[185] Note how Galen, although he has not yet clearly

differentiated physiological from physical processes

(both are "natural") yet separates them definitely from

the psychical. _cf._ p. 2, footnote (5). A _psychical_

function or activity is, in Latin, _actio animalis_

(from _anima_ = _psyche_).

[186] The stage of organogenesis or _diaplasis_; cf. p.

25, note 4 (49).

[187] The spermatozoon now becomes an "organism" proper.

[188] Galen attributed to the sperma or semen what we

should to the fertilized ovum: to him the maternal

contribution is purely passive--mere food for the sperm.

The epoch-making Ovum Theory was not developed till the

seventeenth century. _cf._ p. 19, note 3 (34).

[189] _i.e._ we should be talking psychology, not

biology; _cf._ stomach, p. 307, note 3 (380).

[190] Attraction now described not merely as

_qualitative_ but also as _quantitative_. _cf._ p. 85,

note 3 (130).

[191] He still tends either to biologize physics, or to

physicize biology--whichever way we prefer to look at

it. _cf._ Book I., chap. xiv.

[192] Aristotelian and Stoic duality of an active and a

passive principle.

[193] Note that early embryonic development is described

as a process of _nutrition_. _cf._ p. 130, note 2 (188).

[194] On the _alterative_ and _shaping_ faculties _cf._

p. 18, note 1 (32).

[195] pp. 27-29.

[196] _cf._ Introduction, p. xxvi.

[197] _cf._ p. 15.

[198] For definitions of _alteration_ and _mingling_

(_crasis_, "temperament") _cf._ Book I., chaps. ii. and

iii.

[199] _i.e._ are associated with oxidation? _cf._ p. 41,

note 3 (70).

[200] "Useless" organs; _cf._ p. 56, note 2 (91). For fallacy

of Erasistratus's view on the spleen _v._ p. 205.

[201] The Stoics.

[202] The Peripatetics (Aristotelians).

[203] Aristotle regarded the _qualitative_ differences

apprehended by our senses (the cold, the warm, the

moist, and the dry) as fundamental, while the Stoics

held the four corporeal elements (earth, air, fire, and

water) to be still more fundamental. _cf._ p. 8, note 3

(17).

[204] Lit. bile-receiving (choledochous).

[205] _Jecoris portae_, the transverse fissure, by which

the portal vein enters the liver.

[206] Lit. "anastomosing."

[207] More literally, "synapse."

[208] The portal vein.

[209] The hepatic vein or veins.

[210] The portal vein.

[211] _cf._ p. 120, note 1 (174).

[212] _cf._ p. 272, note 1 (350).

[213] _i.e._ one might assume an _attraction_.

[214] _i.e._ visible to the mind's eye as distinguished

from the bodily eye. _cf._ p. 21, note 4 (39).

_Theoreton_ without qualification means merely

_visible_, not _theoretic_. _cf._ p. 205, note 1 (282).

[215] According to the Pneumatist school, certain of

whose ideas were accepted by Erasistratus, the air,

breath, pneuma, or spirit was brought by inspiration

into the left side of the heart, where it was converted

into natural, vital, and psychic pneuma; the latter then

went to the brain, whence it was distributed through the

nervous system; practically this teaching involved the

idea of a _psyche_, or conscious vital principle.

"Psychic pneuma" is in Latin _spiritus animalis_

(_anima_ = _psyche_); _cf._ p. 126, note 4 (185).

Introduction, p. xxxiv.

[216] Observe that Erasistratus's "simple nerve" may be

almost looked on as an anticipation of the _cell_. The

question Galen now asks is whether this vessel is a

"unit mass of living matter," or merely an agglomeration

of _atoms_ subject to mechanical law. _cf._ Galen's

"fibres," p. 329.

[217] _cf._ Book I., chap. xii.

[218] _i.e._ in biology we must begin with living

substance--with something which is specifically

alive--here with the "unit mass of living matter." _cf._

p. 73, note 3 (119).

[219] "Ad elementa quae nec coalescere possunt nec in

partes dividi" (Linacre). On the two contrasted schools

_cf._ p. 45.

[220] _cf._ _loc. cit._

[221] "_Auxetic._" _cf._ p. 26, note 1 (50).

[222] "At corporum quae nec una committi nec dividi

possunt nullum in se formatricem, auctricem, nutricem,

aut in summa artificem facultatem habet; quippe quod

impatibile esse immutibileque praesumitur" (Linacre).

[223] Book I., chaps. v.-xi.

[224] _cf._ p. 153.

[225] On account of his idea of a simple tissue not

susceptible of further analysis.

[226] Or "cell"; _cf._ p. 153, note 2 (216).

[227] The _horror vacui_.

[228] _Prosthesis_ of nutriment; _cf._ p. 39, note 6

(67).

[229] _Anadosis_, "absorption"; _cf._ p. 13, note 5

(26).

[230] Lit. _diadosis_.

[231] _i.e._ let him explain the _diadosis_.

[232] "Spiritus animalis"; _cf._ p. 152, note 1 (215).

The nutriment was for the _walls_ of the vessels, not

for their cavities. _cf._ p. 319, note 3 (394).

[233] Specific attraction; _cf._ Book I., chap. xiv.

[234] _cf._ p. 100, note 2 (152).

[235] In Book II., chap. i.

[236] Prevention better than cure.

[237] _e.g._ Anaxagoras; _cf._ p. 7, note 5 (14); p. 20,

note 3 (38).

[238] Lit. _haematosis_.

[239] _cf._ p. 174, note 4 (250).

[240] Erasistratus held the spleen to be useless, _cf._

p. 143.

[241] Induration: Gk. _skirros_, Lat. _scirrhus_. The

condition is now commonly known by Laënnec's term

_cirrhosis_, from Gk. _kirros_, meaning yellow or tawny.

Here again we have an example of Erasistratus's bias

towards anatomical or structural rather than functional

explanations of disease, _cf._ p. 124, note 1 (180).

[242] On the risks which were supposed to attend the

checking of habitual bleeding from piles _cf._ Celsus

(_De Re Med._ VI. xviii. 9), "Atque in quibusdam parum

tuto supprimitur, qui sanguinis profluvio imbecilliores

non fiunt; habent enim purgationem hanc, non morbum."

(_i.e._ the habit was to be looked on as a periodical

cleansing, not as a disease.)

[243] Lit. _catharsis_.

[244] Apparently some form of anaemia.

[245] Philistion of Locri, a contemporary of Plato, was

one of the chief representatives of the Sicilian school

of medicine. For Diocles and Praxagoras see p. 51, note

1 (83).

[246] _cf._ Book I., chap. iii.

[247] Gk. _pepsis_; otherwise rendered _coction_.

[248] _cf._ p. 13, note 5 (26).

[249] _e.g._ Asclepiades.

[250] Lit. _chylosis_; _cf._ p. 238, note 2 (312).

[251] That is to say, the haematopoietic function

deserves consideration as much as the digestive

processes which precede it.

[252] _i.e._ Erasistratus could obviously say nothing

about any of the humours or their origins, since he had

not postulated the four qualities (particularly the

Warm--that is, innate heat).

[253] _i.e._ bile.

[254] _i.e._ deprived of its bile.

[255] Here it is rather the living organism we consider

than the particular food that is put into it.

[256] Supreme importance of the "soil." _cf._

Introduction, pp. xii. and xxxi.

[257] Aristotle, _Hist. Animal._, iii. xix.; Plato,

_Timaeus_, 80 E.

[258] Philotimus succeeded Diocles and Praxagoras, who

were successive leaders of the Hippocratic school. _cf._

p. 51, note 1 (83).

[259] Lit. _phenomena_.

[260] _i.e._ living organisms; _cf._ p. 47, note 1 (75).

[261] Erasistratus rejected the idea of innate heat; he

held that the heat of the body was introduced from

outside.

[262] As a _bubo_ is a swelling in the groin, we must

suppose that the wound referred to would be in the leg

or lower abdomen.

[263] _i.e._ fever as a _cause_ of disease.

[264] As we should say, "circulatory" changes.

[265] This is the "vital spirit" or pneuma which,

according to Erasistratus and the Pneumatist school, was

elaborated in the left ventricle, and thereafter carried

by the arteries all over the body, there to subserve

circulatory processes. It has some analogy with oxygen,

but this is also the case with the "_natural_ spirit" or

pneuma, whose seat was the liver and which was

distributed by the _veins_ through the body; it presided

over the more _vegetative_ processes. _cf._ p. 152, note

1 (215); Introduction, p. xxxiv.

[266] Even leaving the pneuma out of account, Galen

claims that he can still prove his thesis.

[267] In other words: if _dyscrasia_ is a first

principle in _pathology_, then _eucrasia_ must be a

first principle in _physiology_.

[268] The above is a good instance of Galen's "logical"

method as applied to medical questions; an appeal to

those who are capable of following "logical sequence."

_cf._ p. 209, note 1 (288).

[269] The aim of dietetics always being the production

of moderate heat--_i.e._ blood.

[270] Note contrasted methods of Rationalists and

Empiricists.

[271] Lit. _anaesthesia_. Linacre renders it

_indocilitas_.

[272] p. 15.

[273] _Iatros_: lit. "healer."

[274] Lit. "physicist" or "physiologist," the student of

the _physis_. _cf._ p. 70, note 2 (114).

[275] That is, a _blending_ of the four principles in

their natural proportion; Lat. _temperies_.

Dyscrasia = _intemperies_, "distemper."

[276] This is the orthodox Hippocratic treatment, that

of _opposites by opposites_. Contrast the _homoeopathic_

principle which is the basis of our modern methods of

_immunisation_ (_similia similibus curentur_,

Hahnemann).

[277] Lit. _aseptic_.

[278] Prodicus of Ceos, a Sophist, contemporary of

Socrates.

[279] Plato, _Timaeus_, 83-86, _passim_.

[280] _cf._ the term _blennorrhoea_, which is still

used.

[281] _cf._ the Scotch term "colded" for "affected with

a cold"; Germ. _erkältet_.

[282] The word _theôria_ used here is not the same as

our _theory_. It is rather a "contemplation," the

process by which a theory is arrived at. _cf._ p. 226,

note 2 (305).

[283] Erasistratus on the uselessness of the spleen.

_cf._ p. 143.

[284] The Empirical school, _cf._ p. 193.

[285] Enlargement and suppuration (?) of spleen

associated with toxaemia or "cacochymy."

[286] Lit. "melancholic."

[287] _i.e._ the combination of sensible qualities which

we call black bile. _cf._ p. 8, note 3 (17).

[288] Thus Galen has demonstrated the functions of the

spleen both deductively and inductively. For another

example of the combined method _cf._ Book III., chaps,

i. and ii.; _cf._ also Introd. p. xxxii.

[289] _i.e._ its innate heat.

[290] Lit. _lecithoid_.

[291] Note that there can be "normal" black bile.

[292] The term _food_ here means the food as introduced

into the stomach; the term _nutriment_ (_trophé_) means

the same food in the digested condition, as it is

conveyed to the tissues. _cf._ pp. 41-43. Note idea of

imperfectly oxidized material being absorbed by the

spleen. _cf._ p. 214, note 1 (295).

[293] Lit. _choledochous_, bile-receiving.

[294] Thus _over-roasting_--shall we say excessive

_oxidation_?--produces the abnormal forms of both black

and yellow bile.

[295] _cf._ p. 277, note 2 (353).

[296] _Timaeus_, 82 C-D.

[297] _cf._ p. 90, note 1 (137). The term "catarrh"

refers to this "running down," which was supposed to

take place through the pores of the cribriform plate of

the ethmoid into the nose.

[298] Now lost.

BOOK III

I

It has been made clear in the preceding discussion that nutrition

occurs by an _alteration_ or _assimilation_ of that which nourishes to

that which receives nourishment,[299] and that there exists in every

part of the animal a faculty which in view of its activity we call, in

general terms, _alterative_, or, more specifically, _assimilative_ and

_nutritive_. It was also shown that a sufficient supply of the matter

which the part being nourished makes into nutriment for itself is

ensured by virtue of another faculty which naturally attracts its

_proper juice_ [humour] that that juice is proper to each part which

is adapted for assimilation, and that the faculty which attracts the

juice is called, by reason of its activity, _attractive_ or

_epispastic_.[300] It has also been shown that assimilation is

preceded by _adhesion_, and this, again, by _presentation_,[301] the

latter stage being, as one might say, the end or goal of the activity

corresponding to the attractive faculty. For the actual bringing up of

nutriment from the veins into each of the parts takes place through

the activation of the attractive faculty,[302] whilst to have been

finally brought up and presented to the part is the actual end for

which we desired such an activity; it is attracted in order that it

may be presented. After this, considerable time is needed for the

nutrition of the animal; whilst a thing may be even rapidly attracted,

on the other hand to become adherent, altered, and entirely

assimilated to the part which is being nourished and to become a part

of it, cannot take place suddenly, but requires a considerable amount

of time. But if the nutritive juice, so presented, does not remain in

the part, but withdraws to another one, and keeps flowing away, and

constantly changing and shifting its position, neither adhesion nor

complete assimilation will take place in any of them. Here too, then,

the [animal's] nature has need of some other faculty for ensuring a

prolonged stay of the presented juice at the part, and this not a

faculty which comes in from somewhere outside but one which is

resident in the part which is to be nourished. This faculty, again, in

view of its activity our predecessors were obliged to call

_retentive_.

Thus our argument has clearly shown[303] the necessity for the genesis

of such a faculty, and whoever has an appreciation of logical sequence

must be firmly persuaded from what we have said that, if it be laid

down and proved by previous demonstration that Nature is artistic and

solicitous for the animal's welfare, it necessarily follows that she

must also possess a faculty of this kind.

BOOK III

G

I

Hoti men oun hê threpsis alloioumenou te kai 143

homoioumenou gignetai tou trephontos tô trephomenô kai

hôs en hekastô tôn tou zôou moriôn esti tis dynamis, hên

apo tês energeias alloiôtikên men kata genos,

homoiôtikên de kai threptikên kat' eidos onomazomen, en

tô prosthen dedêlôtai logô. tên d' euporian tês hylês,

hên trophên heautô poieitai to trephomenon, ex heteras

tinos echein edeiknyto dynameôs epispasthai pephykuias

ton oikeion chymon, einai d' oikeion hekastô tôn moriôn

chymon, hos an || epitêdeios eis tên exomoiôsin ê, kai 144

tên helkousan auton dynamin apo tês energeias helktikên

te tina kai epispastikên onomazesthai. dedeiktai de kai,

hôs pro men tês homoiôseôs hê prosphysis estin, ekeinês

d' emprosthen hê prosthesis gignetai, telos, hôs an

eipoi tis, ousa tês kata tên epispastikên dynamin

energeias. auto men gar to paragesthai tên trophên ek

tôn phlebôn eis hekaston tôn moriôn tês helktikês

energousês gignetai dynameôs, to d' êdê parêchthai te

kai prostithesthai tô moriô to telos estin auto, di' ho

kai tês toiautês energeias edeêthêmen; hina gar

prostethê, dia touth' helketai. chronou d' enteuthen êdê

pleionos eis tên threpsin tou zôou dei; helchthênai men

gar kai dia tacheôn ti dynatai, prosphynai de kai

alloiôthênai kai teleôs homoiôthênai tô trephomenô kai

meros autou genesthai parachrêma men ouch hoion te,

chronô d' an pleioni symbainoi kalôs. all' ei mê menoi

kata to meros ho prostetheis houtos chymos, eis heteron

de ti methistaito kai pararrheoi dia pantos ameibôn te

kai hypallattôn ta chôria, kat' ouden autôn || oute 145

prosphysis out' exomoiôsis estai. dei de kantautha tinos

tê physei dynameôs heteras eis polychronion monên tou

prostethentos tô moriô chymou kai tautês ouk exôthen

pothen epirrheousês all' en autô tô threpsomenô

katôkismenês, hên apo tês energeias palin hoi pro hêmôn

ênankasthêsan onomasai kathektikên.

Ho men dê logos êdê saphôs enedeixato tên anankên tês

geneseôs tês toiautês dynameôs kai hostis akolouthias

synesin echei, pepeistai bebaiôs ex hôn eipomen, hôs

hypokeimenou te kai proapodedeigmenou tou technikên

einai tên physin kai tou zôou kêdemonikên anankaion

hyparchein autê kai tên toiautên dynamin.

II

Since, however, it is not our habit to employ this kind of

demonstration[304] alone, but to add thereto cogent and compelling

proofs drawn from obvious facts, we will also proceed to the latter

kind in the present instance: we will demonstrate that in certain

parts of the body _the retentive faculty_ is so obvious that its

operation can be actually recognised by the _senses_, whilst in other

parts it is less obvious to the senses, but is capable even here of

being detected by the _argument_.[305]

Let us begin our exposition, then, by first dealing systematically for

a while with certain definite parts of the body, in reference to which

we may accurately test and enquire what sort of thing the retentive

faculty is.

Now, could one begin the enquiry in any better way than with the

largest and hollowest organs? Personally I do not think one could. It

is to be expected that in these, owing to their size, the activities

will show quite clearly, whereas with respect to the small organs,

even if they possess a strong faculty of this kind, its activation

will not at once be recognisable to sense.

Now those parts of the animal which are especially hollow and large

are the stomach and the organ which is called the womb or uterus.[306]

What prevents us, then, from taking up these first and considering

their activities, conducting the enquiry on our own persons in

regard to those activities which are obvious without dissection, and,

in the case of those which are more obscure, dissecting animals which

are near to man;[307] not that even animals unlike him will not show,

in a general way, the faculty in question, but because in this manner

we may find out at once what is common to all and what is peculiar to

ourselves, and so may become more resourceful in the diagnosis and

treatment of disease.

Now it is impossible to speak of both organs at once, so we shall deal

with each in turn, beginning with the one which is capable of

demonstrating the retentive faculty most plainly. For the stomach

retains the food until it has quite digested it, and the uterus

retains the embryo until it brings it to completion, but the time

taken for the completion of the embryo is many times more than that

for the digestion of food.

II

All' hêmeis ou toutô monô tô genei tês apodeixeôs

eithismenoi chrêsthai, prostithentes d' autô kai tas ek

tôn enargôs phainomenôn anankazousas te kai biazomenas

pisteis epi tas toiautas kai nyn aphixometha kai

deixomen epi men tinôn moriôn tou sômatos houtôs enargê

tên kathektikên dynamin, hôs autais tais aisthêsesi || 146

diagignôskesthai tên energeian autês, epi de tinôn

hêtton men enargôs tais aisthêsesi, logô de kantautha

phôrathênai dynamenên.

Arxômeth' oun tês didaskalias ap' autou tou teôs prôton

methodô tini procheirisasthai mori' atta tou sômatos,

eph' hôn akribôs esti basanisai te kai zêtêsai tên

kathektikên dynamin hopoia pot' estin.

Ar' oun ameinon an tis heterôthen ê apo tôn megistôn te

kai koilotatôn organôn hyparxaito tês zêtêseôs? emoi men

oun ouk an dokei beltion. enargeis goun eikos epi toutôn

phanênai tas energeias dia to megethos; hôs ta ge smikra

tach' an, ei kai sphodran echei tên toiautên dynamin,

all' ouk aisthêsei g' hetoimên diagignôskesthai tên

energeian autês.

All' estin en tois malista koilotata kai megista tôn tou

zôou moriôn hê te gastêr kai <hai> mêtrai te kai hysterai

kaloumenai. ti oun kôlyei tauta prôta procheirisamenous

episkepsasthai tas energeias autôn, hosai men kai pro

tês anatomês dêlai, tên exetasin eph' hêmôn autôn

poioumenous, hosai d' amydroterai, ta paraplêsia

diairountas anthrôpô zôa, || ouch hôs ouk an hikanôs to 147

ge katholou peri tês zêtoumenês dynameôs kai tôn

anomoiôn endeixomenôn, all' hôs hin' hama tô koinô kai

to idion eph' hêmôn autôn egnôkotes eis te tas

diagnôseis tôn nosêmatôn kai tas iaseis euporôteroi

gignômetha.

Peri men oun amphoterôn tôn organôn hama legein

adynaton, en merei d' hyper hekaterou poiêsometha ton

logon apo tou saphesteron endeixasthai dynamenou tên

kathektikên dynamin arxamenoi. katechei men gar kai hê

gastêr ta sitia, mechri per an ekpepsê, katechousi de

kai hai mêtrai to embryon, est' an teleiôsôsin; alla

pollaplasios estin ho tês tôn embryôn teleiôseôs chronos

tês tôn sitiôn pepseôs.

III

We may expect, then, to detect the retentive faculty in the uterus

more clearly in proportion to the longer duration of its activity as

compared with that of the stomach. For, as we know, it takes nine

months in most women for the foetus to attain maturity in the womb,

this organ having its neck quite closed, and entirely surrounding the

embryo together with the _chorion_. Further, it is the utility of the

function which determines the closure of the os and the stay of the

foetus in the uterus. For it is not casually nor without reason that

Nature has made the uterus capable of contracting upon, and of

retaining the embryo, but in order that the latter may arrive at a

proper size. When, therefore, the object for which the uterus brought

its retentive faculty into play has been fulfilled, it then stops this

faculty and brings it back to a state of rest, and employs instead of

it another faculty hitherto quiescent--the _propulsive_ faculty. In

this case again the quiescent and active states are both determined by

utility; when this calls, there is activity; when it does not, there

is rest.

Here, then, once more, we must observe well the Art [artistic

tendency] of Nature--how she has not merely placed in each organ the

capabilities of useful activities, but has also fore-ordained the

times both of rest and movement. For when everything connected with

the pregnancy proceeds properly, the _eliminative_ faculty remains

quiescent as though it did not exist, but if anything goes wrong in

connection either with the chorion or any of the other membranes or

with the foetus itself, and its completion is entirely despaired of,

then the uterus no longer awaits the nine-months period, but the

retentive faculty forthwith ceases and allows the heretofore

inoperative faculty to come into action. Now it is that something is

done--in fact, useful work effected--by the _eliminative or propulsive

faculty_ (for so it, too, has been called, receiving, like the rest,

its names from the corresponding activities).

Further, our theory can, I think, demonstrate both together; for

seeing that they succeed each other, and that the one keeps giving

place to the other according as utility demands, it seems not

unreasonable to accept a common demonstration also for both. Thus it

is the work of the retentive faculty to make the uterus contract upon

the foetus at every point, so that, naturally enough, when the

midwives palpate it, the os is found to be closed, whilst the pregnant

women themselves, during the first days--and particularly on that on

which conception takes place--experience a sensation as if the uterus

were moving and contracting upon itself. Now, if both of these things

occur--if the os closes apart from inflammation or any other disease,

and if this is accompanied by a feeling of movement in the

uterus--then the women believe that they have received the semen which

comes from the male, and that they are retaining it.

Now we are not inventing this for ourselves: one may say the statement

is based on prolonged experience of those who occupy themselves with

such matters. Thus Herophilus[308] does not hesitate to state in his

writings that up to the time of labour the os uteri will not admit so

much as the tip of a probe, that it no longer opens to the slightest

degree if pregnancy has begun--that, in fact, it dilates more widely

at the times of the menstrual flow. With him are in agreement all the

others who have applied themselves to this subject; and particularly

Hippocrates, who was the first of all physicians and philosophers to

declare that the os uteri closes during pregnancy and inflammation,

albeit in pregnancy it does not depart from its own nature, whilst in

inflammation it becomes hard.

In the case of the opposite (the eliminative) faculty, the os opens,

whilst the whole fundus approaches as near as possible to the os,

expelling the embryo as it does so; and along with the fundus the

contiguous parts--which form as it were a girdle round the whole

organ--co-operate in the work; they squeeze upon the embryo and propel

it bodily outwards. And, in many women who exercise such a faculty

immoderately, violent pains cause forcible prolapse of the whole womb;

here almost the same thing happens as frequently occurs in

wrestling-bouts and struggles, when in our eagerness to overturn and

throw others we are ourselves upset along with them; for similarly

when the uterus is forcing the embryo forward it sometimes becomes

entirely prolapsed, and particularly when the ligaments connecting it

with the spine happen to be naturally lax.[309]

A wonderful device of Nature's also is this--that, when the foetus is

alive, the os uteri is closed with perfect accuracy, but if it dies,

the os at once opens up to the extent which is necessary for the

foetus to make its exit. The midwife, however, does not make the

parturient woman get up at once and sit down on the [obstetric] chair,

but she begins by palpating the os as it gradually dilates, and the

first thing she says is that it has dilated "enough to admit the

little finger," then that "it is bigger now," and as we make enquiries

from time to time, she answers that the size of the dilatation is

increasing. And when it is sufficient to allow of the transit of the

foetus,[310] she then makes the patient get up from her bed and sit on

the chair, and bids her make every effort to expel the child. Now,

this additional work which the patient does of herself is no longer

the work of the uterus but of the epigastric muscles, which also help

us in defaecation and micturition.

III

Eikos oun kai tên dynamin enargesteron en tais mêtrais

phôrasein hêmas tên kathektikên, hosô kai

polychroniôteran tês gastros tên energeian kektêtai.

mêsi gar ennea pou tais pleistais tôn gynaikôn en autais

teleioutai ta kyêmata, memykuiais men hapanti tô

aucheni, periechousais de pantachothen auta syn tô

choriô. || kai peras ge tês tou stomatos myseôs kai tês 148

tou kyoumenou kata tas mêtras monês hê chreia tês

energeias estin; ou gar hôs etychen oud' alogôs hikanas

peristellesthai kai katechein to embryon hê physis

apeirgasato tas hysteras, all' hin' eis to prepon

aphikêtai megethos to kyoumenon. hotan oun, hou charin

enêrgoun tê kathektikê dynamei, sympeplêrômenon ê,

tautên men anepausan te kai eis êremian epanêgagon, ant'

autês d' hetera chrôntai tê teôs hêsychazousê, tê

proôstikê. ên d' ara kai tês ekeinês hêsychias horos hê

chreia kai tês g' energeias hôsautôs hê chreia; kalousês

men gar autês energei, mê kalousês d' hêsychazei.

Kai chrê palin kantautha katamathein tês physeôs tên

technên, hôs ou monon energeiôn chrêsimôn dynameis

enethêken hekastô tôn organôn, alla kai tou tôn

hêsychiôn te kai kinêseôn kairou prounoêsato. kalôs men

gar hapantôn gignomenôn tôn kata tên kyêsin hê

apokritikê dynamis hêsychazei teleôs hôsper ouk ousa,

kakopragias de tinos genomenês ê peri to chorion ê peri

tina tôn allôn || hymenôn ê peri to kyoumenon auto kai 149

tês teleiôseôs autou pantapasin apognôstheisês ouket'

anamenousi ton enneamênon hai mêtrai chronon, all' hê

men kathektikê dynamis autika dê pepautai kai parachôrei

kineisthai tê proteron argousê, prattei d' êdê ti kai

pragmateuetai chrêston hê apokritikê te kai proôstikê;

kai gar oun kai tautên houtôs ekalesan apo tôn energeiôn

autê ta onomata themenoi kathaper kai tais allais.

Kai pôs ho logos eoiken hyper amphoterôn apodeixein

hama; kai gar toi kai diadechomenas autas allêlas kai

parachôrousan aei tên heteran tê loipê, kathoti an hê

chreia keleuê, kai tên didaskalian koinên ouk apeikos

esti dechesthai. tês men oun kathektikês dynameôs ergon

peristeilai tas mêtras tô kyoumenô pantachothen, hôst'

eulogôs haptomenais men tais maieutriais to stoma

memykos autôn phainetai, tais kyousais d' autais kata

tas prôtas hêmeras kai malista kat' autên ekeinên, en

hêper an hê tês gonês syllêpsis genêtai, kinoumenôn te

kai syntrechousôn eis heautas tôn hysterôn aisthê||sis 150

gignetai kai ên amphô tauta symbê, mysai men to stoma

chôris phlegmonês ê tinos allou pathêmatos, aisthêsin de

tês kata tas mêtras kinêseôs akolouthêsai, pros hautas

êdê to sperma to para tandros eilêphenai te kai

katechein hai gynaikes nomizousi.

Tauta d' ouch hêmeis nyn anaplattomen hêmin autois, all'

ek makras peiras dokimasthenta pasi gegraptai schedon ti

tois peri toutôn pragmateusamenois. Hêrophilos men ge

kai hôs oude pyrêna mêlês an dechoito tôn mêtrôn to

stoma, prin apokyein tên gynaika, kai hôs oude

toulachiston eti diestêken, ên hyparxêtai kyein, kai hôs

epi pleon anastomountai kata tas tôn epimêniôn phoras,

ouk ôknêse graphein; synomologousi d' autô kai hoi alloi

pantes hoi peri toutôn pragmateusamenoi kai prôtos g'

hapantôn iatrôn te kai philosophôn Hippokratês

apephênato myein to stoma tôn hysterôn en te tais

kyêsesi kai tais phlegmonais, all' en men tais kyêsesin

ouk existamenon tês physeôs, en de tais phlegmonais

sklêron gignomenon.

Epi de ge tês enantias tês ekkritikês anoignytai men to

stoma, proerchetai d' ho pythmên || hapas hoson hoion t' 151

engytatô tou stomatos apôthoumenos exô to embryon, hama

d' autô kai ta synechê merê ta hoion pleura tou pantos

organou synepilambanomena tou ergou thlibei te kai

proôthei pan exô to embryon. kai pollais tôn gynaikôn

ôdines biaioi tas mêtras holas ekpesein ênankasan

ametrôs chrêsamenais tê toiautê dynamei, paraplêsiou

tinos gignomenou tô pollakis en palais tisi kai

philoneikiais symbainonti, hotan anatrepsai te kai

katabalein heterous speudontes autoi synkatapesômen.

houtô gar kai hai mêtrai to embryon ôthousai synexepeson

eniote kai malisth', hotan hoi pros tên rhachin autôn

syndesmoi chalaroi physei tynchanôsin ontes.

Esti de kai touto thaumaston ti tês physeôs sophisma, to

zôntos men tou kyêmatos akribôs pany memykenai to stoma

tôn mêtrôn, apothanontos de parachrêma dianoigesthai

tosouton, hoson eis tên exodon autou diapherei. kai

mentoi kai hai maiai tas tiktousas ouk euthys anistasin

oud' epi ton diphron kathizousin, all' haptontai

proteron anoigomenou tou stomatos || kata brachy kai 152

prôton men, hôste ton mikron daktylon kathienai,

diestêkenai phasin, epeit' êdê kai meizon kai kata

brachy dê pynthanomenois hêmin apokrinontai to megethos

tês diastaseôs epauxanomenon. hotan d' hikanon ê pros

tên tou kyoumenou diodon, anistasin autas kai kathizousi

kai prothymeisthai keleuousin apôsasthai to paidion.

esti d' êdê touto to ergon, ho par' heautôn hai kyousai

prostitheasin, ouketi tôn hysterôn, alla tôn kat'

epigastrion myôn, hoi pros tên apopatêsin te kai tên

ourêsin hêmin synergousin.

IV

Thus the two faculties are clearly to be seen in the case of the

uterus; in the case of the _stomach_ they appear as follows:--Firstly

in the condition of _gurgling_, which physicians are persuaded, and

with reason, to be a symptom of weakness of the stomach; for sometimes

when the very smallest quantity of food has been ingested this does

not occur, owing to the fact that the stomach is contracting

accurately upon the food and constricting it at every point; sometimes

when the stomach is full the gurglings yet make themselves heard as

though it were empty. For if it be in a natural condition, employing

its contractile faculty in the ordinary way, then, even if its

contents be very small, it grasps the whole of them and does not leave

any empty space. When it is weak, however, being unable to lay hold of

its contents accurately, it produces a certain amount of vacant space,

and allows the liquid contents to flow about in different directions

in accordance with its changes of shape, and so to produce gurglings.

Thus those who are troubled with this symptom expect, with good

reason, that they will also be unable to digest adequately; proper

digestion cannot take place in a weak stomach. In such people also,

the mass of food may be plainly seen to remain an abnormally long time

in the stomach, as would be natural if their digestion were slow.

Indeed, the chief way in which these people will surprise one is in

the length of time that not food alone but even fluids will remain in

their stomachs. Now, the actual cause of this is not, as one would

imagine, that the lower outlet of the stomach,[311] being fairly

narrow, will allow nothing to pass before being reduced to a fine

state of division. There are a great many people who frequently

swallow large quantities of big fruit-stones; one person, who was

holding a gold ring in his mouth, inadvertently swallowed it; another

swallowed a coin, and various people have swallowed various hard and

indigestible objects; yet all these people easily passed by the bowel

what they had swallowed, without there being any subsequent symptoms.

Now surely if narrowness of the gastric outlet were the cause of

untriturated food remaining for an abnormally long time, none of these

articles I have mentioned would ever have escaped. Furthermore, the

fact that it is liquids which remain longest in these people's

stomachs is sufficient to put the idea of narrowness of the outlet out

of court. For, supposing a rapid descent were dependent upon

emulsification,[312] then soups, milk, and barley-emulsion[313] would

at once pass along in every case. But as a matter of fact this is not

so. For in people who are extremely asthenic it is just these fluids

which remain undigested, which accumulate and produce gurglings, and

which oppress and overload the stomach, whereas in strong persons not

merely do none of these things happen, but even a large quantity of

bread or meat passes rapidly down.

And it is not only because the stomach is distended and loaded and

because the fluid runs from one part of it to another accompanied by

gurglings--it is not only for these reasons that one would judge that

there was an unduly long continuance of the food in it, in those

people who are so disposed, but also from the _vomiting_. Thus, there

are some who vomit up every particle of what they have eaten, not

after three or four hours, but actually in the middle of the night, a

lengthy period having elapsed since their meal.

Suppose you fill any animal whatsoever with liquid food--an experiment

I have often carried out in pigs, to whom I give a sort of mess of

wheaten flour and water, thereafter cutting them open after three or

four hours; if you will do this yourself, you will find the food still

in the stomach. For it is not _chylification_[314] which determines

the length of its stay here--since this can also be effected outside

the stomach; the determining factor is _digestion_[315] which is a

different thing from chylification, as are blood-production and

nutrition. For, just as it has been shown[316] that these two

processes depend upon a _change of qualities_, similarly also the

digestion of food in the stomach involves a transmutation of it into

the quality proper to that which is receiving nourishment.[317] Then,

when it is completely digested, the lower outlet opens and the food is

quickly ejected through it, even if there should be amongst it

abundance of stones, bones, grape-pips, or other things which cannot

be reduced to chyle. And you may observe this yourself in an animal,

if you will try to hit upon the time at which the descent of food from

the stomach takes place. But even if you should fail to discover the

time, and nothing was yet passing down, and the food was still

undergoing digestion in the stomach, still even then you would find

dissection not without its uses. You will observe, as we have just

said, that the pylorus is accurately closed, and that the whole

stomach is in a state of contraction upon the food very much as the

womb contacts upon the foetus. For it is never possible to find a

vacant space in the uterus, the stomach, or in either of the two

bladders--that is, either in that called bile-receiving[318] or in the

other; whether their contents be abundant or scanty, their cavities

are seen to be replete and full, owing to the fact that their coats

contract constantly upon the contents--so long, at least, as the

animal is in a natural condition.

Now Erasistratus for some reason declares that it is the

contractions[319] of the stomach which are the cause of

everything--that is to say, of the softening of the food,[320] the

removal of waste matter, and the absorption of the food when chylified

[emulsified].

Now I have personally, on countless occasions, divided the peritoneum

of a still living animal and have always found all _the intestines_

contracting peristaltically[321] upon their contents. The condition of

_the stomach_, however, is found less simple; as regards the

substances freshly swallowed, it had grasped these accurately both

above and below, in fact at every point, and was as devoid of movement

as though it had grown round and become united with the food.[322] At

the same time I found the pylorus persistently closed and accurately

shut, like the os uteri on the foetus.

In the cases, however, where digestion had been completed the pylorus

had opened, and the stomach was undergoing peristaltic movements,

similar to those of the intestines.

IV

Houtô men epi tôn mêtrôn enargôs hai dyo phainontai

dynameis, epi de tês gastros hôde. prôton men tois

klydôsin, hoi dê kai pepisteuntai tois iatrois arrhôstou

koilias einai symptômata kai kata logon pepisteuntai;

eniote men gar elachista prosenênegmenôn ou gignontai

peristellomenês akribôs autois tês gastros kai

sphingousês pantachothen, eniote de mestê men hê gastêr

estin, hoi kly||dônes d' hôs epi kenês exakouontai. kata 153

physin men gar echousa kai chrômenê kalôs tê

peristaltikê dynamei, kan oligon ê to periechomenon,

hapan auto perilambanousa chôran oudemian apoleipei

kenên, arrhôstousa de, kathoti an adynatêsê perilabein

akribôs, entauth' eurychôrian tin' ergazomenê synchôrei

tois periechomenois hygrois kata tas tôn schêmatôn

metallagas allot' allachose metarrheousi klydônas

apotelein.

Eulogôs oun, hoti mêde pepsousin hikanôs, hoi en tôde tô

symptômati genomenoi prosdokôsin; ou gar endechetai

pepsai kalôs arrhôston gastera. tois toioutois de kai

mechri pleionos en autê phainetai paramenon to baros,

hôs an kai bradyteron pettousi. kai mên thaumaseien an

tis ep' autôn toutôn malista to polychronion tês en tê

gastri diatribês ou tôn sitiôn monon alla kai tou

pomatos; ou gar, hoper an oiêtheiê tis, hôs to tês

gastros stoma to katô stenon hikanôs hyparchon ouden

pariêsi prin akribôs leiôthênai, tout' aition ontôs

esti. polla goun pollakis opôrôn osta megista

katapinousi || pampolloi kai tis daktylion chrysoun en 154

tô stomati phylattôn akôn katepie kai allos tis nomisma

kai allos allo ti sklêron kai dyskatergaston, all' homôs

hapantes houtoi rhadiôs apepatêsan, ha katepion, oudenos

autois akolouthêsantos symptômatos. ei de g' hê stenotês

tou porou tês gastros aitia tou menein epi pleon ên tois

atriptois sitiois, ouden an toutôn pote diechôrêsen.

alla kai to ta pomat' autois en tê gastri paramenein epi

pleiston hikanon apagein tên hyponoian tou porou tês

stenotêtos; holôs gar, eiper ên en tô kechylôsthai to

thatton hypienai, ta te rhophêmat' an houtô kai to gala

kai ho tês ptisanês chylos autika diexêei pasin. all'

ouch hôd' echei; tois men gar asthenesin epi pleiston

emplei tauta kai klydônas ergazetai paramenonta kai

thlibei kai barynei tên gastera, tois d' ischyrois ou

monon toutôn ouden symbainei, alla kai poly plêthos

artôn kai kreôn hypochôrei tacheôs.

Ou monon d' ek tou peritetasthai tên gastera kai

barynesthai || kai metarrhein allot' eis alla merê meta 155

klydônos to paramenein epi pleon en autê pantôs tois

houtôs echousi tekmêrait' an tis alla kak tôn emetôn;

enioi gar ou meta treis hôras ê tettaras alla nyktôn êdê

mesôn pampollou metaxy chronou dielthontos epi tais

prosphorais anêmesan akribôs hapanta ta edêdesmena.

Kai men dê kai zôon hotioun emplêsas hygras trophês,

hôsper hêmeis pollakis epi syôn epeirathêmen ex aleurôn

meth' hydatos hoion kykeôna tina dontes autois, epeita

meta treis pou kai tettaras hôras anatemontes, ei houtô

kai sy praxeias, heurêseis eti kata tên gastera ta

edêdesmena; peras gar autois esti tês entautha monês

ouch hê chylôsis, hên kai ektos eti ontôn mêchanêsasthai

dynaton estin, all' hê pepsis, heteron ti tês chylôseôs

ousa, kathaper haimatôsis te kai threpsis. hôs gar

kakeina dedeiktai poiotêtôn metabolê gignomena, ton

auton tropon kai hê en tê gastri pepsis tôn sitiôn eis

tên oikeian esti tô trephomenô poiotêta || metabolê kai 156

hotan ge pephthê teleôs, anoignytai men tênikauta to

katô stoma, diekpiptei d' autou ta sitia rhadiôs, ei kai

plêthos ti meth' heautôn echonta tychoi lithôn ê ostôn ê

gigartôn ê tinos allou chylôthênai mê dynamenou. kai soi

tout' enestin epi zôou theasasthai stochasamenô ton

kairon tês katô diexodou. kai men ge kai ei sphaleiês

pote tou kairou kai mêden mêpô katô parerchoito

pettomenôn eti kata tên gastera tôn sitiôn, oud' houtôs

akarpos hê anatomê soi genêsetai; theasê gar ep' autôn,

hoper oligô prosthen elegomen, akribôs men memykota ton

pylôron, hapasan de tên gastera periestalmenên tois

sitiois tropon homoiotaton, hoionper kai hai mêtrai tois

kyoumenois. ou gar estin oudepote kenên heurein chôran

oute kata tas hysteras oute kata tên koilian oute kata

tas kysteis amphoteras oute kata tên cholêdochon

onomazomenên oute tên heteran; all' eit' oligon eiê to

periechomenon en autais eite poly, mestai kai plêreis

autôn hai koiliai phainontai peristellomenôn aei tôn

chitônôn tois periechomenois, hotan ge kata physin echê

to zôon. || 157

Erasistratos d' ouk oid' hopôs tên peristolên tês

gastros hapantôn aitian apophainei kai tês leiôseôs tôn

sitiôn kai tês tôn perittômatôn hypochôrêseôs kai tês

tôn kechylômenôn anadoseôs.

Egô men gar myriakis epi zôntos eti tou zôou dielôn to

peritonaion heuron aei ta men entera panta

peristellomena tois enyparchousi, tên koilian d' ouch

haplôs, all' epi men tais edôdais anôthen te kai

katôthen auta kai pantachothen akribôs perieilêphuian

akinêton, hôs dokein hênôsthai kai peripephykenai tois

sitiois; en de toutô kai ton pylôron heuriskon aei

memykota kai kekleismenon akribôs hôsper to tôn hysterôn

stoma tais enkymosin.

Epi mentoi tais pepsesi sympeplêrômenais aneôkto men ho

pylôros, hê gastêr de peristaltikôs ekineito paraplêsiôs

tois enterois.

V

Thus all these facts agree that the stomach, uterus, and bladders

possess certain inborn faculties which are retentive of their own

proper qualities and eliminative of those that are foreign. For it has

been already shown[323] that the bladder by the liver draws bile into

itself, while it is also quite obvious that it eliminates this daily

into the stomach. Now, of course, if the eliminative were to succeed

the attractive faculty and there were not a _retentive_ faculty

between the two, there would be found, on every occasion that animals

were dissected, an equal quantity of bile in the gall-bladder. This

however, we do not find. For the bladder is sometimes observed to be

very full, sometimes quite empty, while at other times you find in it

various intermediate degrees of fulness, just as is the case with the

other bladder--that which receives the urine; for even without

resorting to anatomy we may observe that the urinary bladder continues

to collect urine up to the time that it becomes uncomfortable through

the increasing quantity of urine or the irritation caused by its

acidity--the presumption thus being that here, too, there is a

retentive faculty.

Similarly, too, the stomach, when, as often happens, it is irritated

by acidity, gets rid of the food, although still undigested, earlier

than proper; or again, when oppressed by the quantity of its contents,

or disordered from the co-existence of both conditions, it is seized

with _diarrhoea_. _Vomiting_ also is an affection of the upper [part

of the] stomach analogous to diarrhoea, and it occurs when the stomach

is overloaded or is unable to stand the quality of the food or surplus

substances which it contains. Thus, when such a condition develops in

the lower parts of the stomach, while the parts about the inlet are

normal, it ends in diarrhoea, whereas if this condition is in the

upper stomach, the lower parts being normal, it ends in vomiting.

V

Hapant' oun allêlois homologei tauta kai tê gastri kai

tais hysterais kai tais kystesin einai tinas emphytous

dynameis kathektikas men tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn, || 158

apokritikas de tôn allotriôn. hoti men gar helkei tên

cholên eis heautên hê epi tô hêpati kystis, emprosthen

dedeiktai, hoti de kai apokrinei kath' hekastên hêmeran

eis tên gastera, kai tout' enargôs phainetai. kai mên ei

diedecheto tên helktikên dynamin hê ekkritikê kai mê

mesê tis amphoin ên hê kathektikê, dia pantos echrên

anatemnomenôn tôn zôôn ison plêthos cholês heuriskesthai

kata tên kystin; ou mên heurisketai ge. pote men gar

plêrestatê, pote de kenotatê, pote de tas en tô metaxy

diaphoras echousa theôreitai, kathaper kai hê hetera

kystis hê to ouron hypodechomenê. tautês men ge kai pro

tês anatomês aisthanometha, prin aniathênai tô plêthei

baryntheisan ê tê drimytêti dêchtheisan, athroizousês

eti to ouron, hôs ousês tinos kantautha dynameôs

kathektikês.

Houtô de kai hê gastêr hypo drimytêtos pollakis

dêchtheisa prôiaiteron tou deontos apepton eti tên

trophên apotribetai. authis d' an pote tô plêthei

baryntheisa ê kai kat' amphô synelthonta kakôs

diatetheisa diarrhoiais healô. kai men ge kai hoi

emetoi, tô plêthei baryntheisês || autês ê tên poiotêta 159

tôn en autê sitiôn te kai perittômatôn mê pherousês,

analogon ti tais diarrhoiais pathêma tês anô gastros

estin. hotan men gar en tois katô meresin autês hê

toiautê genêtai diathesis, errhômenôn tôn kata ton

stomachon, eis diarrhoias eteleutêsen, hotan d' en tois

kata to stoma, tôn allôn eurôstountôn, eis emetous.

VI

This may often be clearly observed in those who are disinclined for

food; when obliged to eat, they have not the strength to swallow, and,

even if they force themselves to do so, they cannot retain the food,

but at once vomit it up. And those especially who have a dislike to

some particular kind of food, sometimes take it under compulsion, and

then promptly bring it up; or, if they force themselves to keep it

down, they are nauseated and feel their stomach turned up, and

endeavouring to relieve itself of its discomfort.

Thus, as was said at the beginning, all the observed facts testify

that there must exist in almost all parts of the animal a certain

inclination towards, or, so to speak; an appetite for their own

special quality, and an aversion to, or, as it were, a hatred[324] of

the foreign quality. And it is natural that when they feel an

inclination they should attract, and that when they feel aversion they

should expel.

From these facts, then, again, both the attractive and the propulsive

faculties have been demonstrated to exist in everything.[325]

But if there be an inclination or attraction, there will also be some

benefit derived; for no existing thing attracts anything else for the

mere sake of attracting, but in order to benefit by what is acquired

by the attraction. And of course it cannot benefit by it if it cannot

retain it. Herein, then, again, the retentive faculty is shown to have

its necessary origin: for the stomach obviously inclines towards its

own proper qualities and turns away from those that are foreign to

it.[326]

But if it aims at and attracts its food and benefits by it while

retaining and contracting upon it, we may also expect that there will

be some _termination_ to the benefit received, and that thereafter

will come the time for the exercise of the eliminative faculty.

VI

Enesti de kai touto pollakis enargôs idein epi tôn

apositôn; anankazomenoi gar esthiein oute katapinein

eusthenousin out', ei kai biasainto, katechousin, all'

euthys anemousi. kai hoi allôs de tôn edesmatôn pros

hotioun dyscherainontes biasthentes eniote prosarasthai

tacheôs exemousin, ê ei kataschoien biasamenoi,

nautiôdeis t' eisi kai tês gastros hyptias aisthanontai

kai speudousês apothesthai to lypoun.

Houtôs ex hapantôn tôn phainomenôn, hoper ex archês

errhethê, martyreitai to dein hyparchein tois tou zôou

moriois schedon hapasin ephesin men tina kai hoion

orexin tês oikeias poiotêtos, apostrophên de tina || kai 160

hoion misos ti tês allotrias, all' ephiemena men helkein

eulogon, apostrephomena d' ekkrinein.

Kak toutôn palin hê th' helktikê dynamis apodeiknytai

kath' hapan hyparchousa kai hê proôstikê.

All' eiper ephesis te tis esti kai helxis, eiê an tis

kai apolausis; ouden gar tôn ontôn helkei ti di' auto to

helkein, all' hin' apolausê tou dia tês holkês

euporêthentos. kai mên apolauein ou dynatai mê

kataschon. kan toutô palin hê kathektikê dynamis

apodeiknytai tên genesin anankaian echousa; saphôs gar

ephietai men tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn hê gastêr,

apostrephetai de tas allotrias.

All' eiper ephietai te kai helkei kai apolauei

katechousa kai peristellomenê, eiê an ti kai peras autê

tês apolauseôs kapi tôd' ho kairos êdê tês ekkritikês

dynameôs energousês.

VII

But if the stomach both retains and benefits by its food, then it

employs it for the end for which it [the stomach] naturally exists.

And it exists to partake of that which is of a quality befitting and

proper to it. Thus it attracts all the most useful parts of the food

in a vaporous[327] and finely divided condition, storing this up in

its own coats, and applying[328] it to them. And when it is

sufficiently full it puts away from it, as one might something

troublesome, the rest of the food, this having itself meanwhile

obtained some profit from its association with the stomach. For it is

impossible for two bodies which are adapted for acting and being acted

upon to come together without either both acting or being acted upon,

or else one acting and the other being acted upon. For if their forces

are equal they will act and be acted upon equally, and if the one be

much superior in strength, it will exert its activity upon its passive

neighbour; thus, while producing a great and appreciable effect, it

will itself be acted upon either little or not at all. But it is

herein also that the main difference lies between nourishing food and

a deleterious drug; the latter masters the forces of the body, whereas

the former is mastered by them.[329]

There cannot, then, be food which is suited for the animal which is

not also correspondingly subdued by the qualities existing in the

animal. And to be subdued means to undergo _alteration_.[330] Now,

some parts are stronger in power and others weaker; therefore, while

all will subdue the nutriment which is proper to the animal, they will

not all do so equally. Thus the stomach will subdue and alter its

food, but not to the same extent as will the liver, veins, arteries,

and heart.

We must therefore observe to what extent it does alter it. The

alteration is more than that which occurs in the mouth, but less than

that in the liver and veins. For the latter alteration changes the

nutriment into the _substance_ of blood, whereas that in the mouth

obviously changes it into a new _form_, but certainly does not

completely transmute it. This you may discover in the food which is

left in the intervals between the teeth, and which remains there all

night; the bread is not exactly bread, nor the meat, for they

have a smell similar to that of the animal's mouth, and have been

disintegrated and dissolved, and have had the qualities of the

animal's flesh impressed upon them. And you may observe the extent of

the alteration which occurs to food in the mouth if you will chew some

corn and then apply it to an unripe [undigested] boil: you will see it

rapidly transmuting--in fact entirely digesting--the boil, though it

cannot do anything of the kind if you mix it with water. And do not

let this surprise you; this phlegm [saliva] in the mouth is also a

cure for _lichens_[331]; it even rapidly destroys scorpions; while, as

regards the animals which emit venom, some it kills at once, and

others after an interval; to all of them in any case it does great

damage. Now, the masticated food is all, firstly, soaked in and mixed

up with this phlegm; and secondly, it is brought into contact with the

actual skin of the mouth; thus it undergoes more change than the food

which is wedged into the vacant spaces between the teeth.

But just as masticated food is more altered than the latter kind, so

is food which has been swallowed more altered than that which has been

merely masticated. Indeed, there is no comparison between these two

processes; we have only to consider what the stomach contains--phlegm,

bile, pneuma, [innate] heat,[332] and, indeed the whole substance of

the stomach. And if one considers along with this the adjacent

viscera, like a lot of burning hearths around a great cauldron--to the

right the liver, to the left the spleen, the heart above, and along

with it the diaphragm (suspended and in a state of constant movement),

and the omentum sheltering them all--you may believe what an

extraordinary alteration it is which occurs in the food taken into the

stomach.

How could it easily become blood if it were not previously prepared by

means of a change of this kind? It has already been shown[333] that

nothing is altered all at once from one quality to its opposite. How

then could bread, beef, beans, or any other food turn into blood if

they had not previously undergone some other alteration? And how could

the faeces be generated right away in the small intestine?[334] For

what is there in this organ more potent in producing alteration than

the factors in the stomach? Is it the number of the coats, or the way

it is surrounded by neighbouring viscera, or the time that the food

remains in it, or some kind of innate heat which it contains? Most

assuredly the intestines have the advantage of the stomach in none of

these respects. For what possible reason, then, will objectors have it

that bread may often remain a whole night in the stomach and still

preserve its original qualities, whereas when once it is projected

into the intestines, it straightway becomes ordure? For, if such a

long period of time is incapable of altering it, neither will the

short period be sufficient, or, if the latter is enough, surely the

longer time will be much more so! Well, then, can it be that, while

the nutriment does undergo an alteration in the stomach, this is a

different kind of alteration and one which is not dependent on the

nature of the organ which alters it? Or if it be an alteration of this

latter kind, yet one perhaps which is not proper to the body of the

animal? This is still more impossible. Digestion was shown to be

nothing else than an alteration to the quality proper to that which is

receiving nourishment.[335] Since, then, this is what digestion means

and since the nutriment has been shown to take on in the stomach a

quality appropriate to the animal which is about to be nourished by

it, it has been demonstrated adequately that nutriment does undergo

digestion in the stomach.

And Asclepiades is absurd when he states that the quality of the

digested food never shows itself either in eructations or in the

vomited matter, or on dissection.[336] For of course the mere fact

that the food smells of the body shows that it has undergone gastric

digestion. But this man is so foolish that, when he hears the Ancients

saying that the food is converted in the stomach into something

"good," he thinks it proper to look out not for what is good in its

possible effects, but for what is _good to the taste_: this is like

saying that apples (for so one has to argue with him) become more

apple-like [in flavour] in the stomach, or honey more honey-like!

Erasistratus, however, is still more foolish and absurd, either

through not perceiving in what sense the Ancients said that digestion

is similar to the process of _boiling_, or because he purposely

confused himself with sophistries. It is, he says, inconceivable that

digestion, involving as it does such trifling warmth, should be

related to the boiling process. This is as if we were to suppose that

it was necessary to put the fires of Etna under the stomach before it

could manage to alter the food; or else that, while it was capable of

altering the food, it did not do this by virtue of its innate heat,

which of course was moist, so that the word _boil_ was used instead of

_bake_.

What he ought to have done, if it was facts that he wished to dispute

about, was to have tried to show, first and foremost, that the food is

not transmuted or altered in quality by the stomach at all, and

secondly, if he could not be confident of this, he ought to have tried

to show that this alteration was not of any advantage to the

animal.[337] If, again, he were unable even to make this

misrepresentation, he ought to have attempted to confute the postulate

concerning _the active principles_--to show, in fact, that the

functions taking place in the various parts do not depend on the way

in which the Warm, Cold, Dry, and Moist are mixed, but on some other

factor. And if he had not the audacity to misrepresent facts even so

far as this, still he should have tried at least to show that the Warm

is not the most active of all the principles which play a part in

things governed by Nature. But if he was unable to demonstrate this

any more than any of the previous propositions, then he ought not to

have made himself ridiculous by quarrelling uselessly with a mere

name--as though Aristotle had not clearly stated in the fourth book of

his "Meteorology," as well as in many other passages, in what way

digestion can be said to be allied to boiling, and also that the

latter expression is not used in its primitive or strict sense.

But, as has been frequently said already,[338] the one starting-point

of all this is a thoroughgoing enquiry into the question of the Warm,

Cold, Dry and Moist; this Aristotle carried out in the second of his

books "On Genesis and Destruction," where he shows that all the

transmutations and alterations throughout the body take place as a

result of these principles. Erasistratus, however, advanced nothing

against these or anything else that has been said above, but occupied

himself merely with the word "boiling."

VII

All' ei kai katechei kai apolauei, katachrêtai pros ho

pephyke. pephyke de tou prosêkontos heautê || kata 161

poiotêta kai oikeiou metalambanein; hôsth' helkei tôn

sitiôn hoson chrêstotaton atmôdôs te kai kata brachy kai

touto tois heautês chitôsin enapotithetai te kai

prostithêsin. hotan d' hikanôs emplêsthê, kathaper

achthos ti tên loipên apotithetai trophên eschêkuian ti

chrêston êdê kai autên ek tês pros tên gastera

koinônias; oude gar endechetai dyo sômata dran kai

paschein epitêdeia synelthonta mê ouk êtoi paschein th'

hama kai dran ê thateron men dran, thateron de paschein.

ean men gar isazê tais dynamesin, ex isou drasei te kai

peisetai, an d' hyperechê poly kai kratê thateron,

energêsei peri to paschon; hôste drasei mega men ti kai

aisthêton, auto d' êtoi smikron ti kai ouk aisthêton ê

pantapasin ouden peisetai. all' en toutô dê kai malista

diênenke pharmakou dêlêtêriou trophê; to men gar kratei

tês en tô sômati dynameôs, hê de krateitai.

Oukoun endechetai trophên men einai ti tô zôô

prosêkousan, ou mên kai krateisthai g' homoiôs pros tôn

|| en tô zôô poiotêtôn; to krateisthai d' ên 162

alloiousthai. all' epei ta men ischyrotera tais

dynamesin esti moria, ta d' asthenestera, kratêsei men

panta tês oikeias tô zôô trophês, ouch homoiôs de panta;

kratêsei d' ara kai hê gastêr kai alloiôsei men tên

trophên, ou mên homoiôs hêpati kai phlepsi kai artêriais

kai kardia.

Poson oun estin, ho alloioi, kai dê theasômetha; pleon

men ê kata to stoma, meion d' ê kata to hêpar te kai tas

phlebas. hautê men gar hê alloiôsis eis haimatos ousian

agei tên trophên, hê d' en tô stomati methistêsi men

autên enargôs eis heteron eidos, ou mên eis telos ge

metakosmei. mathois d' an epi tôn enkataleiphthentôn

tais diastasesi tôn odontôn sitiôn kai katameinantôn di'

holês nyktos; oute gar artos akribôs ho artos oute kreas

esti to kreas, all' ozei men toiouton, hoionper kai tou

zôou to stoma, dialelytai de kai diatetêke kai tas en tô

zôô tês sarkos apomemaktai poiotêtas. enesti de soi

theasasthai to megethos tês en tô stomati || tôn sitiôn 163

alloiôseôs, ei pyrous masêsamenos epitheiês apeptois

dothiêsin; opsei gar autous tachista metaballontas te

kai sympettontas, ouden toiouton, hotan hydati

phyrathôsin, ergasasthai dynamenous. kai mê thaumasês;

to gar toi phlegma touti to kata to stoma kai leichênôn

estin akos kai skorpious anairei parachrêma kai polla

tôn iobolôn thêriôn ta men eutheôs apokteinei, ta d' es

hysteron; hapanta goun blaptei megalôs. alla ta

memasêmena sitia prôton men toutô tô phlegmati bebrektai

te kai pephyratai, deuteron de kai tô chrôti tou

stomatos hapanta peplêsiaken, hôste pleiona metabolên

eilêphe tôn en tais kenais chôrais tôn odontôn

esphênômenôn.

All' hoson ta memasêmena toutôn epi pleon êlloiôtai,

tosouton ekeinôn ta katapothenta. mê gar oude parablêton

ê to tês hyperbolês, ei to kata tên koilian ennoêsaimen

phlegma kai cholên kai pneuma kai thermasian kai holên

tên ousian tês gastros. ei de kai synepinoêsais autê ta

parakeimena || splanchna kathaper tini lebêti megalô 164

pyros hestias pollas, ek dexiôn men to hêpar, ex

aristerôn de ton splêna, tên kardian d' ek tôn anô, syn

autê de kai tas phrenas aiôroumenas te kai dia pantos

kinoumenas, eph' hapasi de toutois skepon to epiploon,

exaision tina peisthêsê tên alloiôsin gignesthai tôn eis

tên gastera katapothentôn sitiôn.

Pôs d' an êdynato rhadiôs haimatousthai mê

proparaskeuasthenta tê toiautê metabolê? dedeiktai gar

oun kai prosthen, hôs ouden eis tên enantian athroôs

methistatai poiotêta. pôs oun ho artos haima gignetai,

pôs de to teutlon ê ho kyamos ê ti tôn allôn, ei mê

proteron tin' heteran alloiôsin edexato? pôs d' hê

kopros en tois leptois enterois athroôs gennêthêsetai?

ti gar en toutois sphodroteron eis alloiôsin esti tôn

kata tên gastera? potera tôn chitônôn to plêthos ê tôn

geitniôntôn splanchnôn hê perithesis ê tês monês ho

chronos ê symphytos tis en tois organois thermasia? kai

mên kat' ouden toutôn pleonektei ta entera tês gastros.

ti pot' oun en men tê gastri nyktos || holês pollakis 165

meinanta ton arton eti phylattesthai boulontai tas

archaias diasôzonta poiotêtas, epeidan d' hapax empesê

tois enterois, euthys gignesthai kopron? ei men gar ho

tosoutos chronos adynatos alloioun, oud' ho brachys

hikanos; ei d' houtos autarkês, pôs ou poly mallon ho

makros? ar' oun alloioutai men hê trophê kata tên

koilian, allên de tin' alloiôsin kai ouch hoian ek tês

physeôs ischei tou metaballontos organou? ê tautên men,

ou mên tên g' oikeian tô tou zôou sômati? makrô tout'

adynatôteron esti. kai mên ouk allo g' ên hê pepsis ê

alloiôsis eis tên oikeian tou trephomenou poiotêta.

eiper oun hê pepsis tout' esti kai hê trophê kata tên

gastera dedeiktai dechomenê poiotêta tô mellonti pros

autês threpsesthai zôô prosêkousan, hikanôs apodedeiktai

to pettesthai kata tên gastera tên trophên.

Kai geloios men Asklêpiadês out' en tais erygais legôn

emphainesthai pote tên poiotêta tôn pephthentôn sitiôn

out' en tois emetois out' en tais ana||tomais; auto gar 166

dê to tou sômatos exozein auta tês koilias esti to

pepephthai. ho d' houtôs estin euêthês, hôst', epeidê

tôn palaiôn akouei legontôn epi to chrêston en tê gastri

metaballein ta sitia, dokimazei zêtein ou to kata

dynamin alla to kata geusin chrêston, hôsper ê tou mêlou

mêlôdesterou--chrê gar houtôs autô

dialegesthai--gignomenou kata tên koilian ê tou melitos

melitôdesterou.

Poly d' euêthesteros esti kai geloioteros ho

Erasistratos ê mê noôn, hopôs eirêtai pros tôn palaiôn

hê pepsis hepsêsei paraplêsios hyparchein, ê hekôn

sophizomenos heauton. hepsêsei men oun, phêsin, houtôs

elaphran echousan thermasian ouk eikos einai paraplêsian

tên pepsin, hôsper ê tên Aitnên deon hypotheinai tê

gastri ê allôs autês alloiôsai ta sitia mê dynamenês ê

dynamenês men alloioun, ou kata tên emphyton de

thermasian, hygran ousan dêlonoti kai dia touth' hepsein

ouk optan eirêmenên.

Echrên d' auton, eiper peri pragmatôn antilegein

ebouleto, peirathênai deixai malista men kai || prôton, 167

hôs oude metaballei tên archên oud' alloioutai kata

poiotêta pros tês gastros ta sitia, deuteron d', eiper

mê hoios t' ên touto pistôsasthai, to tên alloiôsin

autôn achrêston einai tô zôô; ei de mêde tout' eiche

diaballein, exelenxai tên peri tas drastikas archas

hypolêpsin kai deixai tas energeias en tois moriois ou

dia tên ek thermou kai psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou

poian krasin hyparchein alla di' allo ti; ei de mêde

tout' etolma diaballein, all' hoti ge mê to thermon

estin en tois hypo physeôs dioikoumenois to tôn allôn

drastikôtaton. ê ei mête touto mête tôn allôn ti tôn

emprosthen eichen apodeiknynai, mê lêrein onomati

prospalaionta matên, hôsper ou saphôs Aristotelous en t'

allois pollois kan tô tetartô tôn meteôrologikôn hopôs

hê pepsis hepsêsei paraplêsios einai legetai, kai hoti

mê prôtôs mêde kyriôs onomazontôn, eirêkotos.

All', hôs êdê lelektai pollakis, archê toutôn hapantôn

esti mia to peri thermou kai psychrou kai xêrou kai

hygrou diaskepsasthai, kathaper Aristotelês epoiêsen en

tô deuterô peri geneseôs kai phthoras, apo||deixas 168

hapasas tas kata ta sômata metabolas kai alloiôseis hypo

toutôn gignesthai. all' Erasistratos oute toutois out'

allô tini tôn proeirêmenôn anteipôn epi tounoma monon

etrapeto tês hepsêseôs.

VIII

Thus, as regards _digestion_, even though he neglected everything

else, he did at least attempt to prove his point--namely, that

digestion in animals differs from boiling carried on outside; in

regard to the question of _deglutition_, however, he did not go even

so far as this. What are his words?

"The stomach does not appear to exercise any traction."[339]

Now the fact is that the stomach possesses two coats, which certainly

exist for some purpose; they extend as far as the mouth, the internal

one remaining throughout similar to what it is in the stomach, and the

other one tending to become of a more fleshy nature in the gullet. Now

simple observation will testify that these coats have their fibres

inserted in contrary directions.[340] And, although Erasistratus did

not attempt to say for what reason they are like this, I am going to

do so.

The inner coat has its fibres straight, since it exists for the

purpose of traction. The outer coat has its fibres transverse, for the

purpose of peristalsis.[341] In fact, the movements of each of the

_mobile_ organs of the body depend on the setting of the fibres. Now

please test this assertion first in the muscles themselves; in these

the fibres are most distinct, and their movements visible owing to

their vigour. And after the muscles, pass to the _physical_

organs,[342] and you will see that they all move in correspondence

with their fibres. This is why the fibres throughout the intestines

are circular in both coats--they only contract peristaltically, they

do not exercise traction. The stomach, again, has some of its fibres

longitudinal for the purpose of traction and the others transverse for

the purpose of peristalsis.[342] For just as the movements in the

muscles[343] take place when each of the fibres becomes tightened and

drawn towards its origin, such also is what happens in the stomach;

when the transverse fibres tighten, the breadth of the cavity

contained by them becomes less; and when the longitudinal fibres

contract and draw in upon themselves, the length must necessarily be

curtailed. This curtailment of length, indeed, is well seen in the act

of swallowing: the larynx is seen to rise upwards to exactly the same

degree that the gullet is drawn downwards; while, after the process of

swallowing has been completed and the gullet is released from tension,

the larynx can be clearly seen to sink down again. This is because the

inner coat of the stomach, which has the longitudinal fibres and which

also lines the gullet and the mouth, extends to the interior of the

larynx, and it is thus impossible for it to be drawn down by the

stomach without the larynx being involved in the traction.

Further, it will be found acknowledged in Erasistratus's own writings

that the circular fibres (by which the stomach as well as other parts

performs its contractions) do not curtail its length, but contract and

lessen its breadth. For he says that the stomach contracts

peristaltically round the food during the whole period of digestion.

But if it contracts, without in any way being diminished in length,

this is because downward traction of the gullet is not a property of

the movement of circular peristalsis. For what alone happens, as

Erasistratus himself said, is that when the upper parts contract the

lower ones dilate.[344] And everyone knows that this can be plainly

seen happening even in a dead man, if water be poured down his throat;

this symptom[345] results from the passage of matter through a narrow

channel; it would be extraordinary it the channel did not dilate when

a mass was passing through it.[346] Obviously then the dilatation of

the lower parts along with the contraction of the upper is common both

to dead bodies, when anything whatsoever is passing through them, and

to living ones, whether they contract peristaltically round their

contents or attract them.[347]

Curtailment of length, on the other hand, is peculiar to organs which

possess longitudinal fibres for the purpose of attraction. But the

gullet was shown to be pulled down; for otherwise it would not have

drawn upon the larynx. It is therefore clear that the stomach attracts

food by the gullet.

Further, in _vomiting_, the mere passive conveyance of rejected matter

up to the mouth will certainly itself suffice to keep open those parts

of the oesophagus which are distended by the returned food; as it

occupies each part in front [above], it first dilates this, and of

course leaves the part behind [below] contracted. Thus, in this

respect at least, the condition of the gullet is precisely similar to

what it is in the act of swallowing.[348] But there being no

_traction_, the whole length remains equal in such cases.

And for this reason it is easier to swallow than to vomit, for

deglutition results from _both_ coats of the stomach being brought

into action, the inner one exerting a pull and the outer one helping

by peristalsis and propulsion, whereas emesis occurs from the outer

coat alone functioning, without there being any kind of pull towards

the mouth. For, although the swallowing of food is ordinarily preceded

by a feeling of desire on the part of the stomach, there is in the

case of vomiting no corresponding desire from the mouth-parts for the

experience; the two are opposite dispositions of the stomach itself;

it yearns after and tends towards what is advantageous and proper to

it, it loathes and rids itself of what is foreign. Thus the actual

process of swallowing occurs very quickly in those who have a good

appetite for such foods as are proper to the stomach; this organ

obviously draws them in and down before they are masticated; whereas

in the case of those who are forced to take a medicinal draught or who

take food as medicine, the swallowing of these articles is

accomplished with distress and difficulty.

From what has been said, then, it is clear that the inner coat of the

stomach (that containing longitudinal fibres) exists for the purpose

of exerting a pull from mouth to stomach, and that it is only in

deglutition that it is active, whereas the external coat, which

contains transverse fibres, has been so constituted in order that it

may contract upon its contents and propel them forward; this coat

furthermore, functions in vomiting no less than in swallowing. The

truth of my statement is also borne out by what happens in the case of

the _channae_ and _synodonts_[349]; the stomachs of these animals are

sometimes found in their mouths, as also Aristotle writes in his

_History of Animals_; he also adds the cause of this: he says that it

is owing to their voracity.

The facts are as follows. In all animals, when the appetite is very

intense, the stomach rises up, so that some people who have a clear

perception of this condition say that their stomach "creeps out" of

them; in others, who are still masticating their food and have not yet

worked it up properly in the mouth, the stomach obviously snatches

away the food from them against their will. In those animals,

therefore, which are naturally voracious, in whom the mouth cavity is

of generous proportions, and the stomach situated close to it (as in

the case of the synodont and channa), it is in no way surprising that,

when they are sufficiently hungry and are pursuing one of the smaller

animals, and are just on the point of catching it, the stomach should,

under the impulse of desire, spring into the mouth. And this cannot

possibly take place in any other way than by the stomach drawing the

food to itself by means of the gullet, as though by a hand. In fact,

just as we ourselves, in our eagerness to grasp more quickly something

lying before us, sometimes stretch out our whole bodies along with our

hands, so also the stomach stretches itself forward along with the

gullet, which is, as it were, its hand. And thus, in these animals in

whom those three factors co-exist--an excessive propensity for food, a

small gullet, and ample mouth proportions--in these, any slight

tendency to movement forwards brings the whole stomach into the mouth.

Now the constitution of the organs might itself suffice to give a

naturalist an indication of their functions. For Nature would never

have purposelessly constructed the oesophagus of two coats with

contrary dispositions; they must also have each been meant to have a

different action. The Erasistratean school, however, are capable of

anything rather than of recognizing the effects of Nature. Come,

therefore, let us demonstrate to them by animal dissection as well

that each of the two coats does exercise the activity which I have

stated. Take an animal, then; lay bare the structures surrounding the

gullet, without severing any of the nerves,[350] arteries, or veins

which are there situated; next divide with vertical incisions, from

the lower jaw to the thorax, the outer coat of the oesophagus (that

containing transverse fibres); then give the animal food and you will

see that it still swallows although the peristaltic function has been

abolished. If, again, in another animal, you cut through both

coats[351] with transverse incisions, you will observe that this

animal also swallows although the inner coat is no longer functioning.

From this it is clear that the animal can also swallow by either of

the two coats, although not so well as by both. For the following

also, in addition to other points, may be distinctly observed in the

dissection which I have described--that during deglutition the gullet

becomes slightly filled with air which is swallowed along with the

food, and that, when the outer coat is contracting, this air is easily

forced with the food into the stomach, but that, when there only

exists an inner coat, the air impedes the conveyance of food, by

distending this coat and hindering its action.

But Erasistratus said nothing about this, nor did he point out that

the oblique situation of the gullet clearly confutes the teaching of

those who hold that it is simply by virtue of the impulse from above

that food which is swallowed reaches the stomach. The only correct

thing he said was that many of the long-necked animals bend down to

swallow. Hence, clearly, the observed fact does not show how we

swallow but how we do not swallow. For from this observation it is

clear that swallowing is not due merely to the impulse from above; it

is yet, however, not clear whether it results from the food being

attracted by the stomach, or conducted by the gullet. For our part,

however, having enumerated all the different considerations--those

based on the constitution of the organs, as well as those based on the

other symptoms which, as just mentioned, occur both before and after

the gullet has been exposed--we have thus sufficiently proved that the

inner coat exists for the purpose of attraction and the outer for the

purpose of propulsion.

Now the original task we set before ourselves was to demonstrate that

the _retentive_ faculty exists in every one of the organs, just as in

the previous book we proved the existence of the _attractive_, and,

over and above this, the _alterative_ faculty. Thus, in the natural

course of our argument, we have demonstrated these four faculties

existing in the stomach--the attractive faculty in connection with

swallowing, the retentive with digestion, the expulsive with vomiting

and with the descent of digested food into the small intestine--and

digestion itself we have shown to be a process of _alteration_.

VIII

Epi men oun tês pepseôs, ei kai talla panta parelipe, to

goun hoti diapherei tês ektos hepsêseôs hê en tois zôois

pepsis, epeirathê deiknynai, peri de tês kataposeôs oud'

achri tosoutou. ti gar phêsin?

"Holkê men oun tês koilias oudemia phainetai einai."

Kai mên dyo chitônas hê gastêr echei pantôs heneka tou

gegonotas kai diêkousin houtoi mechri tou stomatos, ho

men endon, hoios esti kata tên gastera, toioutos

diamenôn, ho d' heteros epi to sarkôdesteron en tô

stomachô trepomenos. hoti men oun enantias allêlais tas

epibolas tôn inôn echousin hoi chitônes houtoi, to

phainomenon auto martyrei. tinos d' heneka toioutoi

gegonasin, Erasistratos men oud' epecheirêsen eipein,

hêmeis d' eroumen.

Ho men endon eutheias echei tas inas, holkês gar heneka

ge||gonen; ho d' exôthen enkarsias hyper tou kata kyklon 169

peristellesthai; hekastô gar tôn kinoumenôn organôn en

tois sômasi kata tas tôn inôn theseis hai kinêseis

eisin. ep' autôn de prôton tôn myôn, ei boulei,

basanison ton logon, eph' hôn kai hai ines enargestatai

kai hai kinêseis autôn horôntai dia sphodrotêta. meta de

tous mys epi ta physika tôn organôn ithi kai pant' opsei

kata tas inas kinoumena kai dia touth' hekastô men tôn

enterôn strongylai kath' hekateron tôn chitônôn hai ines

eisi; peristellontai gar monon, helkousi d' ouden. hê

gastêr de tôn inôn tas men eutheias echei charin holkês,

tas d' enkarsias heneka peristolês; hôsper gar en tois

mysin hekastês tôn inôn teinomenês te kai pros tên

archên helkomenês hai kinêseis gignontai, kata ton auton

logon kan tê gastri; tôn men oun enkarsiôn inôn

teinomenôn elatton anankê gignesthai to euros tês

periechomenês hyp' autôn koilotêtos, tôn d' eutheiôn

helkomenôn te kai eis heautas synagomenôn ouk endechetai

mê ou synaireisthai to mêkos. alla mên || enargôs ge 170

phainetai katapinontôn synairoumenon kai tosouton ho

larynx anatrechôn, hoson ho stomachos kataspatai, kai

hotan ge symplêrôtheisês tês en tô katapinein energeias

aphethê tês taseôs ho stomachos, enargôs palin phainetai

katapheromenos ho larynx; ho gar endon chitôn tês

gastros ho tas eutheias inas echôn ho kai ton stomachon

hypaleiphôn kai to stoma tois entos meresin epekteinetai

tou laryngos, hôst' ouk endechetai kataspômenon auton

hypo tês koilias mê ou synepispasthai kai ton larynga.

Hoti d' hai periphereis ines, hais peristelletai ta t'

alla moria kai hê gastêr, ou synairousi to mêkos, alla

systellousi kai stenousi tên eurytêta, kai par' autou

labein estin homologoumenon Erasistratou;

peristellesthai gar phêsi tois sitiois tên gastera kata

ton tês pepseôs hapanta chronon. all' ei peristelletai

men, ouden de tou mêkous aphaireitai tês koilias, ouk

esti tês peristaltikês kinêseôs idion to kataspan katô

ton stomachon. hoper gar autos ho Erasistratos eipe,

touto monon auto symbêsetai to tôn anô systel||lomenôn 171

diastellesthai ta katô. touto d' hoti, kan eis nekrou

ton stomachon hydatos encheês, phainetai gignomenon,

oudeis agnoei. tais gar tôn hylôn dia stenou sômatos

hodoiporiais akolouthon esti to symptôma; thaumaston

gar, ei dierchomenou tinos auton onkou mê diastalêsetai.

oukoun to men tôn anô systellomenôn diastellesthai ta

katô koinon esti kai tois nekrois sômasi, di' hôn

hopôsoun ti diexerchetai, kai tois zôsin, eite

peristelloito tois dierchomenois eith' helkoito.

To de tês tou mêkous synaireseôs idion tôn tas eutheias

inas echontôn organôn, hin' epispasôntai ti. alla mên

edeichthê kataspômenos ho stomachos, ou gar an heilke

ton larynga; dêlon oun, hôs hê gastêr helkei ta sitia

dia tou stomachou.

Kai hê kata ton emeton de tôn emoumenôn achri tou

stomatos phora pantôs men pou kai autê ta men hypo tôn

anapheromenôn diateinomena merê tou stomachou diestôta

kektêtai, tôn prosô d' ho ti an hekastot' epilambanêtai,

tout' archomenon diastelletai, to d' || opisthen 172

kataleipei dêlonoti systellomenon, hôsth' homoian einai

pantê tên diathesin tou stomachou kata ge touto tê tôn

katapinontôn; alla tês holkês mê parousês to mêkos holon

ison en tois toioutois symptômasi diaphylattetai.

Dia touto de kai katapinein rhaon estin ê emein, hoti

katapinetai men amphoin tês gastros tôn chitônôn

energountôn, tou men entos helkontos, tou d' ektos

peristellomenou te kai synepôthountos, emeitai de

thaterou monou tou exôthen energountos, oudenos

helkontos eis to stoma. ou gar dê hôsper hê tês gastros

orexis proêgeito tou katapinein ta sitia, ton auton

tropon kan tois emetois epithymei ti tôn kata to stoma

moriôn tou gignomenou pathêmatos, all' amphô tês gastros

autês eisin enantiai diatheseis, oregomenês men kai

prosiemenês ta chrêsima te kai oikeia, dyscherainousês

de kai apotribomenês ta allotria. dio kai to katapinein

auto tois men hikanôs oregomenois tôn oikeiôn edesmatôn

tê gastri tachista gignetai, saphôs helkousês auta kai

kataspôsês prin ê masêthênai, tois d' êtoi pharmakon ti

kat' anan||kên pinousin ê sition en chôra pharmakou 173

prospheromenois aniara kai mogis hê kataposis autôn

epiteleitai.

Dêlos oun estin ek tôn eirêmenôn ho men endon chitôn tês

gastros ho tas eutheias echôn inas tês ek tou stomatos

eis autên holkês heneka gegonôs kai dia tout' en tais

kataposesi monais energôn, ho d' exôthen ho tas

enkarsias echôn heneka men tou peristellesthai tois

enyparchousi kai proôthein auta toioutos apotelestheis,

energôn d' ouden hêtton en tois emetois ê tais

kataposesin. enargestata de martyrei tô legomenô kai to

kata tas channas te kai tous synodontas gignomenon;

heurisketai gar eniote toutôn hê gastêr en tô stomati

kathaper kai ho Aristotelês en tais peri zôôn egrapsen

historiais kai prostithêsi ge tên aitian hypo laimargias

autois touto symbainein phaskôn.

Echei gar hôde; kata tas sphodroteras orexeis anô

prostrechei pasi tois zôois hê gastêr, hôste tines tou

pathous aisthêsin enargê schontes exerpein hautois phasi

tên koilian, eniôn de masômenôn eti kai mêpô || kalôs en 174

tô stomati ta sitia katergasamenôn exarpazei phanerôs

akontôn. eph' hôn oun zôôn physei laimargôn hyparchontôn

hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos esti dapsilês hê te tês

gastros thesis engys, hôs epi synodontos te kai channês,

ouden thaumaston, hotan hikanôs peinasanta diôkê ti tôn

mikroterôn zôôn, eit' êdê plêsion ê tou syllabein,

anatrechein epeigousês tês epithymias eis to stoma tên

gastera. genesthai d' allôs amêchanon touto mê ouch

hôsper dia cheiros tou stomachou tês gastros epispômenês

eis heautên ta sitia. kathaper gar kai hêmeis hypo

prothymias eniote tê cheiri synepekteinomen holous hêmas

autous heneka tou thatton epidraxasthai tou prokeimenou

sômatos, houtô kai hê gastêr hoion cheiri tô stomachô

synepekteinetai. kai dia tout' eph' hôn zôôn hama ta

tria tauti synepesen, ephesis te sphodra tês trophês ho

te stomachos mikros hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos

dapsilês, epi toutôn oligê rhopê tês epektaseôs eis to

stoma tên koilian holên anapherei.

Êrkei men oun isôs andri physikô par' autês monês tês

kataskeuês tôn orga||nôn tên endeixin tês energeias 175

lambanein. ou gar dê matên g' an hê physis ek dyoin

chitônôn enantiôs allêlois echontôn apeirgasato ton

oisophagon, ei mê kai diaphorôs hekateros autôn energein

emellen. all' epei panta mallon ê ta tês physeôs erga

diagignôskein hoi peri ton Erasistraton eisin hikanoi,

phere kak tês tôn zôôn anatomês epideixômen autois, hôs

hekateros tôn chitônôn energei tên eirêmenên energeian.

ei dê ti labôn zôon, eita gymnôsas autou ta perikeimena

tô stomachô sômata chôris tou diatemein tina tôn neurôn

ê tôn artêriôn ê tôn phlebôn tôn autothi tetagmenôn

ethelois apo tês genyos heôs tou thôrakos eutheiais

tomais dielein ton exô chitôna ton tas enkarsias inas

echonta kapeita tô zôô trophên prosenenkois, opsei

katapinon auto kaitoi tês peristaltikês energeias

apolôluias. ei d' au palin eph' heterou zôou diatemois

amphoterous tous chitônas tomais enkarsiais, theasê kai

touto katapinon ouket' energountos tou entos. hô dêlon,

hoti kai dia thaterou men autôn katapinein hoion t'

estin, || alla cheiron ê di' amphoterôn. pros gar au 176

tois allois kai tout' esti theasasthai saphôs epi tês

eirêmenês anatomês, hôs en tô katapinein hypopimplatai

pneumatos ho stomachos tou synkatapinomenou tois

sitiois, ho peristellomenou men tou exôthen chitônos

ôtheitai rhadiôs eis tên gastera syn tois edesmasi,

monou de tou endon hyparchontos empodôn histatai tê

phora tôn sitiôn diateinon t' auton kai tên energeian

empodizon.

All' oute toutôn ouden Erasistratos eipen outh' hôs hê

skolia thesis tou stomachou diaballei saphôs to dogma

tôn nomizontôn hypo tês anôthen bolês monês podêgoumena

mechri tês gastros ienai ta katapinomena. monon d' hoti

polla tôn makrotrachêlôn zôôn epikekyphota katapinei,

kalôs eipen. hô dêlon, hoti to phainomenon ou to pôs

katapinomen apodeiknysin, alla to pôs ou katapinomen;

hoti gar mê dia monês tês anôthen bolês, ek toutou

dêlon; ou mên eith' helkousês tês koilias eite

paragontos auta tou stomachou, dêlon êdê pô. all' hêmeis

ge || pantas tous logismous eipontes tous t' ek tês 177

kataskeuês tôn organôn hormômenous kai tous apo tôn

allôn symptômatôn tôn te pro tou gymnôthênai ton

stomachon kai gymnôthentos, hôs oligô prosthen elegomen,

hikanôs enedeixametha tou men helkein heneka ton entos

chitôna, tou d' apôthein ton ektos gegonenai.

Prouthemetha men oun apodeixai tên kathektikên dynamin

en hekastô tôn organôn ousan, hôsper en tô prosthen logô

tên helktikên te kai proseti tên alloiôtikên. hypo de

tês akolouthias tou logou tas tettaras apedeixamen

hyparchousas tê gastri, tên helktikên men en tô

katapinein, tên kathektikên d' en tô pettein, tên

apôstikên d' en tois emetois kai tais tôn pepemmenôn

sitiôn eis to lepton enteron hypochôrêsesin, autên de

tên pepsin alloiôsin hyparchein.

IX

Concerning the spleen, also, we shall therefore have no further

doubts[352] as to whether it attracts what is proper to it, rejects

what is foreign, and has a natural power of altering and retaining all

that it attracts; nor shall we be in any doubt as to the liver, veins,

arteries, heart, or any other organ. For these four faculties have

been shown to be necessary for every part which is to be nourished;

this is why we have called these faculties the _handmaids of

nutrition_. For just as human faeces are most pleasing to dogs, so the

residual matters from the liver are, some of them, proper to the

spleen,[353] others to the gall-bladder, and others to the kidneys.

IX

Oukoun et' aporêsomen oude peri tou splênos, ei helkei

men to oikeion, apokrinei de to allotrion, alloioun de

kai katechein, hoson an epispasêtai, pephyken, oude peri

hêpatos ê phlebos ê artêrias ê kardias ê tôn || allôn 178

tinos; anankaiai gar edeichthêsan hai tettares hautai

dynameis hapanti moriô tô mellonti threpsesthai kai dia

tout' autas hypêretidas einai threpseôs ephamen; hôs gar

to tôn anthrôpôn apopatêma tois kysin hêdiston, houtô

kai ta tou hêpatos perittômata to men tô splêni, to de

tê cholêdochô kystei, to de tois nephrois oikeion.

X

I should not have cared to say anything further as to the origin of

these [surplus substances] after Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle,

Diocles, Praxagoras, and Philotimus, nor indeed should I even have

said anything about the _faculties_, if any of our predecessors had

worked out this subject thoroughly.

While, however, the statements which the Ancients made on these points

were correct, they yet omitted to defend their arguments with logical

proofs; of course they never suspected that there could be sophists so

shameless as to try to contradict obvious facts. More recent

physicians, again, have been partly conquered by the sophistries of

these fellows and have given credence to them; whilst others who

attempted to argue with them appear to me to lack to a great extent

the power of the Ancients. For this reason I have attempted to put

together my arguments in the way in which it seems to me the Ancients,

had any of them been still alive, would have done, in opposition to

those who would overturn the finest doctrines of our art.

I am not, however, unaware that I shall achieve either nothing at all

or else very little. For I find that a great many things which have

been conclusively demonstrated by the Ancients are unintelligible to

the bulk of the Moderns owing to their ignorance--nay, that, by reason

of their laziness, they will not even make an attempt to comprehend

them; and even if any of them have understood them, they have not

given them impartial examination.

The fact is that he whose purpose is to know anything better than the

multitude do must far surpass all others both as regards his nature

and his early training. And when he reaches early adolescence he must

become possessed with an ardent love for truth, like one inspired;

neither day nor night may he cease to urge and strain himself in order

to learn thoroughly all that has been said by the most illustrious of

the Ancients. And when he has learnt this, then for a prolonged period

he must test and prove it, observing what part of it is in agreement,

and what in disagreement with obvious fact; thus he will choose this

and turn away from that. To such an one my hope has been that my

treatise would prove of the very greatest assistance.... Still, such

people may be expected to be quite few in number, while, as for the

others, this book will be as superfluous to them as a tale told to an

ass.

X

Kai legein eti peri tês toutôn geneseôs ouk an etheloimi

meth' Hippokratên kai Platôna kai Aristotelên kai

Dioklea kai Praxagoran kai Philotimon; oude gar oude

peri tôn dynameôn eipon an, ei tis tôn emprosthen

akribôs exeirgasato ton hyper autôn logon.

Epei d' hoi men palaioi kalôs hyper autôn apophênamenoi

parelipon agônisasthai tô logô, mêd' hyponoêsantes

esesthai tinas eis tosouton anaischyntous sophistas, hôs

antilegein epicheirêsai tois enargesin, hoi neôteroi de

to men ti nikêthentes hypo tôn sophismatôn epeisthêsan

autois, to de ti kai antilegein epicheirêsantes apodein

moi poly tês tôn palaiôn edoxan dynameôs, || dia touth', 179

hôs an ekeinôn autôn, eiper et' ên tis, agônisasthai moi

dokei pros tous anatrepontas tês technês ta kallista,

kai autos houtôs epeirathên syntheinai tous logous.

Hoti d' ê ouden ê pantapasin anysô ti smikron, ouk

agnoô; pampolla gar heuriskô teleôs men apodedeigmena

tois palaiois, oute de syneta tois pollois tôn nyn di'

amathian all' oud' epicheiroumena gignôskesthai dia

rhathymian, out', ei kai gnôstheiê tini, dikaiôs

exetazomena.

Chrê gar ton mellonta gnôsesthai ti tôn pollôn ameinon

euthys men kai tê physei kai tê prôtê didaskalia poly

tôn allôn dienenkein; epeidan de genêtai meirakion,

alêtheias tina schein erôtikên manian, hôsper

enthousiônta kai mêth' hêmeras mête nyktos dialeipein

speudonta te kai syntetamenon ekmathein, hosa tois

endoxotatois eirêtai tôn palaiôn; epeidan d' ekmathê,

krinein auta kai basanizein chronô pampollô kai skopein,

posa men homologei tois enargôs phainomenois, posa de

diapheretai, || kai houtô ta men haireisthai, ta d' 180

apostrephesthai. tô men dê toioutô pany sphodra

chrêsimous êlpika tous hêmeterous esesthai logous; eien

d' an oligoi pantapasin houtoi; tois d' allois houtô

genêsetai to gramma peritton, hôs ei kai mython onô tis

legoi.

XI

For the sake, then, of those who are aiming at truth, we must complete

this treatise by adding what is still wanting in it. Now, in people

who are very hungry, the stomach obviously attracts or draws down the

food before it has been thoroughly softened in the mouth, whilst in

those who have no appetite or who are being forced to eat, the stomach

is displeased and rejects the food.[354] And in a similar way each of

the other organs possesses both faculties--that of attracting what is

proper to it, and that of rejecting what is foreign. Thus, even if

there be any organ which consists of only one coat (such as the two

bladders,[355] the uterus, and the veins), it yet possesses both kinds

of fibres, the longitudinal and the transverse.

But further, there are fibres of a third kind--the _oblique_--which

are much fewer in number than the two kinds already spoken of. In the

organs consisting of two coats this kind of fibre is found in the one

coat only, mixed with the longitudinal fibres; but in the organs

composed of one coat it is found along with the other two kinds. Now,

these are of the greatest help to the action of the faculty which we

have named _retentive_. For during this period the part needs to be

tightly contracted and stretched over its contents at every point--the

stomach during the whole period of digestion,[356] and the uterus

during that of gestation.

Thus too, the coat of a vein, being single, consists of various kinds

of fibres; whilst the outer coat of an artery consists of circular

fibres, and its inner coat mostly of longitudinal fibres, but with a

few oblique ones also amongst them. Veins thus resemble the uterus or

the bladder as regards the arrangement of their fibres, even though

they are deficient in thickness; similarly arteries resemble the

stomach. Alone of all organs the intestines consist of two coats of

which both have their fibres transverse.[357] Now the proof that it

was _for the best_ that all the organs should be naturally such as

they are (that, for instance, the intestines should be composed of two

coats) belongs to the subject of the _use of parts_[358]; thus we must

not now desire to hear about matters of this kind nor why the

anatomists are at variance regarding the number of coats in each

organ. For these questions have been sufficiently discussed in the

treatise "On Disagreement in Anatomy." And the problem as to why each

organ has such and such a character will be discussed in the treatise

"On the Use of Parts."

XI

Symperanteon oun hêmin ton logon heneka tôn tês

alêtheias ephiemenôn hosa leipei kat' auton eti

prostheisin. hôs gar hê gastêr helkei men enargôs kai

kataspa ta sitia tois sphodra peinôdesi, prin akribôs en

tô stomati leiôthênai, dyscherainei de kai apôtheitai

tois apositois te kai pros anankên esthiousin, houtô kai

tôn allôn organôn hekaston amphoteras echei tas

dynameis, tên te tôn oikeiôn helktikên kai tên tôn

allotriôn apokritikên. kai dia touto, kan ex henos ê

chitônos organon ti synestôs, hôsper kai hai kysteis

amphoterai kai hai mêtrai kai hai phlebes, amphotera tôn

inôn echei ta genê, tôn eutheiôn te kai tôn enkarsiôn.

Kai men ge kai triton ti || genos inôn esti <tôn> loxôn, 181

elatton poly tô plêthei tôn proeirêmenôn dyo genôn.

heurisketai d' en men tois ek dyoin chitônôn

synestêkosin organois en thaterô monô tais eutheiais

isin anamemigmenon, en de tois ex henos hama tois allois

dyo genesi. synepilambanousi d' hautai megiston tê tês

kathektikês onomastheisês dynameôs energeia; deitai gar

en toutô tô chronô pantachothen esphinchthai kai

peritetasthai tois enyparchousi to morion, hê men gastêr

en tô tês pepseôs, hai mêtrai d' en tô tês kyêseôs

chronô panti.

Taut' ara kai ho tês phlebos chitôn heis ôn ek polyeidôn

inôn egeneto kai tôn tês artêrias ho men exôthen ek tôn

strongylôn, ho d' esôthen ek men tôn eutheiôn pleistôn,

oligôn de tinôn syn autais kai tôn loxôn, hôste tas men

phlebas tais mêtrais kai tais kystesin eoikenai kata ge

tên tôn inôn synthesin, ei kai tô pachei leipontai, tas

d' artêrias tê gastri. mona de pantôn organôn ek dyoin

th' hama kai amphoterôn enkarsias echontôn tas inas

egeneto ta entera. to d' hoti beltion ên || tôn t' allôn 182

hekastô toioutô tên physin hyparchein, hoionper kai nyn

esti, tois t' enterois ek dyoin homoiôn chitônôn

synkeisthai, tês peri chreias moriôn pragmateias estin.

oukoun nyn chrê pothein akouein peri tôn toioutôn,

hôsper oude dia ti peri tou plêthous tôn chitônôn

hekastou tôn organôn diapephônêtai tois anatomikois

andrasin. hyper men gar toutôn autarkôs en tois peri tês

anatomikês diaphônias eirêtai; peri de tou dioti

toiouton hekaston egeneto tôn organôn, en tois peri

chreias moriôn eirêsetai.

XII

It is not, however, our business to discuss either of these questions

here, but to consider duly the _natural faculties_, which, to the

number of four, exist in each organ. Returning then, to this point,

let us recall what has already been said, and set a crown to the whole

subject by adding what is still wanting. For when every part of the

animal has been shewn to draw into itself the juice which is proper to

it (this being practically _the first of the natural faculties_), the

next point to realise is that the part does not get rid either of this

attracted nutriment as a whole, or even of any superfluous portion of

it, until either the organ itself, or the major part of its contents

also have their condition reversed. Thus, when the stomach is

sufficiently filled with the food and has absorbed and stored away the

most useful part of it in its own coats, it then rejects the rest like

an alien burden. The same happens to the bladders, when the matter

attracted into them begins to give trouble either because it distends

them through its quantity or irritates them by its quality.

And this also happens in the case of the uterus; for it is either

because it can no longer bear to be stretched that it strives to

relieve itself of its annoyance, or else because it is irritated by

the quality of the fluids poured out into it. Now both of these

conditions sometimes occur with actual violence, and then

_miscarriage_ takes place. But for the most part they happen in a

normal way, this being then called not miscarriage but _delivery_ or

_parturition_. Now abortifacient drugs or certain other conditions

which destroy the embryo or rupture certain of its membranes are

followed by abortion, and similarly also when the uterus is in pain

from being in a bad state of tension; and, as has been well said by

Hippocrates, excessive movement on the part of the embryo itself

brings on labour. Now _pain_ is common to all these conditions, and of

this there are three possible causes--either excessive bulk, or

weight, or irritation; bulk when the uterus can no longer support the

stretching, weight when the contents surpass its strength, and

irritation when the fluids which had previously been pent up in the

membranes, flow out, on the rapture of these, into the uterus itself,

or else when the whole foetus perishes, putrefies, and is resolved

into pernicious ichors, and so irritates and bites the coat of the

uterus.

In all organs, then, both their natural effects and their disorders

and maladies plainly take place on analogous lines,[359] some so

clearly and manifestly as to need no demonstration, and others less

plainly, although not entirely unrecognizable to those who are willing

to pay attention.

Thus, to take the case of the stomach: the irritation is evident here

because this organ possesses most sensibility, and among its other

affections those producing nausea and the so-called heartburn clearly

demonstrate the eliminative faculty which expels foreign matter. So

also in the case of the uterus and the urinary bladder; this latter

also may be plainly observed to receive and accumulate fluid until it

is so stretched by the amount of this as to be incapable of enduring

the pain; or it may be the quality of the urine which irritates it;

for every superfluous substance which lingers in the body must

obviously putrefy, some in a shorter, and some in a longer time, and

thus it becomes pungent, acrid, and burdensome to the organ which

contains it. This does not apply, however, in the case of the bladder

alongside the liver, whence it is clear that it possesses fewer nerves

than do the other organs. Here too, however, at least the

physiologist[360] must discover an analogy. For since it was shown

that the gall-bladder attracts its own special juice, so as to be

often found full, and that it discharges it soon after, this desire to

discharge must be either due to the fact that it is burdened by the

quantity or that the bile has changed in quality to pungent and acrid.

For while food does not change its original quality so fast that it is

already ordure as soon as it falls into the small intestine, on the

other hand the bile even more readily than the urine becomes altered

in quality as soon as ever it leaves the veins, and rapidly undergoes

change and putrefaction. Now, if there be clear evidence in relation

to the uterus, stomach, and intestines, as well as to the urinary

bladder, that there is either some distention, irritation, or burden

inciting each of these organs to elimination, there is no difficulty

in imagining this in the case of the gall-bladder also, as well as in

the other organs,--to which obviously the arteries and veins also

belong.

XII

Nyni d' oudeteron toutôn prokeitai legein, alla tas

physikas dynameis monas apodeiknyein en hekastô tôn

organôn tettaras hyparchousas. epi tout' oun palin

epanelthontes anamnêsômen te tôn emprosthen eirêmenôn

epithômen te kephalên êdê tô logô panti to leipon eti

prosthentes. epeidê gar hekaston tôn en tô zôô moriôn

helkein eis heauto ton oikeion chymon apodedeiktai kai

prôtê schedon hautê tôn physikôn esti dynameôn, ephexês

|| ekeinô gnôsteon, hôs ou proteron apotribetai tên 183

helchtheisan <trophên> êtoi sympasan ê kai ti perittôma autês,

prin an eis enantian metapesê diathesin ê auto to

organon ê kai tôn periechomenôn en autô ta pleista. hê

men oun gastêr, epeidan men hikanôs emplêsthê tôn sitiôn

kai to chrêstotaton autôn eis tous heautês chitônas

enapothêtai bdallousa, tênikaut' êdê to loipon

apotribetai kathaper achthos allotrion; hai kysteis d',

epeidan hekaston tôn helchthentôn ê tô plêthei diateinon

ê tê poiotêti daknon aniaron genêtai.

Tô d' autô tropô kai hai mêtrai; êtoi gar, epeidan

mêketi pherôsi diateinomenai, to lypoun apothesthai

speudousin ê tê poiotêti daknomenai tôn ekchythentôn eis

autas hygrôn. hekateron de tôn eirêmenôn gignetai men

kai biaiôs estin hote kai amblôskousi tênikauta,

gignetai d' hôs ta polla kai prosêkontôs, hoper ouk

amblôskein all' apokyïskein te kai tiktein onomazetai.

tois men oun amblôthridiois pharmakois ê tisin allois

pathêmasi diaphthei||rousi to embryon ê tinas tôn 184

hymenôn autou rhêgnyousin hai amblôseis hepontai, houtô

de kapeidan aniathôsi poth' hai mêtrai kakôs echousai tê

diatasei, tais de tôn embryôn autôn kinêsesi tais

sphodrotatais hoi tokoi, kathaper kai touth' Hippokratei

kalôs eirêtai. koinon d' hapasôn tôn diatheseôn hê ania

kai tautês aition tritton ê onkos perittos ê ti baros ê

dêxis; onkos men, epeidan mêketi pherôsi diateinomenai,

baros d', epeidan hyper tên rhômên autôn ê to

periechomenon, dêxis d', epeidan êtoi ta proteron en

tois hymesin hygra stegomena rhagentôn autôn eis autas

ekchythê tas mêtras ê kai sympan apophtharen to kyêma

sêpomenon te kai dialyomenon eis mochthêrous ichôras

houtôs erethizê te kai daknê ton chitôna tôn hysterôn.

Analogon oun en hapasi tois organois hekasta tôn t'

ergôn autôn tôn physikôn kai mentoi tôn pathêmatôn te

kai nosêmatôn phainetai gignomena, ta men enargôs kai

saphôs houtôs, hôs apodeixeôs deisthai mêden, ta d'

hêtton men enargôs, ou mên agnôsta ge pantapasi tois || 185

ethelousi prosechein ton noun.

Epi men oun tês gastros hai te dêxeis enargeis, dioti

pleistês aisthêseôs metechei, ta t' alla pathêmata ta te

nautian empoiounta kai hoi kaloumenoi kardiôgmoi saphôs

endeiknyntai tên apokritikên te kai apôstikên tôn

allotriôn dynamin, houtô de kapi tôn hysterôn te kai tês

kysteôs tês to ouron hypodechomenês; enargôs gar oun kai

hautê phainetai mechri tosoutou to hygron hypodechomenê

te kai athroizousa, achris an êtoi pros tou plêthous

autou diateinomenê mêketi pherê tên anian ê pros tês

poiotêtos daknomenê; chronizon gar hekaston tôn

perittômatôn en tô sômati sêpetai dêlonoti, to men

elattoni, to de pleioni chronô, kai houtô daknôdes te

kai drimy kai aniaron tois periechousi gignetai. ou mên

epi ge tês epi tô hêpati kysteôs homoiôs echei; hô

dêlon, hoti neurôn hêkista metechei. chrê de kantautha

ton ge physikon andra to analogon exeuriskein. ei gar

helkein te ton oikeion apedeichthê chymon, hôs

phainesthai pollakis mestên, apokri||nein te ton auton 186

touton ouk eis makran, anankaion estin autên ê dia to

plêthos barynomenên ê tês poiotêtos metaballousês epi to

daknôdes te kai drimy tês apokriseôs ephiesthai. ou gar

dê ta men sitia tên archaian hypallattei poiotêta

tacheôs houtôs, hôst', epeidan empesê tois leptois

enterois, euthys einai kopron, hê cholê d' ou poly

mallon ê to ouron, epeidan hapax ekpesê tôn phlebôn,

exallattei tên poiotêta, tachista metaballonta kai

sêpomena. kai mên eiper epi te tôn kata tas hysteras kai

tên koilian kai ta entera kai proseti tên to ouron

hypodechomenên kystin enargôs phainetai diatasis tis ê

dêxis ê achthos epegeiron hekaston tôn organôn eis

apokrisin, ouden chalepon kapi tês cholêdochou kysteôs

tauto tout' ennoein epi te tôn allôn hapantôn organôn,

ex hôn dêlonoti kai hai artêriai kai hai phlebes eisin.

XIII

Nor is there any further difficulty in ascertaining that it is through

the same channel that both attraction and discharge take place at

different times. For obviously the inlet to the stomach does not

merely conduct food and drink into this organ, but in the condition of

nausea it performs the opposite service. Further, the neck of the

bladder which is beside the liver, albeit single, both fills and

empties the bladder. Similarly the canal of the uterus affords an

entrance to the semen and an exit to the foetus.

But in this latter case, again, whilst the eliminative faculty is

evident, the attractive faculty is not so obvious to most people. It

is, however, the cervix which Hippocrates blames for inertia of the

uterus when he says:--"Its orifice has no power of attracting

semen."[361]

Erasistratus, however, and Asclepiades reached such heights of wisdom

that they deprived not merely the stomach and the womb of this faculty

but also the bladder by the liver, and the kidneys as well. I have,

however, pointed out in the first book that it is impossible to assign

any other cause for the secretion of urine or bile.[362]

Now, when we find that the uterus, the stomach and the bladder by the

liver carry out attraction and expulsion through one and the same

duct, we need no longer feel surprised that Nature should also

frequently discharge waste-substances into the stomach through the

veins. Still less need we be astonished if a certain amount of the

food should, during long fasts, be drawn back from the liver into the

stomach through the same veins[363] by which it was yielded up to the

liver during absorption of nutriment.[364] To disbelieve such things

would of course be like refusing to believe that purgative drugs draw

their appropriate humours from all over the body by the same stomata

through which absorption previously takes place, and to look for

separate stomata for absorption and purgation respectively. As a

matter of fact one and the same stoma subserves two distinct

faculties, and these exercise their pull at different times in

opposite directions--first it subserves the pull of the liver and,

during catharsis, that of the drug. What is there surprising, then, in

the fact that the veins situated between the liver and the region of

the stomach[365] fulfil a double service or purpose? Thus, when there

is abundance of nutriment contained in the food-canal, it is carried

up to the liver by the veins mentioned; and when the canal is empty

and in need of nutriment, this is again attracted from the liver by

the same veins.