = A friend
shows his friendship by friendly acts.
272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).
These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root,
one or other of them serves to show a person's country, religion,
profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct
meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine
suffix _-IN-_ is added to denote females.
(_a_). Like the English _-an_, _-man_, _-AN-_ denotes a member of
something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or
country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.
Examples.--_Klubo_ = a club, _klubano_ = a member of a club. _Senato_
= senate, _senatano_ = a senator. _Ameriko_ = America, _amerikano_ =
an American. _Londono_ = London, _londonano_ = a Londoner. _Parizo_ =
Paris, _parizano_ = a Parisian. _Urbo_ = a town or city, _urbano_ = a
townsman or citizen. _Kamparo_ = country (rural), _kamparano_ = a
countryman. _Vilaĝo_ = a village, _vilaĝano_ = a villager. _Insulo_
= an island, _insulano_ = an islander. _Kristo_ = Christ, _Kristano_ = a
Christian. _Partio_ = a party, _partiano_ = a partisan.
(_b_). The suffix _-AN-_ itself is used as a root. Ano = _a
member_, anaro = _a band_ (a collection of members of something).
(_c_). _-IST-_, like the English affix _-ist_, denotes a person
following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains
his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In
short, it denotes _habitual occupation_ (not necessarily for the sake
of gain).
Examples.--_Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝisto_ = a judge. _Kuraci_ = to
treat the sick, _kuracisto_ = a doctor. _Drogo_ = a drug, _drogisto_
= a druggist. _Maro_ = sea, _maristo_ = a sailor (by occupation).
_Rabi_ = to rob, _rabisto_ = a robber. _Ŝteli_ = to steal,
_ŝtelisto_ = a thief. _Pentri_ = to paint, _pentristo_ = a painter
(art). _Kolorigi_ = to colour, paint, _kolorigisto_ = a painter
(house). _Servi_ = to serve, _servisto_ or _servistino_ = servant
(male or female). _Astrologio_ = astrology, _astrologiisto_ (or,
_astrologo_) = an astrologer.
(_d_). _-IST-_ is used only when there is a root to which it may be
added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation,
etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = _to sew_,
ŝuo = _a shoe_, boto = boot, we get kudristino = _a seamstress_
or _dressmaker_, ŝuisto = _a shoemaker_, botisto = _a bootmaker_.
When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root,
as:--Tajloro = _a tailor_, lakeo = _a lackey_, or _valet_.
(_e_). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is
not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.
Examples.--_Juĝanto_ = a judge (of something), _juĝisto_, a judge
(by occupation or profession). _Amanto_ = a lover, _amisto_ = a
lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. _Fotografanto_ = a photographer, one
who is now photographing, _fotografisto_ = a professional photographer.
_Laboranto_ = a person working, _laboristo_ = a labourer, or man who
works for a livelihood.
(_f_). _-ESTR-_ denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler,
principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as
the suffix _-AN-_ denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so
_-ESTR-_ would designate the head of it, as:--Urbo = _a city_,
urbano = _citizen_, urbestro = _a mayor_, _a chief citizen_.
Examples.--_Imperio_ = an empire, _imperiestro_ = an emperor,
_imperiestrino_ = an empress. _Regno_ = (the) State, _regnestro_ = a
ruler, head of (the) State. _Ŝipo_ = a ship, _ŝipestro_ = a captain
of a merchant vessel, a skipper. _Lernejo_ = a school, _lernejestro_
= a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be _instruisto_). From
_polico_ = police, we get _policano_ = a policeman (a member of the
police force), _policisto_ = an officer of police (one who has made
the police his profession), _policestro_ = chief of police.
(_g_). Ĉefo = _chief_, _head_, is used as a prefix as an
equivalent of the English _chief_, _main_, _head-_, _prime_.
Examples.--_Episkopo_ = a bishop, _ĉefepiskopo_ = archbishop.
_Anĝelo_ = an angel, _ĉefanĝelo_ = archangel.
Compare _-estro_ (the one in command over) with _ĉef-_ (principal in
honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = _principal
ship_, ŝipestro = _ship's captain_.
(_h_). _-UL-_ denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in
the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that
an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.
Examples.--_Riĉa_ = rich, _riĉulo_ = a rich man. _Malriĉa_ = poor,
_malriĉulo_ = a poor man, a pauper. _Justa_ = just, _justulo_ = a
just or righteous man. _Bona_ = good, _bonulo_ = a good man. _Bela_ =
beautiful, _belulino_ = a beauty, a beautiful woman. _Paca_ =
peaceful, _paculo_ = a man of peace. _Juna_ = young, _junulo_ = a
youth, junulino = a young woman. _Avara_ = avaricious, _avarulo_ = a
miser.
(_i_). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.
Examples.--_Tie_ = there, _tieulo_ = an aborigine (a man of there).
_Tiam_ = then, at that time, _tiamulo_ = a contemporary (a man of
that time). _Kun_ = with, _kunulo_ = a companion (a person with you).
(_j_). Since words like legi = _to read_, viziti = _to visit_,
etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in
describing a person) by preference not _-UL-_ but _-IST-_ or a
participial termination.
Examples.--_Leganto_ = a reader (who is reading), _leginto_ = a
reader (who has read), _legonto_ = a reader (who is about to read),
_legisto_ = a reader (by habitual occupation). But _legemulo_ = a
person who is fond of reading.
273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)
Aro = _a collection_, and ero = _an item_; therefore aro da
eroj might be termed "a collection of items."
(_a_). _-AR-_ denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained
in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.
Examples.--_Vorto_ = a word, _vortaro_ = a collection of words, a
dictionary. _Homo_ = a man, _homaro_ = mankind. _Arbo_ = a tree,
_arbaro_ = a wood, _arbareto_ = a small wood, clump of trees.
_Arbeto_ = shrub, small tree, _arbetaro_ = shrubbery, a grove.
_Insulo_ = an island, _insularo_ = an archipelago. _Vagono_ = a
(railway) carriage, _vagonaro_ = a train. _Sekvanto_ = a follower,
_sekvantaro_ = suite, cortège, retinue. _Nomo_ = a name, _nomaro_ =
list of names, a register. _Ŝtupo_ = a step, _ŝtuparo_ = a
staircase, _ŝtupetaro_ = a ladder, succession of small steps.
_Aristokrato_ = an aristocrat, _aristokrataro_ = (the) aristocracy.
_Aro_ = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the
animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:--_Bruto_ = cattle,
_brutaro_ = a herd of cattle. _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafaro_ = a flock
of sheep. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelaro_ = a swarm of bees.
(_b_). _-ER-_ denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small
fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.
Examples.--_Sablo_ = sand, _sablero_ = a grain of sand. _Hajlo_ =
hail, _hajlero_ = a hailstone. _Fajro_ = fire, _fajrero_ = a spark.
_Mono_ = money, _monero_ = a coin. _Polvo_ = dust, _polvero_ = an
atom or speck of dust. _Pulvo_ = gunpowder, _pulvero_ = a grain of
gunpowder. _Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerero_ = a grain of sugar.
274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.)
(_a_). _-ĈJ-_ is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of
a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the
fifth (occasionally, the sixth).
Examples.--_Vilhelmo_ = William, _Vilhelĉjo_ = Willie, _Vilheĉjo_ =
Will, _Vilĉjo_ = Billy, _Viĉjo_ = Bill. _Petro_ = Peter, _Peĉjo_ =
Pete. _Johano_ = John, _Johanĉjo_ = Johnnie, _Joĉjo_ = Jack.
_Nikolao_ = Nicholas, _Nikolĉjo_ = Nickie, _Nikoĉjo_, _Nikĉjo_, or
_Niĉjo_ = Nick. _Ernesto_ = Ernest, _Erneĉjo_, _Ernĉjo_, or
_Erĉjo_ = Ernie. _Patro_ = father, _patreto_, _paĉjo_ = papa.
(_b_). _-NJ-_ is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.
Examples.--_Mario_ = Mary, _Marinjo_ = Molly, _Manjo_ = Polly.
_Klaro_ = Clara, _Klanjo_ = Clarrie. _Sofio_ = Sophia, _Sonjo_ =
Sophy. _Patrineto_, _patrinjo_, _panjo_ = mamma, mammy, ma.
275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)
(_a_). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words
ebla = _possible_; emo = _propensity_, _tendency_; indo =
_worth_, _merit_, _value_. As suffixes they are mostly used to form
adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = _to
believe_, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning.
Kredebla = _credible_, _possible of belief_, _believable_;
kredema = _credulous_, _having a tendency to believe_; kredinda =
_worthy of belief_.
(_b_). _-EBL-_ denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen,
similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.
Examples.--_Pagi_ = to pay, _pagebla_ = payable. _Fleksi_ = to bend,
_fleksebla_ = flexible. _Rompi_ = to break, _rompebla_ = breakable.
_Fidi_ = to rely upon, _fidebla_ = reliable. _Kompreni_ = to
understand, _komprenebla_ = comprehensible, _kompreneble_ = of
course, comprehensibly.
(_c_). Do not confuse _-EBL-_ with _-EM-_ or _-IND-_ in words which
in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings.
For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth
reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla =
_readable_, _legible_, but leginda = _readable_, _worth reading_.
Hence we see that _-EBL-_ must always denote possibility. It is
possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or
not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable
individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in
Esperanto, aminda = _lovable_, and honorinda = _honourable_.
_-EBL-_ is sometimes used for the infinitive.
Examples.--_Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro_ = These
words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. _Tia amo
estas malfacile imagebla_ = It is difficult to imagine such love.
(_d_). _-EM-_ denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition,
similar to the English suffix, -ful.
Examples.--_Paco_ = peace, _pacema_ = peaceful. _Helpi_ = to help,
_helpema_ = helpful, obliging. _Trompi_ = to deceive, _trompema_ =
deceitful, _trompemo_ = duplicity. _Servi_ = to serve, _servema_ =
obliging, _servemo_ = inclination to serve. _Labori_ = to work,
_laborema_ = laborious. _Pura_ = clean, pure, _purema_ = cleanly,
_purigebla_ = cleanable. _Babili_ = to chatter, _babilema_ =
talkative, chattering. _Koleri_ = to be angry, _kolerema_ =
irascible, _ekkolerema_ = quick-tempered. _Dormi_ = to sleep,
_dormema_ = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.
(_e_). Do not confuse _-EM-_ with _-IND-_ (or with _-AM-_ (love) in
compound words). For instance:--
_Envii_ = to envy, _enviema_ = envious, inclined to envy, _enviinda_
= enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. _Honti_ = to be ashamed,
_hontema_ = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, _hontemo_ = bashfulness,
_hontinda_ = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. _Dormi_ = to
sleep, _dormema_ = drowsy, _dormama_ = fond of sleep.
(_f_). _-IND-_ denotes worthiness, worthy of.
Examples.--_Inda_ = worthy, _malinda_ = unworthy. _Laŭdi_ = to
praise, _laŭdinda_ = praiseworthy. _Memori_ = to remember,
_memorinda_ = memorable, worthy of being remembered. _Estimi_ = to
esteem, _estiminda_ = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable"
in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from
_taksi_ = to estimate, to value, _taksebla_ = estimable, appraisable.
276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)
_-EDZ-_ denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a
suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a
root.
Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, a married man, _edzino_ = a wife, a
married woman, _edzeco_ = matrimony, a state of marriage, _edziĝo_ =
a wedding, nuptials, _edziĝa_ = nuptial, _geedzoj_ = a married
couple, husband and wife.
When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix _-IN-_ is
added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.
Examples.--_Doktoredzino_ = a doctor's wife; _kudristinedzo_ = a
seamstress's husband; _laboristedzino_ = a labourer's wife;
_lavistinedzo_ = a washerwoman's husband; _tajloredzino_ = a tailor's
wife; _edzigi_ (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a
woman), _edzinigi_ (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; _edziĝi_
(intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), _edziniĝi_ (intrans.) =
to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:--_Li
edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun
alia sinjorino_ = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his
parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. _Ŝi edziniĝis
kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia
sinjoro_ = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished
to marry her to another gentleman.
277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.)
(_a_). These two suffixes are opposites, _-EG-_ denoting
augmentation, and _-ET-_ diminution of degree. When employed
in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to denote
the degree, as:--Grandega (_very large_), malgrandega (_very
little_), but a better translation of these words is grandega
= _huge_, _enormous_; malgrandega = _tiny_ (see remarks on degrees
of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English
adjectives as equivalents of _-EG-_ or _-ET-_, we should use
not the adverb "very," but a stronger term, as "excessively,"
"enormously," etc.
(_b_). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words
to express the English meaning.
Examples.--_Montego_ = a huge mountain, _granda monto_ = a big
mountain, _monto_ = a mountain, _malgranda monto_ = a small mountain,
_monteto_ = a hill, _altaĵo_ = an eminence, _altaĵeto_ = a hillock.
Again:--_Riverego_ = a huge river, _larĝa rivero_ = a wide river,
_rivero_ = a river, _malgranda rivero_ = a small river, _rivereto_ =
a brook, stream, _malgranda rivereto_ = a streamlet.
(_c_). _-EG-_ denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a
root, ega = _intense_, egeco = _intensity_.
(_d_). _-ET-_ denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English
suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used
as a root, eta = _little_, _tiny_, etulo = _a little one_.
Examples.--_Pluvo_ = rain, _pluvego_ = a downpour, _pluveto_ = a
shower. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ridegi_ = to guffaw, _rideti_ = to smile.
_Plori_ = to shed tears, _ploregi_ = to weep bitterly, _ploreti_ = to
whimper. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormegi_ = to sleep heavily, _dormeti_
= to doze, _dormeto_ = a nap. _Domo_ = a house, _domego_ = a mansion,
_dometo_ = a cottage. _Ŝnuro_ = cord, _ŝnurego_ = rope, cable,
_ŝnureto_ = string, twine. _Ami_ = to love, _amegi_ = to idolize,
_ameti_ = to have some liking for.
N.B.--From the above we see that _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ may generally be
translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for
adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than
the added suffix.
278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)
These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing
from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is
contained.
(_a_). _-EJ-_ denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the
idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = _a place_, _a
locality_.
Examples.--_Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafejo_ = a sheepfold, or a place
specially used for sheep. _Preĝi_ = to pray, _preĝejo_ = a church,
a place allotted to prayer. _Fruktarbo_ = a fruit-tree, _fruktarbejo_
= an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. _Kafo_ = coffee, _kafejo_
= a café. _Vinbero_ = a grape, _vinberejo_ = a vineyard. _Armilo_ = a
weapon, _armilejo_ = an armoury. _Tombo_ = a tomb, grave, _tombejo_ =
a cemetery. _Manĝi_ = to eat, _manĝejo_ = a refectory, _manĝaĵo_
= food, _manĝaĵejo_ = a larder. _Planti_ = to plant, _plantejo_ =
nursery. _Mallibera_ = captive, _malliberejo_ = a prison. _Bovino_ =
a cow, _bovinejo_ = cowshed. _Lerni_ = to learn, _lernejo_ = a
school. _Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝejo_ = a court of justice. _Dormi_ =
to sleep, _dormejo_ = a dormitory. _Herbo_ = grass, _herbejo_ = a
meadow, a field. _Paperfari_ = to make paper, _paperfarejo_ = a paper
manufactory.
(_b_) _-ING-_ denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as
a root, ingo = _a socket_, _a sheath_, _a holder_.
Examples.--_Kandelo_ = a candle, _kandelingo_ = a candlestick.
_Plumo_ = a pen, _plumingo_ = a penholder. _Fingro_ = a finger,
_fingringo_ = a thimble. _Cigaredo_ = a cigarette, _cigaredingo_ = a
cigarette mouthpiece. _Glavo_ = a sword, _glavingo_ = scabbard,
sheath (sword). _Bajoneto_ = bayonet, _bayonetingo_ = a scabbard
(bayonet).
(_c_). _-UJ-_ denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or
bears. Used as a root, ujo = _a receptacle_, _a container_. It has
a wide signification, for it can be used for:--
(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes
the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various
races.
Examples.--_Franco_ = a Frenchman, _Francujo_ = France. _Turko_ = a
Turk, _Turkujo_ = Turkey. _Anglo_ = an Englishman, _Anglujo_ =
England. _Germano_ = a German, _Germanujo_ = Germany. _Italo_ = an
Italian, _Italujo_ = Italy. _Brito_ = a Briton, _Granda Britujo_ =
Great Britain. _Hispano_ = a Spaniard, _Hispanujo_ = Spain.
N.B.--_Lando_ can be used instead of -_ujo_, if desired.
Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj
is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In
these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of
the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (_a_).
(2). The names of trees producing fruits.
Examples.--_Pruno_ = a plum, _prunujo_ = a plum-tree. _Kaŝtano_ = a
chestnut, _kaŝtanujo_ = a chestnut-tree. _Piro_ = a pear, _pirujo_ =
a pear-tree. _Migdalo_ = an almond, _migdalujo_ = an almond-tree.
_Moruso_ = a mulberry, _morusujo_ = a mulberry-tree. _Ĉerizo_ = a
cherry, _ĉerizujo_ = a cherry-tree.
_Arbo_ can be used instead of _ujo_ in such cases, and is preferable,
because clearer, thus: _prunarbo_, _ĉerizarbo_.
(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.
Examples.--_Teo_ = tea, _teujo_ = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot
is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore _tekruĉo_ = a
teapot, from _kruĉo_ = a vessel for fluids). _Mono_ = money,
_monujo_ = a purse. _Papero_ = paper, _paperujo_ = a portfolio.
_Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerujo_ = a sugar-basin. _Karto_ = a card,
_kartujo_ = a card-case. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelujo_ = a, beehive.
_Mustardo_ = mustard, _mustardujo_ = mustard-pot.
(_d_). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in
the following examples:--
For instance, _cigaro_ = a cigar, _cigarejo_ = a cigar depot; but if
we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we
add the word required. If it be a store, we add _tenejo_ = a
storehouse, as:--_Cigartenejo_ = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a
shop, we add _vendejo_ = a market, or place where things are sold,
as:--_Cigarvendejo_ = a cigar shop, or we might say also
_cigarbutiko_. _Cigaringo_ = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which
holds one cigar. _Cigarujo_ = a cigar case or box, which contains
several cigars. _Pomo_ = an apple, _pomejo_ (or, _pomarbejo_) = an
apple orchard, _pomujo_, _pomarbo_ = an apple-tree.
279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)
_-ID-_ denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root,
ido = _offspring_, _descendant_; idaro = _issue_, _posterity_.
Examples.--_Kato_ = a cat, _katido_ = a kitten. _Bovo_ = an ox, or a
general term for the animal, hence _bovido_ = a calf; if we wished to
say a cow's calf, we make _bovo_ feminine, viz., _bovino_ = a cow,
_bovinido_ = a cow's calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call
_bovidino_, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be
_virbovido_, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should
follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46).
_Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafido_ = a lamb. _Cervo_ = a stag, _cervido_ =
a fawn. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundido_ = a puppy. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse,
_ĉevalido_ = a foal. _Koko_ = a cock, _kokido_ = a chicken,
_kokideto_ = a chick, a tiny chicken. _Birdo_ = a bird, _birdido_ = a
fledgeling, a young bird. _Izraelo_ = Israel, _izraelido_ = an
Israelite. _Napoleono_ = Napoleon, _napoleonido_ = a descendant of
Napoleon. _Reĝo_ = a king, _reĝido_ = a prince, king's son.
280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)
(_a_). These two are the most important and most widely used of all
the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used
as roots, (1). Igi = _to make_, _to cause_, as:--Igu ŝin veni al
nia dancado = _Make her come to our dance._ Li penis igi sian
amikon tuŝi la aferon = _He tried to make his friend broach the
subject_ (_touch upon the matter_). (2). Iĝi = _to become_ (_to be
made_, _to get_), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = _The weather is
getting_ (_becoming_) _warmer_. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = _He
will soon become an old man._
(_b_). Used as suffixes:--
(1). _-IG-_ denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause
(to get), to render, as ruĝa = _red_, ruĝigi = _to make red_,
_to redden_, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = _the action of
reddening_, ruĝiga = _reddening_ (adj.).
(2). _-IĜ-_ denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become).
Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix
and with _-IG-_ in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = _to become
or get red_, _to blush_; ruĝiĝo = _the action of getting red_, _a
blush_; ruĝiĝa = _blushing_ (adj.).
(_c_). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but
the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the
following examples will show:--
(_d_). From adjectives.
Examples.--_Bona_ = good, _bonigi_ = to make or render good,
_boniĝi_ = to become good. _Plibonigi_ = to make better, to improve,
_pliboniĝi_ = to become better, to improve, _plibonigo_ = the act of
making better, improvement (made), _pliboniĝo_ = the state of
becoming better, improvement (experienced). _Laca_ = tired, fatigued,
_lacigi_ = to tire (active), _laciĝi_ = to get tired, _lacigo_ = the
act of tiring others, _laciĝo_ = the state of growing tired. _Preta_
= ready, _pretigi_ = to make ready, _pretiĝi_ = to get (become)
ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be
formed.
(_e_). From nouns.
Examples.--_Fianĉo_ = a fiancé (man), _fianĉigi_ = to betroth, to
affiance, _fianĉiĝi_ = to become betrothed, to be engaged,
_fianĉiĝo_ = betrothal, engagement, _fianĉiĝa_ = betrothing,
_fianĉiĝe_ = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a
man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix,
as:--_fianĉino_, _fianĉinigi_, _fianĉiniĝi_, _fianĉinigo_, etc.,
etc.
(_f_). From verbs.
Examples.--_Morti_ = to die, _mortigi_ = to cause to die, to kill,
_mortiĝi_ = to die out, to expire (become dead), _mortigo_ = killing
(murder), _mortiga_ = deadly, _mortiganto_ = a murderer, _mortige_ =
mortally. _Sinmortigo_ = suicide, _sinmortigi_ = to commit suicide.
_Sidi_ = to be sitting, to sit, _sidigi_ = to cause to sit, _sidiĝi_
= to sit down, to seat oneself, _sidigo_ = the act of causing to sit,
seating, _sidiĝo_ = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself,
as:--_Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de
tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu
sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de
hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi_ = He conducted
the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so
many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting
down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as
the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round
many times before seating itself. _Sciigi_ = to cause (_someone_) to
know, _or_, to make (_something_) known. _Mi sciigis la homon pri la
novaĵo_, or, _Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo_ = I caused the man
to know (_or_, I informed the man, _or_, I made the news known to the
man). _Sciiĝi_ = to become informed, to learn. _Mi sciiĝis pri la
novaĵo_ = I learnt the news.
(_g_). Verbs formed by _-IGI_ are transitive (par. 161), but those by
_-IĜI_ are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par.
162); with verbs in _-IĜI_, therefore, we cannot use the passive
participles, _-ATA_, etc., but only the active forms _-ANTA_, etc.,
as:--Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol
mi lin konis = _He had become an old man before I knew him._
(_h_). Intransitive verbs.--Some verbs, such as ĉesi = _to
cease_, daŭri = _to continue_, pasi = _to pass_, are neuter or
intransitive.
Examples.--_La pluvo ĉesas fali_ (or, _ĉesiĝas_) = The rain ceases
to fall (or, comes to an end). _La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon_ =
The shooting continued some time. _La tempo pasas_ = Time passes.
In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively,
but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto
we must add the suffix _-IGI_.
Examples.--_Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo!_ = Cease
that, you deafen me with your noise! _Daŭrigu vian rakonton_ =
Continue your narrative. _Pasigu al mi la karafon_ = Pass me the
decanter (see par. 237 (_i_)).
(_i_). Transitive verbs.--On the contrary,
fini = _to finish_, and komenci = _to commence_,
are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -_IG_
to make them transitive.
Examples.--_Finu vian laboron_ = Finish your work. _Ni komencis nian
vojaĝon je la dua horo_ = We commenced our journey at 2 o'clock.
But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may
use the suffix -_IĜI_.
Examples.--_Lia laboro finiĝas_ = His work finishes. _La jaro
finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj_ = The year will end in a few days. _La
vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo_ = The journey commenced at 3
o'clock (see par. 237 (_i_)).
(_j_). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.--Joined to
these, -_IG_- and -_IĜ_- serve to form numerous words.
Examples.--_Unuigi_ = to unify, _unuigo_ = union, _unuiĝi_ = to
unite together, to be combined, _unuiĝo_ = union (undergone).
_Duobligi_ = to double, _duobliĝi_ = to become double. _Aligi al_ =
to attribute to, _aliĝi_ = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, _aliĝo_
= adhesion. _Eksigi_ = to dismiss, _eksiĝi_ = to become ex-, to
resign (a position). _Disigi_ = to separate, _disiĝi_ = to separate
mutually, _disigo_ = act of separating, disjunction, _disiĝo_ =
disunion, schism. _Kunigi_ = to connect, _kuniĝi_ = to join
together, to coalesce, _kunigo_ = connection, _kuniĝo_ = junction.
_Forigi_ = to do away with, _foriĝi_ = to withdraw.
281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)
-_IL_- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is
done. As a root, ilo = _a tool, an instrument, an implement, a
means of_.
Examples.--_Kombi_ = to comb, _kombilo_ = a comb. _Razi_ = to shave,
_razilo_ = a razor. _Tranĉi_ = to cut, _tranĉilo_ = a knive. _Haki_
= to hack, to chop, _hakilo_ = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. _Kudri_
= to sew, _kudrilo_ = a needle. _Tondi_ = to shear, to clip,
_tondilo_ = shears, scissors. _Presi_ = to print, _presilo_ = a
printing press. _Fermenti_ = to ferment, _fermentilo_ = yeast, leaven
(a means of fermenting). _Batali_ = to fight, _batalilo_ = a weapon.
_Armi_ = to arm, _armiloj_ = arms, _armilejo_ = an arsenal (a place
for arms, see -_EJ_-, 278).
282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.)
-_IN_- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = _a female_,
ina = _female_.
Examples.--_Frato_ = a brother, _fratino_ = a sister. _Patro_ = a
father, _patrino_ = a mother. _Kuzo_ = a male cousin, _kuzino_ = a
female cousin. _Avo_ = grandfather, _avino_ = grandmother. _Nepo_ = a
grandson, _nepino_ = a granddaughter. _Onklo_ = an uncle, _onklino_ =
an aunt. _Nevo_ = a nephew, _nevino_ = a niece. _Patra_ = paternal,
_patrina_ = maternal, _patrineco_ = maternity. _Frata_ = brotherly,
fraternal, _fratina_ = sisterly. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse, _ĉevalino_ = a
mare, _ĉevalido_ = a colt, _ĉevalidino_ = a filly. _Ŝafo_ = a
sheep, _ŝafino_ = a ewe. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundino_ = a bitch.
_Bovo_ = an ox, _bovino_ = a cow.
283. MOŜTO. (Ex. 23.)
(_a_). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word.
It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect.
Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro =
_sir_.
(_b_). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto,
but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add
moŝto.
(_c_). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession
it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown
below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent
"Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship,"
"Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency,"
"Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -_IN_ is hardly
ever added.
Examples:--
Emperor = Via imperiestra moŝto = _Your Imperial Majesty_.
King = Via reĝa moŝto = _Your Majesty_.
Queen = Via reĝina moŝto = _Your Majesty_.
Royal Family = Via reĝida moŝto = _Your Royal Highness_.
Prince = Via princa moŝto = _Your Highness_, or, _Serene Highness_.
Duke = Via duka moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Duchess = Via dukina moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Archbishop = Via ĉefepiskopa moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Marquis = Via markiza moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Earl, Count = Via grafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Viscount = Via vicgrafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Lord, Baron (Judge) = Via barona moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Viceroy = Via vicreĝa moŝto = _Your Excellency_.
Governor = Via rega moŝto = _Your Excellency_.
Judge (not a Baron) = Via juĝista moŝto = _Your Honour_.
Mayor = Via urbestra moŝto = _Your Worship_.
General (Officer) = Via generala moŝto = _General_.
N.B.--No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like
"Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir,"
but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.
(_d_). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:--
_Al Lia Duka Moŝto de ..._ or, _Al Lia Duka Moŝto, la Duko de ..._
= To His Grace the Duke of ...
_Al Ŝia Grafina Moŝto de ..._ = To the Countess of ...
_Al Lia Rega Moŝto de ..._ = To His Excellency the Governor of ...;
or if we mention him by name:--
_Al Lia Moŝto, Sir Henry Smith La Reganto de ..._ = To His
Excellency, Sir Henry Smith, The Governor of ...
284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are
used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives
(see pars. 119, 120, 121).
(_a_). -_OBL_- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a
multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or
"-uple."
Examples.--_Multoblo_ = a multiple, _multobla_ = manifold. _Unu_ =
one, _unuobla_ = single, _unuoble_ = singly. _Du_ = two, _duobla_ =
double, _la duoblo_ = the double. _Kvar_ = four, _kvarobla_ =
fourfold, quadruple, _la kvaroblo_ = the quadruple. _Cent_ = hundred,
_centoblo_ = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:--
_kvaroble tri estas_ (or, _faras_) _dek du_ 4 times 3 = 12
_kvinoble kvar estas dudek_ 5 times 4 = 20
_sesoble kvin estas tridek_ 6 times 5 = 30
_sepoble ses estas kvardek du_ 7 times 6 = 42
_okoble sep estas kvindek ses_ 8 times 7 = 56
_naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ 9 times 8 = 72
_dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek_ 10 times 9 = 90
_dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek_ 11 times 10 = 110
_dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du_ 12 times 11 = 132
(_b_). -_ON_- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a
root, ona = _fractional_.
Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duona_ = half, _duone_ = by halves, _duono_ =
a half (1/2). _Tri_ = three, _triona_ = third, _triono_ = a third
(1/3). _Kvar_ = four, _kvarona_ = quarter, _kvarono_ = a fourth
(1/4). _Dek_ = ten, _dekona_ = tenth, _dekono_ = a tenth (1/10), _tri
dekonoj_ = 3/10ths. _Dek du_ = twelve, _dek-duona_ = twelfth,
_dek-duono_ = a twelfth (1/12), _kvin dek-duonoj_ = 5/12ths. _Sesdek
kvin centonoj_ = sixty-five hundredths (65/100). _La kvinona parto
(la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio
estas dudek_ = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.
(_c_). -_OP_- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must
be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = _collective_.
Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duope_ = two together, in twos. _Tri_ =
three, _triope_ = in threes, in triplets. _Dek_ = ten, _dekope_ = in
tens. _Dudek_ = twenty, _dudekope_ = in twenties, by scores. _Cent_ =
hundred, _centope_ = in hundreds. _Mil_ = thousand, _milope_ = in
thousands. _Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at
a time) they threw themselves upon me. _La soldatoj marŝis kvarope_
= The soldiers were marching in fours.
285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)
-_UM_- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily
suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it
is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should
be learnt as simple words.
The following embrace nearly all:--
*_Aerumi_ = to air, aerate. _Aero_ = air.
*_Amindumi_ = to court, woo. _Amo_ = love.
_Brulumo_ = a swelling, inflammation. _Bruli_ = to burn.
*_Buŝumo_ = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. _Buŝumi_ = to muzzle,
to gag. _Buŝo_ = mouth.
*_Butonumi_ = to button. _Butonumilo_ = a buttonhook. _Butono_ = a
button.
_Cerbumi_ = to rack one's brains. _Cerbo_ = a brain.
*_Gustumi_ = to taste (something). _Gustumado_ = tasting, the sense
of tasting. _Gusto_ = taste.
_Kalkanumo_ = a heel of a boot, etc. _Kalkano_ = heel (of the foot).
*_Kolumo_ = a shirt collar. _Kolo_ = neck.
_Kolombumi_ = to spoon, bill and coo. _Kolombo_ = a dove.
*_Komunumo_ = a commune, a community. _Komuna_ = common.
*_Krucumi_ = to crucify. _Kruco_ = a cross.
*Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. _Lakto_ = milk.
_Lekumi_ = to lap. _Leki_ = lick.
*_Lotumi_ = to allot. _Loti_ = to draw lots.
*_Malvarmumo_ = a cold, chill. _Malvarmumi_ = to catch cold.
_Malvarma_ = cold.
*_Manumo_ = a cuff, a wristband. _Mano_ = hand.
*_Mastrumi_ = to manage (the household), keep house. _Mastrumado_ =
household management. _Mastro_ = master.
*_Nazumo_ = a pince-nez. _Nazo_ = nose.
_Okulumi_ = to make eyes at. _Okulo_ = an eye.
*_Palpebrumi_ = to wink, blink. _Palpebro_ = an eyelid.
_Partumo_ = a fraction (mathematics). _Parto_ = a part, a share.
*_Plenumi_ = to fulfil, accomplish. _Plenumiĝi_ = to be
accomplished, fulfilled. _Plena_ = full, complete.
_Proksimuma_, _proksimume_ = approximately. _Proksima_ near.
_Sapumi_ = to soap, lather. _Sapo_ = soap.
*_Ventumi_ = to ventilate, to use a fan. _Ventumilo_ = a fan.
_Vento_ = wind.
N.B.--The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof's "Fundamento
de Esperanto."
286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.)
These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less
degree.
(_a_). _BO_- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to
the English suffix -_in-law_, as patro = _father_, bopatro =
_father-in-law_.
(_b_). _DUON_- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a
prefix in such words as duonpago = _half-pay_, duonjara =
_half-yearly_, etc. As a root, duono = _a half_, so properly it
should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are
few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step
relationship, as:--Duonfrato = _stepbrother_ or _half-brother_.
(_c_). _GE_- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always
in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.
Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, _geedzoj_ = husband and wife, a
married couple. _Sinjoro_ = Sir, Mr., _gesinjoroj_ = Mr. and Mrs.,
_or_, ladies and gentlemen. _Patro_ = father, _gepatroj_ = father and
mother, parents. _Mastro_ = a master (of a household), _gemastroj_ =
master and mistress. _Frato_ = brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and
sister(s).
(_d_). _PRA_- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As
regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes
"fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = _primeval_.
Examples.--_Pratempo_ = primitive time. _Praarbarego_ = primeval
forest. _Prapatroj_ = forefathers, ancestors. _Praonklo_ = grand, or
great, uncle. _Praavino_ = great-grandmother.
(_e_). The following are examples of these four prefixes:--
_Patro_ = father, _bopatro_ = father-in-law, _duonpatro_ =
stepfather, _gepatroj_ = father and mother, parents.
_Patrino_ = mother, _bopatrino_ = mother-in-law, _duonpatrino_ =
stepmother.
_Avo_ = grandfather, _boavo_ = grandfather-in-law, _duonavo_ =
stepgrandfather, _geavoj_ = grandparents, _prageavoj_ =
great-grandparents.
_Filo_ = son, _bofilo_ = son-in-law, _duonfilo_ = stepson.
_Filino_ = daughter, _bofilino_ = daughter-in-law, _duonfilino_ =
stepdaughter.
_Nepo_ = grandson, _pranepo_ = great-grandson, _genepoj_ =
grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.
_Nepino_ = granddaughter, _pranepino_ = great-granddaughter.
_Frato_ = brother, _bofrato_ = brother-in-law, _duonfrato_ = step, or
half, brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s), _bogefratoj_ =
brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.
_Fratino_ = sister, _bofratino_ = sister in law, _duonfratino_ =
step, or half, sister.
_Onklo_ = uncle, _praonklo_ = grand, or great, uncle, _geonkloj_ =
uncle(s) and aunt(s).
_Onklino_ = aunt, _praonklino_ = grand, or great, aunt.
_Nevo_ = nephew, _pranevo_ = grandnephew, _genevoj_ = nephew(s) and
niece(s).
_Nevino_ = niece, _pranevino_ = grandniece.
_Infano_ = child, _duoninfano_ = stepchild.
287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)
These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of
position.
(_a_). _DE_- as a preposition = _from, of_. As a prefix it marks the
point of departure, or movement from one place or position to
another.
(_b_). _DIS_- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or
breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.
(_c_). _FOR_- as an adverb = _away_. As a prefix it denotes distance
from something.
(_d_). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground
= deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., _disperse_ =
disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.
(_e_) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of
these prefixes:--
_Ŝiri_ = to tear, _deŝiri_ = to tear from, to pluck.
_disŝiri_ = to tear to pieces, to lacerate.
_forŝiri_ = to tear away from.
_Iri_ = to go, _deiri_ = to go from (a place).
_disiri_ = to go in different directions, to separate.
_foriri_ = to go away, to depart.
_Ĵeti_ =to throw, _deĵeti_ = to throw down, to overthrow.
_disĵeti_ = to throw about, to demolish, scatter.
_forĵeti_ = to throw away, to discard.
_Meti_ = to put, _demeti_ = to put down, take off, doff.
_dismeti_ = to disperse, to distribute.
_formeti_ = to put away, to omit.
_Porti_ = to carry, _deporti_ = to carry from, to deport.
_disporti_ = to carry here and there.
_forporti_ = to carry away.
288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.)
_EK_- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden,
momentary.
Examples.--_Kanti_ = to sing, _ekkanti_ = to begin to sing, or to
start singing. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ekridi_ = to burst out laughing.
_Krii_ = to cry, _ekkrii_ = to exclaim, to cry out. _Lerni_ = to
learn, _eklerni_ = to begin to learn. _Iri_ = to go, _ekiri_ = to
start, to set out. _Plori_ = to shed tears, _ekplori_ = to burst out
crying. _Kapti_ = to catch, _ekkapti_ = to seize. _Dormi_ = to sleep,
_ekdormi_ = to fall asleep. _Vidi_ = to see, _ekvidi_ = to perceive.
_Tremi_ = to tremble, _ektremi_ = to start (with fear, etc.).
_EK_- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to,"
frequently used in English before a verb, as:--Kiam mi ekpripensas
= _When I begin to_ (or, _come to_) _reflect_. Kiam mi ekpensas pri
ĝi = _When I come to think of it_.
289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)
(_a_). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to
the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies
with the prefix used.
(_b_). _MAL_- is used as a root in the adjective mala = _contrary_,
and the adverb male = _on the contrary, conversely_. As a prefix it
signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that
which it had before _MAL_- was prefixed. It is never used to give the
meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word
signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = _a coward_ has a bad
signification, but its opposite maltimulo = _a bold man_ has no
such meaning. Bona = _good_, malbona = _bad_, simply because
"bad" is the opposite of "good."
(_c_). _NE_ is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often
used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word,
as:--Plena = _complete, full_, neplena = _incomplete, not full_.
Ne estas certe = _it is not certain_ has the same signification as
estas necerte = _it is uncertain_. Used as a root, it forms nei =
_to deny_, nea = _negative_, etc.
(_d_). _SEN_ is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it
has the same signification; as ĉesi = _to cease_, senĉesa =
_without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless_; senco = _meaning, sense_,
sensenca = _without meaning, senseless_; senkapigi = _to
decapitate_. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = _to deprive of_,
seneco = _want_, etc.
(_e_). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes
to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that _MAL_- denotes
the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger
in signification than the mere negative ne = _not_, or the
privative sen = _without_. For instance, plena = _complete,
full_, but neplena = _incomplete, not full_. Now the opposite to
"complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something
stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = _empty,
void, vacuous_. Again, from riĉa = _rich_, we form the opposite,
malriĉa = _poor_, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa =
_not rich_, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means
"without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man
without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = _shut_,
closed; the opposite is malfermita = _opened, open_. Applied to a
window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only
ajar it would be better to say nefermita = _not closed_.
(_f_) In using _MAL_- we must consider the _strength_ of the word to
which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like
"destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in
wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore
malriĉega = _destitute_. So bela = _beautiful_, belega =
_splendid, magnificent;_ therefore their opposites are malbela =
_ugly_, malbelega = _hideous_.
(_g_). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use _MAL_- if we
wish to give a stronger idea than _NE_ or _SEN_ would infer; (2), to
use _NE_ in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3),
to use _SEN_ if "without" is more applicable than "not,"
as:--Senmova = _without motion, stationary_, but nemovebla =
_not movable, immovable_. It will generally be right to employ _SEN_
to represent the English suffix -_less_, as:--Sendanka =
_thankless_, senmona = _penniless_, senhara = _hairless, bald_,
senutila = _useless_. The opposite to "useful" is something
stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = _detrimental,
prejudicial_.
(_h_). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these
three prefixes:--
_Venko_ = victory, _malvenko_ = defeat. _Videbla_ = visible,
_nevidebla_ = invisible. _Ŝanĝebla_ = changeable (in the sense
"able to be changed"), _neŝanĝebla_ = unchangeable. _Ofta_ =
frequent, _neofta_ = infrequent, _malofta_ = scarce, rare. _Simple_ =
simple, _malsimpla_ = intricate, complex. _Permesi_ = to permit,
_malpermesi_ = to forbid. _Helpi_ = to help, _malhelpi_ = to hinder,
_nehelpi_ = to give no assistance. _Sobreco_ = sobriety, _malsobreco_
= intemperance, drunkenness. _Saĝeco_ = wisdom, _malsaĝeco_ =
foolishness. _Modesta_ = modest, _nemodesta_ = officious,
_malmodesta_ = conceited. _Justa_ = just, _maljusta_ = unjust. _Pura_
= clean, _nepura_ = soiled, _malpura_ = dirty. _Pia_ = pious,
_malpia_ = impious. _Agrabla_ = agreeable, _neagrabla_ = unpleasant,
_malagrabla_ = disagreeable, nasty. _Glata_ = smooth, _malglata_ =
rough. _Atento_ = attention, _malatento_ = negligence. _Respekto_ =
respect, _nerespekto_ = non-respect, _malrespekto_ = violation.
_Brua_ = noisy, _senbrua_ = noiseless.
290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)
(_a_). _RE_-, like the English prefix _re_-, means "back" or "again."
It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some
person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in
which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree =
_again, in return_.
(_b_) (1). Repetition.
Examples.--_Refari_ = to make afresh, to remake; _rediri_ = to say
again, to repeat (_ripeti_ is, however, more frequently used for
"repeat"); _rekanti_ = to sing again; _rejuniĝi_ = to grow young
again; _renaskiĝo_ = rebirth, regeneration; _repagi_ = to repay, to
reimburse; _reenmeti_ = to put in again, to reinstate; _rekunigi_ =
to reunite; _rebruligi_ = to rekindle; _reformi_ = to reform, to
remodel; _reprodukti_ = to reproduce.
(2). Return, etc.
Examples.--_Redoni_ = to give back, to restore; _repreni_ = to take
back; _reĵeti_ = to throw back; _resalti_ = to rebound; _rebrili_ =
to shine back, to reflect; _reveni_ = to come back, to return;
_reporti_ = to carry back, to carry to the original place.
N.B.--In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286-290, nearly
all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these
will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition
is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).
291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.
_SIN-_ and _MEM-_ are used as prefixes to translate the English
_-self_. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-,
otherwise mem-. Singardo = _caution_; sinmortigo = _suicide_;
sinteno = _attitude_; memstara = _independent_; memvola =
_voluntary_.
292. Prefix VIC-.
The prefix _VIC-_ denotes the English _vice-_; vicprezidanto = _a
vice-president_; vicadmiralo = _a vice-admiral_.
293. Suffix -ISM-.
The suffix _-ISM-_ was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide
meaning given it by international usage in most European languages:
_system_, _doctrine_, _school of thought_, _theory_, _party_.
Thus: absolutismo = _absolutism_. Similarly, we have agnostik-,
alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-,
homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-,
presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-,
vegetar-ismo.
It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism
this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root.
Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism,
pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul,
an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin;
bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (_b_).