For everything appears to attract from and to go shares with

everything else, and, as the most divine Hippocrates has said, there

would seem to be a consensus in the movements of fluids and

vapours.[366] Thus the stronger draws and the weaker is evacuated.

Now, one part is weaker or stronger than another either absolutely, by

nature, and in all cases, or else it becomes so in such and such a

particular instance. Thus, by nature and in all men alike, the heart

is stronger than the liver at attracting what is serviceable to it and

rejecting what is not so; similarly the liver is stronger than the

intestines and stomach, and the arteries than the veins. In each of us

personally, however, the liver has stronger drawing power at one time,

and the stomach at another. For when there is much nutriment contained

in the alimentary canal and the appetite and craving of the liver is

violent, then the viscus[367] exerts far the strongest traction.

Again, when the liver is full and distended and the stomach empty and

in need, then the force of the traction shifts to the latter.

Suppose we had some food in our hands and were snatching it from one

another; if we were equally in want, the stronger would be likely to

prevail, but if he had satisfied his appetite, and was holding what

was over carelessly, or was anxious to share it with somebody, and if

the weaker was excessively desirous of it, there would be nothing to

prevent the latter from getting it all. In a similar manner the

stomach easily attracts nutriment from the liver when it [the stomach]

has a sufficiently strong craving for it, and the appetite of the

viscus is satisfied. And sometimes the surplusage of nutriment in the

liver is a reason why the animal is not hungry; for when the stomach

has better and more available food it requires nothing from extraneous

sources, but if ever it is in need and is at a loss how to supply the

need, it becomes filled with waste-matters; these are certain biliary,

phlegmatic [mucous] and serous fluids, and are the only substances

that the liver yields in response to the traction of the stomach, on

the occasions when the latter too is in want of nutriment.

Now, just as the parts draw food from each other, so also they

sometimes deposit their excess substances in each other, and just as

the stronger prevailed when the two were exercising traction, so it is

also when they are depositing; this is the cause of the so-called

fluxions,[368] for every part has a definite inborn tension, by virtue

of which it expels its superfluities, and, therefore, when one of

these parts,--owing, of course, to some special condition--becomes

weaker, there will necessarily be a confluence into it of the

superfluities from all the other parts. The strongest part deposits

its surplus matter in all the parts near it; these again in other

parts which are weaker; these next into yet others; and this goes on

for a long time, until the superfluity, being driven from one part

into another, comes to rest in one of the weakest of all; it cannot

flow from this into another part, because none of the stronger ones

will receive it, while the affected part is unable to drive it away.

When, however, we come to deal again with the origin and cure of

disease, it will be possible to find there also abundant proofs of all

that we have correctly indicated in this book. For the present,

however, let us resume again the task that lay before us, _i.e._ to

show that there is nothing surprising in nutriment coming from the

liver to the intestines and stomach by way of the very veins through

which it had previously been yielded up from these organs into the

liver. And in many people who have suddenly and completely given up

active exercise, or who have had a limb cut off, there occurs at

certain periods an evacuation of blood by way of the intestines--as

Hippocrates has also pointed out somewhere. This causes no further

trouble but sharply purges the whole body and evacuates the plethoras;

the passage of the superfluities is effected, of course, through the

same veins by which absorption took place.

Frequently also in disease Nature purges the animal through these same

veins--although in this case the discharge is not sanguineous, but

corresponds to the humour which is at fault. Thus in _cholera_ the

entire body is evacuated by way of the veins leading to the intestines

and stomach.

To imagine that matter of different kinds is carried in one direction

only would characterise a man who was entirely ignorant of all the

natural faculties, and particularly of the eliminative faculty, which

is the opposite of the attractive. For opposite movements of matter,

active and passive, must necessarily follow opposite faculties; that

is to say, every part, after it has attracted its special nutrient

juice and has retained and taken the benefit of it hastens to get rid

of all the surplusage as quickly and effectively as possible, and this

it does in accordance with the mechanical tendency of this surplus

matter.[369]

Hence the stomach clears away by vomiting those superfluities which

come to the surface of its contents,[370] whilst the sediment it

clears away by diarrhoea. And when the animal becomes sick, this means

that the stomach is striving to be evacuated by vomiting. And the

expulsive faculty has in it so violent and forcible an element that in

cases of _ileus_ [volvulus], when the lower exit is completely closed,

vomiting of faeces occurs; yet such surplus matter could not be

emitted from the mouth without having first traversed the whole of the

small intestine, the jejunum, the pylorus, the stomach, and the

oesophagus. What is there to wonder at, then, if something should also

be transferred from the extreme skin-surface and so reach the

intestines and stomach? This also was pointed out to us by

Hippocrates, who maintained that not merely pneuma or excess-matter,

but actual nutriment is brought down from the outer surface to the

original place from which it was taken up. For the slightest

mechanical movements[371] determine this expulsive faculty, which

apparently acts through the transverse fibres, and which is very

rapidly transmitted from the source of motion to the opposite

extremities. It is, therefore, neither unlikely nor impossible that,

when the part adjoining the skin becomes suddenly oppressed by an

unwonted cold, it should at once be weakened and should find that the

liquid previously deposited beside it without discomfort had now

become more of a burden than a source of nutrition, and should

therefore strive to put it away. Finally, seeing that the passage

outwards was shut off by the condensation [of tissue], it would turn

to the remaining exit and would thus forcibly expel all the

waste-matter at once into the adjacent part; this would do the same to

the part following it; and the process would not cease until the

transference finally terminated at the inner ends of the veins.[372]

Now, movements like these come to an end fairly soon, but those

resulting from internal irritants (_e.g._, in the administration of

purgative drugs or in cholera) become much stronger and more lasting;

they persist as long as the condition of things[373] about the mouths

of the veins continues, that is, so long as these continue to attract

what is adjacent. For this condition[374] causes evacuation of the

contiguous part, and that again of the part next to it, and this never

stops until the extreme surface is reached; thus, as each part keeps

passing on matter to its neighbour, the original affection[375] very

quickly arrives at the extreme termination. Now this is also the case

in _ileus_; the inflamed intestine is unable to support either the

weight or the acridity of the waste substances and so does its best to

excrete them, in fact to drive them as far away as possible. And,

being prevented from effecting an expulsion downwards when the

severest part of the inflammation is there, it expels the matter into

the adjoining part of the intestines situated above. Thus the tendency

of the eliminative faculty is step by step upwards, until the

superfluities reach the mouth.

Now this will be also spoken of at greater length in my treatise on

disease. For the present, however, I think I have shewn clearly that

there is a universal conveyance or transference from one thing into

another, and that, as Hippocrates used to say, there exists in

everything a consensus in the movement of air and fluids. And I do not

think that anyone, however slow his intellect, will now be at a loss

to understand any of these points,--how, for instance, the stomach or

intestines get nourished, or in what manner anything makes its way

inwards from the outer surface of the body. Seeing that all parts have

the faculty of attracting what is suitable or well-disposed and of

eliminating what is troublesome or irritating, it is not surprising

that opposite movements should occur in them consecutively--as may be

clearly seen in the case of the heart, in the various arteries, in the

thorax, and lungs. In all these[376] the active movements of the

organs and therewith the passive movements of [their contained]

matters may be seen taking place almost every second in opposite

directions. Now, you are not astonished when the trachea-artery[377]

alternately draws air into the lungs and gives it out, and when the

nostrils and the whole mouth act similarly; nor do you think it

strange or paradoxical that the air is dismissed through the very

channel by which it was admitted just before. Do you, then, feel a

difficulty in the case of the veins which pass down from the liver

into the stomach and intestines, and do you think it strange that

nutriment should at once be yielded up to the liver and drawn back

from it into the stomach by the same veins? You must define what you

mean by this expression "at once." If you mean "at the same time" this

is not what we ourselves say; for just as we take in a breath at one

moment and give it out again at another, so at one time the liver

draws nutriment from the stomach, and at another the stomach from the

liver. But if your expression "at once" means that in one and the same

animal a single organ subserves the transport of matter in opposite

directions, and if it is this which disturbs you, consider inspiration

and expiration. For of course these also take place through the same

organs, albeit they differ in their manner of movement, and in the way

in which the matter is conveyed through them.

Now the lungs, the thorax, the arteries rough and smooth, the heart,

the mouth, and the nostrils reverse their movements at very short

intervals and change the direction of the matters they contain. On the

other hand, the veins which pass down from the liver to the intestines

and stomach reverse the direction of their movements not at such short

intervals, but sometimes once in many days.

The whole matter, in fact, is as follows:--Each of the organs draws

into itself the nutriment alongside it, and devours all the useful

fluid in it, until it is thoroughly satisfied; this nutriment, as I

have already shown, it stores up in itself, afterwards making it

adhere and then assimilating it--that is, it becomes nourished by it.

For it has been demonstrated with sufficient clearness already[378]

that there is something which necessarily precedes actual nutrition,

namely _adhesion_, and that before this again comes _presentation_.

Thus as in the case of the _animals_ themselves the end of eating is

that the stomach should be filled, similarly in the case of each of

the _parts_, the end of presentation is the filling of this part with

its appropriate liquid. Since, therefore, every part has, like the

stomach, a _craving_[379] to be nourished, it too envelops its

nutriment and clasps it all round as the stomach does. And this

[action of the stomach], as has been already said, is necessarily

followed by the digestion of the food, although it is not to make it

suitable for the other parts that the stomach contracts upon it; if it

did so, it would no longer be a physiological organ,[380] but an

animal possessing reason and intelligence, with the power of choosing

the better [of two alternatives].

But while the stomach contracts for the reason that the whole body

possesses a power of attracting and of utilising appropriate

qualities, as has already been explained, it also happens that, in

this process, the food undergoes alteration; further, when filled and

saturated with the fluid pabulum from the food, it thereafter looks on

the food as a burden; thus it at once gets rid of the excess--that is

to say, drives it downwards--itself turning to another task, namely

that of causing adhesion. And during this time, while the nutriment is

passing along the whole length of the _intestine_, it is caught up by

the vessels which pass into the intestine; as we shall shortly

demonstrate,[381] most of it is seized by the veins, but a little also

by the arteries; at this stage also it becomes _presented_ to the

coats of the intestines.

Now imagine the whole economy of nutrition divided into three periods.

Suppose that in the first period the nutriment remains in the stomach

and is digested and presented to the stomach until satiety is reached,

also that some of it is taken up from the stomach to the liver.[382]

During the second period it passes along the intestines and becomes

presented both to them and to the liver--again until the stage of

satiety--while a small part of it is carried all over the body.[382]

During this period, also imagine that what was presented to the

stomach in the first period becomes now adherent to it.

During the third period the stomach has reached the stage of receiving

nourishment; it now entirely assimilates everything that had become

adherent to it: at the same time in the intestines and liver there

takes place adhesion of what had been before presented, while

dispersal [anadosis] is taking place to all parts of the body,[383] as

also presentation. Now, if the animal takes food immediately after

these [three stages] then, during the time that the stomach is again

digesting and getting the benefit of this by presenting all the useful

part of it to its own coats, the intestines will be engaged in final

assimilation of the juices which have adhered to them, and so also

will the liver: while in the various parts of the body there will be

taking place adhesion of the portions of nutriment presented. And if

the stomach is forced to remain without food during this time, it will

draw its nutriment from the veins in the mesentery and liver; for it

will not do so from the actual body of the liver (by _body of the

liver_ I mean first and foremost its flesh proper, and after this all

the vessels contained in it), for it is irrational to suppose that one

part would draw away from another part the juice already contained in

it, especially when adhesion and final assimilation of that juice were

already taking place; the juice, however, that is in the cavity of the

veins will be abstracted by the part which is stronger and more in

need.

It is in this way, therefore, that the stomach, when it is in need of

nourishment and the animal has nothing to eat, seizes it from the

veins in the liver. Also in the case of the spleen we have shown in a

former passage[384] how it draws all material from the liver that

tends to be thick, and by working it up converts it into more useful

matter. There is nothing surprising, therefore, if, in the present

instance also, some of this should be drawn from the spleen into such

organs as communicate with it by veins, _e.g._ the omentum, mesentery,

small intestine, colon, and the stomach itself. Nor is it surprising

that the spleen should disgorge its surplus matters into the stomach

at one time, while at another time it should draw some of its

appropriate nutriment from the stomach.

For, as has already been said, speaking generally, everything has the

power at different times of attracting from and of adding to

everything else. What happens is just as if you might imagine a number

of animals helping themselves at will to a plentiful common stock of

food; some will naturally be eating when others have stopped, some

will be on the point of stopping when others are beginning, some

eating together, and others in succession. Yes, by Zeus! and one will

often be plundering another, if he be in need while the other has an

abundant supply ready to hand. Thus it is in no way surprising that

matter should make its way back from the outer surface of the body to

the interior, or should be carried from the liver and spleen into the

stomach by the same vessels by which it was carried in the reverse

direction.

In the case of the arteries[385] this is clear enough, as also in the

case of heart, thorax, and lungs; for, since all of these dilate and

contract alternately, it must needs be that matter is subsequently

discharged back into the parts from which it was previously drawn. Now

Nature foresaw this necessity,[386] and provided the cardiac openings

of the vessels with membranous attachments,[387] to prevent their

contents from being carried backwards. How and in what manner this

takes place will be stated in my work "On the Use of Parts," where

among other things I show that it is impossible for the openings of

the vessels to be closed so accurately that nothing at all can run

back. Thus it is inevitable that the reflux into the _venous

artery_[388] (as will also be made clear in the work mentioned) should

be much greater than through the other openings. But what it is

important for our present purpose to recognise is that every thing

possessing a large and appreciable cavity must, when it dilates,

abstract matter from all its neighbours, and, when it contracts, must

squeeze matter back into them. This should all be clear from what has

already been said in this treatise and from what Erasistratus and I

myself have demonstrated elsewhere respecting the tendency of a vacuum

to become refilled.[389]

XIII

Ou mên oude to dia tou autou porou tên th' holkên

gignesthai kai tên apokrisin en diapherousi || chronois 187

ouden eti chalepon exeurein, ei ge kai tês gastros ho

stomachos ou monon edesmata kai pomata paragôn eis

autên, alla kan tais nautiais tên enantian hypêresian

hypêretôn enargôs phainetai, kai tês epi tô hêpati

kysteôs ho auchên heis ôn hama men plêroi di' hautou tên

kystin, hama d' ekkenoi, kai tôn mêtrôn ho stomachos

hôsautôs hodos estin eisô men tou spermatos, exô de tou

kyêmatos.

Alla kantautha palin hê men ekkritikê dynamis enargês,

ou mên homoiôs g' autê saphês tois pollois hê helktikê;

all' Hippokratês men arrhôstou mêtras aitiômenos auchena

phêsi; "Ou gar dynatai auteês ho stomachos eirysai tên

gonên."

Erasistratos de kai Asklêpiadês eis tosouton hêkousi

sophias, hôst' ou monon tên koilian kai tas mêtras

aposterousi tês toiautês dynameôs alla kai tên epi tô

hêpati kystin hama tois nephrois. kaitoi g' hoti mêd'

eipein dynaton heteron aition ê ourôn ê cholês

diakriseôs, en tô prôtô dedeiktai logô.

Kai mêtran oun kai gastera kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin

di' henos kai tautou sto||machou tên th' holkên kai tên 188

apokrisin heuriskontes poioumenas mêketi thaumazômen, ei

kai dia tôn phlebôn hê physis ekkrinei pollakis eis tên

gastera perittômata. toutou d' eti mallon ou chrê

thaumazein, ei, di' hôn eis hêpar anedothê phlebôn ek

gastros, authis eis autên ex hêpatos en tais makroterais

asitiais helkesthai tis dynatai trophê. to gar tois

toioutois apistein homoion esti dêpou tô mêketi

pisteuein mêd' hoti ta kathaironta pharmaka dia tôn

autôn stomatôn ex holou tou sômatos eis tên gastera tous

oikeious epispatai chymous, di' hôn emprosthen hê

anadosis egeneto, all' hetera men zêtein anadoseôs,

hetera de katharseôs stomata. kai mên eiper hen kai

tauto stoma dittais hypêretei dynamesin, en diaphorois

chronois eis tanantia tên holkên poioumenais, emprosthen

men tê kata to hêpar, en de tô tês katharseôs kairô tê

tou pharmakou, ti thaumaston esti dittên hypêresian te

kai chreian einai tais phlepsi tais en tô mesô

tetagmenais hêpatos te kai tôn kata tên koilian, hôsth',

hopote men en toutois aphthonos eiê periechomenê trophê,

dia tôn eirêmenôn eis || hêpar anapheresthai phlebôn, 189

hopote d' eiê kena kai deomena trephesthai, dia tôn

autôn authis ex hêpatos helkesthai?

Pan gar ek pantos helkein phainetai kai panti

metadidonai kai mia tis einai syrrhoia kai sympnoia

pantôn, kathaper kai touth' ho theiotatos Hippokratês

eipen. helkei men oun to ischyroteron, ekkenoutai de to

asthenesteron.

Ischyroteron de kai asthenesteron heteron heterou morion

ê haplôs kai physei kai koinê pasin estin ê idiôs tôde

tini gignetai. physei men kai koinê pasin anthrôpois th'

hama kai zôois hê men kardia tou hêpatos, to d' hêpar

tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros, hai d' artêriai tôn

phlebôn helkysai te to chrêsimon heautais apokrinai te

to mê toiouton ischyroterai. kath' hekaston d' hêmôn

idiôs en men tôde tô kairô to hêpar ischyroteron

helkein, hê gastêr d' en tôde. pollês men gar en tê

koilia periechomenês trophês kai sphodrôs oregomenou te

kai chrêzontos tou hêpatos, pantôs ischyroteron helkei

to splanchnon; empalin de tou men hêpatos empeplêsmenou

te kai dia||tetamenou, tês gastros d' oregomenês kai 190

kenês hyparchousês hê tês holkês ischys eis ekeinên

methistatai.

Hôs gar, ei kan tais chersi tina sitia katechontes

allêlôn harpazoimen, ei men homoiôs eiêmen deomenoi,

perigignesthai ton ischyroteron eikos, ei d' houtos men

empeplêsmenos eiê kai dia tout' amelôs katechôn ta

peritta ê kai tini metadounai pothôn, ho d'

asthenesteros oregoito deinôs, ouden an eiê kôlyma tou

mê panta labein auton, houtô kai hê gastêr ek tou

hêpatos epispatai rhadiôs, hotan autê men hikanôs

oregêtai trophês, empeplêsmenon d' ê to splanchnon. kai

tou ge mê peinên eniote to zôon hê periousia tês en

hêpati trophês aitia; kreittona gar echousa kai

hetoimoteran hê gastêr trophên ouden deitai tês exôthen;

ei de ge pote deoito men, aporoiê de, plêroutai

perittômatôn. ichôres de tines eisi tauta cholôdeis te

kai phlegmatôdeis kai orrhôdeis, hous monous helkousê

methiêsin autê to hêpar, hotan pote kai autê deêtai

trophês.

Hôsper oun ex allêlôn helkei ta moria || trophên, houtô 191

kai apotithetai pot' eis allêla to peritton kai hôsper

helkontôn epleonektei to ischyroteron, houtô kai

apotithemenôn kai tôn ge kaloumenôn rheumatôn hêde hê

prophasis. hekaston gar tôn moriôn echei tina tonon

symphyton, hô diôtheitai to peritton. hotan oun hen ex

autôn arrhôstoteron genêtai kata dê tina diathesin, ex

hapantôn eis ekeino syrrhein anankê ta perittômata. to

men gar ischyrotaton enapotithetai tois plêsion hapasin,

ekeinôn d' au palin hekaston eis heter' atta tôn

asthenesterôn, eit' authis ekeinôn hekaston eis alla kai

tout' epi pleiston gignetai, mechri per an ex hapantôn

elaunomenon to perittôma kath' hen ti meinê tôn

asthenestatôn; enteuthen gar ouket' eis allo dynatai

metarrhein, hôs an mête dechomenou tinos auto tôn

ischyroterôn mêt' apôsasthai dynamenou tou peponthotos.

Alla peri men tôn pathôn tês geneseôs kai tês iaseôs

authis hêmôn epideiknyntôn hikana kax ekeinôn estai

labein martyria tôn en tôde tô logô panti || dedeigmenôn 192

orthôs. ho d' en tô paronti deixai proukeito, palin

analabômen, hôs ouden thaumaston ex hêpatos hêkein tina

trophên enterois te kai gastri dia tôn autôn phlebôn,

di' hôn emprosthen ex ekeinôn eis hêpar anedidoto. kai

pollois athroôs te kai teleôs apostasin ischyrôn

gymnasiôn ê ti kôlon apokopeisin haimatos dia tôn

enterôn gignetai kenôsis ek tinôn periodôn, hôs pou kai

Hippokratês elegen, ouden men allo lypousa, kathairousa

d' oxeôs to pan sôma kai tas plêsmonas ekkenousa, dia

tôn autôn dêpou phlebôn tês phoras tôn perittôn

epiteloumenês, di' hôn emprosthen hê anadosis egigneto.

Pollakis d' en nosois hê physis dia men tôn autôn dêpou

phlebôn to pan ekkathairei zôon, ou mên haimatôdês g' hê

kenôsis autois, alla kata ton lypounta gignetai chymon.

houtô de kan tais cholerais ekkenoutai to pan sôma dia

tôn eis entera te kai gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn.

To d' oiesthai mian einai tais hylais phoran teleôs

agnoountos esti tas physikas || dynameis tas t' allas 193

kai tên ekkritikên enantian ousan tê helktiktê; tais gar

enantiais dynamesin enantias kinêseis te kai phoras tôn

hylôn anankaion akolouthein. hekaston gar tôn moriôn,

hotan helkysê ton oikeion chymon, epeita kataschê kai

apolausê, to peritton hapan apothesthai speudei, kathoti

malista dynatai tachista th' hama kai kallista, kata tên

tou perittou rhopên.

Hothen hê gastêr ta men epipolazonta tôn perittômatôn

emetois ekkathairei, ta d' hyphistamena diarrhoiais. kai

to ge nautiôdes gignesthai to zôon tout' estin hormêsai

tên gastera kenôthênai di' emetou. houtô de dê ti biaion

kai sphodron hê ekkritikê dynamis echei, hôst' en tois

eileois, hotan apokleisthê teleôs hê katô diexodos,

emeitai kopros. kaitoi prin dielthein to te lepton

enteron hapan kai tên nêstin kai ton pylôron kai tên

gastera kai ton oisophagon ouch hoion te dia tou

stomatos ekpesein oudeni toioutô perittômati. ti dê

thaumaston, ei kak tês eschatês epiphaneias tês kata to

derma mechri tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros aphiknoito

ti || metalambanomenon, hôs kai touth' Hippokratês hêmas 194

edidaxen, ou pneuma monon ê perittôma phaskôn alla kai

tên trophên autên ek tês eschatês epiphaneias authis epi

tên archên, hothen anênechthê, katapheresthai.

elachistai gar rhopai kinêseôn tên ekkritikên tautên

oiakizousi dynamin, hôs an dia tôn enkarsiôn men inôn

gignomenên, ôkytata de diadidomenên apo tês kinêsasês

archês epi ta katantikry perata. oukoun apeikos oud'

adynaton aêthei pote psyxei to pros tô dermati morion

exaiphnês pilêthen hama men arrhôstoteron auto

genomenon, hama d' hoion achthos ti mallon ê paraskeuên

threpseôs echon tên emprosthen alypôs autô paresparmenên

hygrotêta kai dia tout' apôtheisthai speudon, hama de

tês exô phoras apokekleismenês tê pyknôsei, pros tên

loipên epistraphênai kai houtô biasamenon eis to

parakeimenon autô morion athroôs apôsasthai to peritton,

ekeino d' au palin eis to met' auto, || kai touto mê 195

pausasthai gignomenon, achris an hê metalêpsis epi ta

entos perata tôn phlebôn teleutêsê.

Hai men dê toiautai kinêseis thatton apopauontai, hai d'

apo tôn endothen dierethizontôn, hôs en te tois

kathairousi pharmakois kai tais cholerais ischyroterai

te poly kai monimôterai gignontai kai diamenousin, est'

an kai hê peri tois stomasi tôn angeiôn diathesis, hê to

plêsion helkousa, paramenê. hautê men gar to syneches

ekkenoi morion, ekeino d' au to met' auto kai tout' ou

pauetai mechri tês eschatês epiphaneias, hôste

diadidontôn tôn ephexês aei moriôn heterôn heterois to

prôton pathos ôkytata diikneisthai mechri tôn eschatôn.

houtôs oun echei kapi tôn eileôn. auto men gar to

phlegmainon enteron oute tou barous oute tês drimytêtos

anechetai tôn perittômatôn kai dia tout' ekkrinein auta

speudei kai apôtheisthai porrhôtatô. kôlyomenon de katô

poieisthai tên diôsin, hotan entauthoi pote to

sphodrotaton ê tês phlegmonês, eis ta plêsiazonta tôn

hyperkeimenôn enterôn apôtheitai. kai houtôs êdê kata || 196

to syneches tên rhopên tês ekkritikês dynameôs anô

poiêsamenês achri tou stomatos epanerchetai ta

perittômata.

Tauta men oun dê kan tois tôn nosêmatôn logismois epi

pleon eirêsetai. to d' ek pantos eis pan pheresthai ti

kai metalambanesthai kai mian hapantôn einai sympnoian

te kai syrrhoian, hôs Hippokratês elegen, êdê moi dokô

dedeichthai saphôs kai mêket' an tina, mêd' ei bradys

autô nous eneiê, peri tôn toioutôn aporêsai mêdenos,

hoion hopôs hê gastêr ê ta entera trephetai kai tina

tropon ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti diikneitai.

pantôn gar tôn moriôn helkein men to prosêkon te kai

philion, apokrinein de to barynon ê daknon echontôn

dynamin ouden thaumaston enantias synechôs gignesthai

kinêseis en autois, hôsper epi te tês kardias horatai

saphôs kai tôn artêriôn hapasôn kai tou thôrakos kai tou

pneumonos. epi men ge toutôn hapantôn monon ou kath'

hekastên kairou rhopên tas enantias kinêseis th' hama

tôn organôn kai phoras tôn hylôn || enargôs estin idein 197

gignomenas. eit' epi men tês tracheias artêrias ouk

aporeis enallax pote men eisô paragousês eis ton

pneumona to pneuma, pote d' exô, kai tôn kata tas rhinas

porôn kai holou tou stomatos hôsautôs oud' einai soi

dokei thaumaston oude paradoxon, ei, di' hou mikrô

prosthen eisô parekomizeto to pneuma, dia toutou nyn

ekpempetai, peri de tôn ex hêpatos eis entera te kai

gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn aporeis kai soi thaumaston

einai phainetai, dia tôn autôn anadidosthai th' hama tên

trophên eis hêpar helkesthai t' ex ekeinou palin eis

gastera? diorisai dê to hama touto poterôs legeis. ei

men gar kata ton auton chronon, oud' hêmeis touto ge

phamen. hôsper gar eispneomen en heterô chronô kai

authis palin en heterô antekpneomen, houtô kai trophên

en heterô men chronô to hêpar ek tês gastros, en heterô

d' hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos epispatai. ei d' hoti kath'

hen kai tauto zôon hen organon enantiais phorais hylôn

hypêretei, touto soi bouletai dêloun to hama kai touto

se tarattei, tên t' || eispnoên ide kai tên ekpnoên. 198

pantôs pou kai hautai dia men tôn autôn organôn

gignontai, tropô de kinêseôs te kai phoras tôn hylôn

diapherousin.

Ho pneumôn men oun kai ho thôrax kai artêriai hai

tracheiai kai hai leiai kai kardia kai stoma kai rhines

en elachistais chronou rhopais eis enantias kinêseis

auta te metaballei kai tas hylas methistêsin. hai d' ex

hêpatos eis entera kai gastera kathêkousai phlebes ouk

en houtô brachesi chronou moriois all' en pollais

hêmerais hapax eniote tên enantian kinountai kinêsin.

Echei gar hôde to sympan. hekaston tôn organôn eis

heauto tên plêsiazousan epispatai trophên ekboskomenon

autês hapasan tên chrêstên notida, mechris an hikanôs

koresthê, kai tautên, hôs kai prosthen edeiknymen,

enapotithetai heautô kai meta tauta prosphyei te kai

homoioi, toutesti trephetai. diôristai gar hikanôs

emprosthen heteron ti tês threpseôs ex anankês autês

proêgoumenon hê prosphysis hyparchein, ekeinês d' eti

proteron hê prosthesis. hôsper oun || tois zôois autois 199

horos esti tês edôdês to plêrôsai tên gastera, kata ton

auton tropon hekastô tôn moriôn horos esti tês

prostheseôs hê plêrôsis tês oikeias hygrotêtos. epei

toinyn hapan morion tê gastri homoiôs oregetai

trephesthai, kai periptyssetai tê trophê kai houtô

sphingei pantachothen autên hôs hê gastêr. hepetai d' ex

anankês toutô, kathaper kai prosthen errhethê, to

pettesthai tois sitiois, tês gastros ou dia touto

peristellomenês autois, hin' epitêdeia tois allois

ergasêtai moriois; houtô gar an ouketi physikon organon

alla zôon ti gignoito logismon te kai noun echon, hôs

haireisthai to beltion.

All' hautê men peristelletai tô to pan sôma dynamin

helktikên tina kai apolaustikên kektêsthai tôn oikeiôn

poiotêtôn, hôs emprosthen edeiknyto; symbainei d' en

toutô tois sitiois alloiousthai. kai mentoi kai

plêrôtheisa tês ex autôn hygrotêtos kai korestheisa

baros hêgeitai to loipon auta. to peritton oun euthys

apotribetai te kai ôthei katô pros || heteron ergon autê 200

trepomenê, tên prosphysin. en de toutô tô chronô

dierchomenê to enteron hapan hê trophê dia tôn eis auto

kathêkontôn angeiôn anarpazetai, pleistê men eis tas

phlebas, oligê de tis eis tas artêrias, hôs mikron

hysteron apodeixomen. en toutô d' au tô chronô kai tois

tôn enterôn chitôsi prostithetai.

Kai moi temôn êdê tô logismô tên tês trophês oikonomian

hapasan eis treis moiras chronôn, en men tê prôtê noei

menousan th' hama kata tên koilian autên kai pettomenên

kai prostithemenên eis koron tê gastri kai ti kai tô

hêpati par' autês anapheromenon.

En de tê deutera, dierchomenên ta t' entera kai

prostithemenên eis koron autois te toutois kai tô hêpati

kai ti brachy meros autês pantê tou sômatos pheromenon;

en de dê toutô tô kairô to prostethen en tô prôtô chronô

prosphyesthai noei tê gastri.

Kata de tên tritên moiran tou chronou trephesthai men

êdê tên koilian homoiôsasan heautê teleôs ta prosphynta,

prosphysin de tois enterois kai tô hêpati gignesthai tôn

prostethentôn, ana||dosin de pantê tou sômatos kai 201

prosthesin. ei men oun epi toutois eutheôs to zôon

lambanoi trophên, en hô palin hê gastêr chronô pettei te

tautên kai apolauei prostitheisa pan ex autês to

chrêston tois heautês chitôsi, ta men entera teleôs

homoiôsei ton prosphynta chymon, hôsautôs de kai to

hêpar. en holô de tô sômati prosphysis tôn prostethentôn

tês trophês estai moriôn. ei d' asitos anankazoito

menein hê gastêr en toutô tô chronô, para tôn en

mesenteriô te kai hêpati phlebôn helxei tên trophên; ou

gar ex autou ge tou sômatos tou hêpatos. legô de sôma

tou hêpatos autên te tên idian autou sarka prôtên kai

malista, meta de tênde kai tôn angeiôn hekaston tôn kat'

auto. ton men gar en hekastô tôn moriôn êdê

periechomenon chymon ouket' eulogon antispan heterô

moriô kai malisth' hotan êdê prosphysis ê exomoiôsis

autou gignêtai. ton d' en tais eurychôriais tôn phlebôn

to mallon ischyon th' hama kai deomenon antispa morion.

Houtôs oun kai hê gastêr en || hô chronô deitai men autê 202

trophês, esthiei d' oudepô to zôon, en toutô tôn kata to

hêpar exarpazei phlebôn. epei de kai ton splêna dia tôn

emprosthen edeiknymen hoson en hêpati pachyteron

helkonta katergazesthai te kai metaballein epi to

chrêstoteron, ouden oud' entautha thaumaston helkesthai

ti kak tou splênos eis hekaston tôn koinônountôn autô

kata tas phlebas organôn, hoion eis epiploon kai

mesenterion kai lepton enteron kai kôlon kai autên tên

gastera; kata de ton auton tropon exereugesthai men eis

tên gastera to perittôma kath' heteron chronon, auton d'

authis ek tês gastros helkein ti tês oikeias trophês en

heterô kairô.

Katholou d' eipein, ho kai prosthen êdê lelektai, pan ek

pantos helkein te kai pempein enchôrei kata diapherontas

chronous, homoiotatou gignomenou tou symbainontos, hôs

ei kai zôa noêsais polla trophên aphthonon en koinô

katakeimenên, eis hoson bouletai, prospheromena. kath'

hon gar êdê pepautai chronon hetera, kata touton eikos

esthiein hetera, kai mellein ge ta men || pauesthai, ta 203

d' archesthai, kai tina men synesthionta, ta d' ana

meros esthionta kai nai ma Dia ge to heteron harpazein

thaterou pollakis, ei to men heteron epideoito, tô d'

aphthonôs parakeoito. kai houtôs ouden thaumaston out'

ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti palin hypostrephein

oute dia tôn autôn angeiôn ex hêpatos te kai splênos eis

koilian anenechthênai ti, di' hôn ek tautês eis ekeina

proteron anênechthê.

Kata men gar tas artêrias hikanôs enarges to toiouton,

hôsper kai kata tên kardian te kai ton thôraka kai ton

pneumona. toutôn gar hapantôn diastellomenôn te kai

systellomenôn enallax anankaion, ex hôn heilkysthê ti

proteron, eis tauth' hysteron ekpempesthai. kai tautên

ara tên anankên hê physis progignôskousa tois en tê

kardia stomasi tôn angeiôn hymenas epephyse kôlysontas

eis toupisô pheresthai tas hylas. all' hopôs men touto

gignetai kai kath' hontina tropon, en tois peri chreias

moriôn eirêsetai deiknyntôn hêmôn ta t' alla kai hôs

adynaton houtôs akribôs kleiesthai ta stomata tôn

angeiôn, hôs || mêden palindromein. eis men gar tên 204

artêrian tên phlebôdê, kai gar kai tout' en ekeinois

deichthêsetai, poly pleon ê dia tôn allôn stomatôn eis

toupisô palin anankaion epanerchesthai. to d' eis ta

paronta chrêsimon, hôs ouk endechetai ti tôn aisthêtên

kai megalên echontôn eurytêta mê ouk êtoi diastellomenon

helkein ex hapantôn tôn plêsion ê ekthlibein authis eis

tauta systellomenon ek te tôn êdê proeirêmenôn en tôde

tô logô saphes an eiê kax hôn Erasistratos te kai hêmeis

heterôthi peri tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias

edeixamen.

XIV

And further, it has been shown in other treatises that all the

arteries possess a power which derives from the heart, and by virtue

of which they dilate and contract.

Put together, therefore, the two facts--that the arteries have this

motion, and that everything, when it dilates, draws neighbouring

matter into itself--and you will find nothing strange in the fact that

those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air when they

dilate, while those which anastomose at any point with the veins

attract the thinnest and most vaporous part of the blood which these

contain, and as for those arteries which are near the heart, it is on

the heart itself that they exert their traction. For, by virtue of the

tendency by which a vacuum becomes refilled, the lightest and thinnest

part obeys the tendency before that which is heavier and thicker. Now

the lightest and thinnest of anything in the body is firstly pneuma,

secondly vapour, and in the third place that part of the blood which

has been accurately elaborated and refined.

These, then, are what the arteries draw into themselves on every side;

those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air[390] (this

being near them and one of the lightest of things); as to the other

arteries, those which pass up from the heart into the neck, and that

which lies along the spine, as also such arteries as are near

these--draw mostly from the heart itself; and those which are further

from the heart and skin necessarily draw the lightest part of the

blood out of the veins. So also the traction exercised by the diastole

of the arteries which go to the stomach and intestines takes place at

the expense of the heart itself and the numerous veins in its

neighbourhood; for these arteries cannot get anything worth speaking

of from the thick heavy nutriment contained in the intestines and

stomach,[391] since they first become filled with lighter elements.

For if you let down a tube into a vessel full of water and sand, and

suck the air out of the tube with your mouth, the sand cannot come up

to you before the water, for in accordance with the principle of the

refilling of a vacuum the lighter matter is always the first to

succeed to the evacuation.

XIV

Alla mên kai hôs en hekastê tôn artêriôn esti tis

dynamis ek tês kardias epirrheousa, kath' hên

diastellontai te kai systellontai, dedeiktai di'

heterôn.

Eiper oun syntheiês amphô to te tautên einai tên kinêsin

autais to te pan to diastellomenon helkein ek tôn

plêsion eis heauto, thaumaston ouden soi phaneitai tas

artêrias, hosai men eis to derma perainousin autôn,

epispasthai ton exôthen aera diastellomenas, hosai de

kata ti pros tas || phlebas anestomôntai, to leptotaton 205

en autais kai atmôdestaton epispasthai tou haimatos,

hosai d' engys tês kardias eisin, ex autês ekeinês

poieisthai tên holkên. en gar tê pros to kenoumenon

akolouthia to kouphotaton te kai leptotaton hepetai

prôton tou baryterou te kai pachyterou; kouphotaton d'

esti kai leptotaton hapantôn tôn kata to sôma prôton men

to pneuma, deuteron d' ho atmos, epi toutô de triton,

hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon te kai leleptysmenon

haima.

Taut' oun eis heautas helkousin hai artêriai

pantachothen, hai men eis to derma kathêkousai ton

exôthen aera; plêsion te gar autais houtos esti kai

kouphotatos en tois malista; tôn d' allôn hê men epi ton

trachêlon ek tês kardias aniousa kai hê kata rhachin,

êdê de kai hosai toutôn engys ex autês malista tês

kardias; hosai de kai tês kardias porrhôterô kai tou

dermatos, helkein tautais anankaion ek tôn phlebôn to

kouphotaton tou haimatos; hôste kai tôn eis tên gastera

te kai ta entera kathêkousôn artêriôn tên holkên en tô

diastellesthai gignesthai para te tês || kardias autês 206

kai tôn parakeimenôn autê phlebôn pampollôn ousôn. ou

gar dê ek ge tôn enterôn kai tês koilias trophên houtô

pacheian te kai bareian en heautois echontôn dynantai ti

metalambanein, ho ti kai axion logou, phthanousai

plêrousthai tois kouphoterois. oude gar ei katheis

auliskon eis angeion hydatos te kai psammou plêres

epispasaio tô stomati ton ek tou auliskou aera, dynait'

an akolouthêsai soi pro tou hydatos hê psammos; aei gar

en tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia to kouphoteron

hepetai proteron.

XV

It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that only a very little

[nutrient matter] such, namely, as has been accurately

elaborated--gets from the stomach into the arteries, since these first

become filled with lighter matter. We must understand that _there are

two kinds of attraction_, that by which a vacuum becomes refilled and

that caused by appropriateness of quality;[392] air is drawn into

bellows in one way, and iron by the lodestone in another. And we must

also understand that the traction which results from evacuation acts

primarily on what is light, whilst that from appropriateness of

quality acts frequently, it may be, on what is heavier (if this should

be naturally more nearly related[393]). Therefore, in the case of the

heart and the arteries, it is in so far as they are hollow organs,

capable of diastole, that they always attract the lighter matter

first, while, in so far as they require nourishment, it is actually

into their _coats_ (which are the real _bodies_ of these organs) that

the appropriate matter is drawn.[394] Of the blood, then, which is

taken into their cavities when they dilate, that part which is most

proper to them and most able to afford nourishment is attracted by

their actual coats.

Now, apart from what has been said,[395] the following is sufficient

proof that something is taken over from the veins into the arteries.

If you will kill an animal by cutting through a number of its large

arteries, you will find the veins becoming empty along with the

arteries: now, this could never occur if there were not anastomoses

between them. Similarly, also, in the heart itself, the thinnest

portion of the blood is drawn from the right ventricle into the left,

owing to there being perforations in the septum between them: these

can be seen for a great part [of their length]; they are like a kind

of fossae [pits] with wide mouths, and they get constantly narrower;

it is not possible, however, actually to observe their extreme

terminations, owing both to the smallness of these and to the fact

that when the animal is dead all the parts are chilled and

shrunken.[396] Here, too, however, our argument,[397] starting from

the principle that nothing is done by Nature in vain, discovers these

anastomoses between the ventricles of the heart; for it could not be

at random and by chance that there occurred fossae ending thus in

narrow terminations.

And secondly [the presence of these anastomoses has been assumed] from

the fact that, of the two orifices in the right ventricle, the one

conducting blood in and the other out, the former[398] is much the

larger. For, the fact that the insertion of the vena cava into the

heart[399] is larger than the vein which is inserted into the

lungs[400] suggests that not all the blood which the vena cava gives

to the heart is driven away again from the heart to the lungs. Nor can

it be said that any of the blood is expended in the nourishment of the

actual body of the heart, since there is another vein[401] which

breaks up in it and which does not take its origin nor get its share

of blood from the heart itself. And even if a certain amount is so

expended, still the vein leading to the lungs is not to such a slight

extent smaller than that inserted into the heart as to make it likely

that the blood is used as nutriment for the heart: the disparity is

much too great for such an explanation. It is, therefore, clear that

something _is_ taken over into the left ventricle.[402]

Moreover, of the two vessels connected with it, that which brings

pneuma into it from the lungs[403] is much smaller than the great

outgrowing artery[404] from which the arteries all over the body

originate; this would suggest that it not merely gets pneuma from the

lungs, but that it also gets blood from the right ventricle through

the anastomoses mentioned.

Now it belongs to the treatise "On the Use of Parts" to show that it

was best that some parts of the body should be nourished by pure,

thin, and vaporous blood, and others by thick, turbid blood, and that

in this matter also Nature has overlooked nothing. Thus it is not

desirable that these matters should be further discussed. Having

mentioned, however, that there are two kinds of attraction, certain

bodies exerting attraction along wide channels during diastole (by

virtue of the principle by which a vacuum becomes refilled) and others

exerting it by virtue of their appropriateness of quality, we must

next remark that the former bodies can attract even from a distance,

while the latter can only do so from among things which are quite

close to them; the very longest tube let down into water can easily

draw up the liquid into the mouth, but if you withdraw iron to a

distance from the lodestone or corn from the jar (an instance of this

kind has in fact been already given[405]) no further attraction can

take place.

This you can observe most clearly in connection with _garden

conduits_. For a certain amount of moisture is distributed from these

into every part lying close at hand but it cannot reach those lying

further off: therefore one has to arrange the flow of water into all

parts of the garden by cutting a number of small channels leading from

the large one. The intervening spaces between these small channels are

made of such a size as will, presumably, best allow them [the spaces]

to satisfy their needs by drawing from the liquid which flows to them

from every side. So also is it in the bodies of animals. Numerous

conduits distributed through the various limbs bring them pure blood,

much like the garden water-supply, and, further, the intervals between

these conduits have been wonderfully arranged by Nature from the

outset so that the intervening parts should be plentifully provided

for when absorbing blood, and that they should never be deluged by a

quantity of superfluous fluid running in at unsuitable times.

For the way in which they obtain nourishment is somewhat as follows.

In the body[406] which is continuous throughout, such as Erasistratus

supposes his _simple vessel_ to be, it is the superficial parts which

are the first to make use of the nutriment with which they are brought

into contact; then the parts coming next draw their share from these

by virtue of their contiguity; and again others from these; and this

does not stop until the quality of the nutrient substance has been

distributed among all parts of the corpuscle in question. And for such

parts as need the humour which is destined to nourish them to be

altered still further, Nature has provided a kind of storehouse,

either in the form of a central cavity or else as separate

caverns,[407] or something analogous to caverns. Thus the flesh of the

viscera and of the muscles is nourished from the blood directly, this

having undergone merely a slight alteration; the bones, however, in

order to be nourished, require very great change, and what blood is to

flesh marrow is to bone; in the case of the small bones, which do not

possess central cavities, this marrow is distributed in their caverns,

whereas in the larger bones which do contain central cavities the

marrow is all concentrated in these.

For, as was pointed out in the first book,[408] things having a

similar substance can easily change into one another, whereas it is

impossible for those which are very different to be assimilated to one

another without intermediate stages. Such a one in respect to

cartilage is the myxoid substance which surrounds it, and in respect

to ligaments, membranes, and nerves the viscous liquid dispersed

inside them; for each of these consists of numerous fibres, which are

homogeneous[409]--in fact, actual _sensible elements_; and in the

intervals between these fibres is dispersed the humour most suited for

nutrition; this they have drawn from the blood in the veins, choosing

the most appropriate possible, and now they are assimilating it step

by step and changing it into their own substance.

All these considerations, then, agree with one another, and bear

sufficient witness to the truth of what has been already demonstrated;

there is thus no need to prolong the discussion further. For, from

what has been said, anyone can readily discover in what way all the

particular [vital activities] come about. For instance, we could in

this way ascertain why it is that in the case of many people who are

partaking freely of wine, the fluid which they have drunk is rapidly

absorbed[410] through the body and almost the whole of it is passed by

the kidneys within a very short time. For here, too, the rapidity with

which the fluid is absorbed depends on appropriateness of quality, on

the thinness of the fluid, on the width of the vessels and their

mouths, and on the efficiency of the attractive faculty. The parts

situated near the alimentary canal, by virtue of their appropriateness

of quality, draw in the imbibed food for their own purposes, then the

parts next to them in their turn snatch it away, then those next again

take it from these, until it reaches the vena cava, whence finally the

kidneys attract that part of it which is proper to them. Thus it is in

no way surprising that wine is taken up more rapidly than water, owing

to its appropriateness of quality, and, further, that the white clear

kind of wine is absorbed more rapidly owing to its thinness, while

black turbid wine, is checked on the way and retarded because of its

thickness.

These facts, also, will afford abundant proof of what has already been

said about the arteries; everywhere, in fact, such blood as is both

specifically appropriate and at the same time thin in consistency

answers more readily to their traction than does blood which is not

so; this is why the arteries which, in their diastole, absorb vapour,

pneuma, and thin blood attract either none at all or very little of

the juices contained in the stomach and intestines.

XV

Oukoun chrê thaumazein, ei pantelôs oligon ek tês

koilias, hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon, eis tas

artêrias paragignetai phthanousas plêrousthai tôn

kouphoterôn, all' ekeino gignôskein, hôs dy' eston

holkês eidê, to men tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia, to

d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos gignomenon; heterôs men gar eis

tas physas ho aêr, heterôs d' ho sidêros hypo tês

hêrakleias epispatai lithou; kai hôs hê men pros to

kenoumenon akolouthia || to kouphoteron helkei proteron, 207

hê de kata tên tês poiotêtos oikeiotêta pollakis, ei

houtôs etyche, to baryteron, an tê physei syngenesteron

hyparchê. kai toinyn kai tais artêriais te kai tê

kardia, hôs men koilois te kai diastellesthai dynamenois

organois, aei to kouphoteron akolouthei proteron, hôs de

trephesthai deomenois, eis autous tous chitônas, hoi dê

ta sômata tôn organôn eisin, helketai to oikeion. hoson

an oun eis tên koilotêta diastellomenôn autôn haimatos

metalêphthê, toutou to oikeiotaton te kai malista

trephein dynamenon hoi chitônes autoi tôn angeiôn

epispôntai.

Tou d' ek tôn phlebôn eis tas artêrias metalambanesthai

ti pros tois eirêmenois hikanon kai touto ge tekmêrion.

ei pollas kai megalas artêrias diatemôn apokteinai to

zôon boulêtheiês, heurêseis autou tas phlebas homoiôs

tais artêrias ekkenoumenas, ouk an toutou pote genomenou

chôris tôn pros allêlas autais anastomôseôn. hôsautôs de

kai kat' autên tên kardian ek tês dexias koilias eis tên

aristeran helketai to lepto||taton echontos tina trêmata 208

tou mesou diaphragmatos autôn, ha mechri men pleistou

dynaton estin idein, hoion bothynous tinas ex euryterou

stomatos aei kai mallon eis stenoteron proïontas. ou mên

auta ge ta eschata perata dynaton eti theasasthai dia te

smikrotêta kai hoti tethneôtos êdê tou zôou katepsyktai

te kai pepyknôtai panta. all' ho logos kantautha prôton

men ek tou mêden hypo tês physeôs gignesthai matên

hormômenos exeuriskei tas anastomôseis tautas tôn

koiliôn tês kardias; ou gar dê eikê ge kai hôs etychen

hoi es stenon houtô teleutôntes egenonto bothynoi.

Deuteron de kak tou dyoin ontoin stomatoin en tê dexia

tês kardias koilia tou men eisagontos to haima, tou d'

exagontos poly meizon einai to eisagon. hôs gar ou

pantos tou haimatos, hoson hê koilê phleps didôsi tê

kardia, palin ex ekeinês ekpempomenou tô pneumoni,

meizôn estin hê apo tês koilês eis autên emphysis tês

emphyomenês eis ton pneumona phlebos. oude || gar tout' 209

estin eipein, hôs edapanêthê ti tou haimatos eis tên

autou tou sômatos tês kardias threpsin. hetera gar esti

phleps hê eis ekeino kataschizomenê mête tên genesin ek

tês kardias autês mête tên tou haimatos echousa

metalêpsin. ei de kai dapanatai ti, all' ou tosouton ge

meiôn estin hê eis ton pneumona phleps agousa tês eis

tên kardian emphyomenês, hoson eikos eis tên trophên

anêlôsthai tês kardias, alla pleon pollô. dêlon oun, hôs

eis tên aristeran ti metalambanetai koilian.

Kai gar oun kai tôn kat' ekeinên angeiôn dyoin ontôn

elatton esti pollô to ek tou pneumonos eis autên eisagon

to pneuma tês ekphyomenês artêrias tês megalês, aph' hês

hai kata to sôma sympasai pephykasin, hôs an mê monon ek

tou pneumonos pneuma metalambanousês autês, alla kak tês

dexias koilias haima dia tôn eirêmenôn anastomôseôn.

Hoti d' ameinon ên tois tou sômatos moriois tois men

hypo katharou kai leptou kai atmôdous haimatos

trephesthai, tois d' hypo pacheos kai tholerou kai hôs

oud' entautha ti pareôratai tê physei, tês || peri 210

chreias moriôn pragmateias estin, hôst' ou chrê nyn

hyper toutôn eti legein, all' hypomnêsantas, hôs dyo

eston holkês eidê, tôn men eureiais hodois en tô

diastellesthai tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia tên

helxin poioumenôn, tôn d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos, ephexês

legein, hôs ta men protera kai porrhôthen helkein ti

dynatai, ta de deutera ek tôn engytatô monôn. auliskon

men gar hoti mêkiston eis hydôr enesti kathenta rhadiôs

anaspan eis to stoma di' autou to hygron; ou mên ei g'

epi pleon apagagois tês hêrakleias lithou ton sidêron ê

tous pyrous tou keramiou--kai gar kai toiouton ti

prosthen elegeto paradeigma--dynait' an eti genesthai

tis holkê.

Saphestata d' an auto mathois epi tôn en tois kêpois

ochetôn; ek toutôn gar eis men ta parakeimena kai

plêsion hapanta diadidotai tis ikmas, eis de ta

porrhôterô proselthein ouketi dynatai, kai dia tout'

anankazontai pollois ochetois mikrois apo tou megalou

tetmêmenois eis hekaston meros tou kêpou tên epirrhysin

tou hydatos epitechnasthai; kai têlikauta ge ta || 211

metaxy diastêmata toutôn tôn mikrôn ochetôn poiousin,

hêlika malista nomizousin arkein eis to hikanôs

apolauein helkonta tês hekaterôthen autois epirrheousês

hygrotêtos. houtôs oun echei kan tois tôn zôôn sômasin.

ochetoi polloi kata panta ta melê diesparmenoi

paragousin autois haima kathaper en kêpois hydreian

tina. kai toutôn tôn ochetôn ta metaxy diastêmata

thaumastôs hypo tês physeôs euthys ex archês diatetaktai

pros to mêt' endeôs chorêgeisthai tois metaxy moriois

helkousin eis heauta to haima mête kataklyzesthai pot'

auta plêthei perittês hygrotêtos akairôs epirrheousês.

Ho gar dê tropos tês threpseôs autôn toiosde tis esti.

tou synechous heautô sômatos, hoionper to haploun

angeion Erasistratos hypotithetai, ta men epipolês merê

prôta tês homilousês apolauei trophês; ek de toutôn au

metalambanei kata to syneches helkonta ta toutôn hexês,

eit' ex ekeinôn authis hetera kai tout' ou pauetai

gignomenon, achris an eis hapant' autou diadothê ta

moria tês trephousês ousias hê poiotês. hosa de tôn

moriôn epi pleon || alloioumenou deitai tou mellontos 212

auta threpsein chymou, toutois hôsper ti tamieion hê

physis pareskeuasen êtoi koilias ê sêrangas ê ti tais

sêranxin analogon. hai men gar sarkes hai te tôn

splanchnôn hapantôn hai te tôn myôn ex haimatos autou

trephontai bracheian alloiôsin dexamenou. ta d' osta

pampollês en tô metaxy deitai tês metabolês, hina

traphê, kai estin hoionper to haima tais sarxi, toioutos

ho myelos tois ostois en men tois mikrois te kai

akoiliois kata tas sêrangas autôn diesparmenos, en de

tois meizosi te kai koilias echousin en ekeinais

êthroismenos.

Hôs gar kai dia tou prôtou grammatos edeiknyto, tois men

homoian echousi tên ousian eis allêla metaballein

enchôrei, tois de pampoly diestôsin amêchanon allêlois

homoiôthênai chôris tôn en mesô metabolôn. toiouton ti

kai tois chondrois esti to perikechymenon myxôdes kai

tois syndesmois kai tois hymesi kai tois neurois to

paresparmenon en autois hygron glischron; hekaston gar

|| toutôn ex inôn synkeitai pollôn, haiper homoiomereis 213

t' eisi kai ontôs aisthêta stoicheia. kata de tas metaxy

chôras autôn ho oikeiotatos eis threpsin parespartai

chymos, hon heilkysan men ek tôn phlebôn tou haimatos,

hoson hoion t' ên eklexamenai ton epitêdeiotaton,

exomoiousi de kata brachy kai metaballousin eis tên

heautôn ousian.

Hapant' oun tauta kai allêlois homologei kai tois

emprosthen apodedeigmenois hikanôs martyrei kai ou chrê

mêkynein eti ton logon; ek gar tôn eirêmenôn enestin

hekastô ta kata meros hapanta kath' hontina gignetai

tropon exeuriskein hetoimôs, hôsper kai dia ti pollois

kôthônizomenois pampoly tachista men anadidotai to

pothen, oureitai d' oligou dein hapan entos ou pollou

chronou. kai gar kantautha tê te tês poiotêtos

oikeiotêti kai tê tês hygrotêtos leptotêti kai tê tôn

angeiôn te kai tôn kat' auta stomatôn eurytêti kai tê

tês helktikês dynameôs eurôstia to tachos synteleitai

tês anadoseôs, tôn men plêsion tês koilias tetagmenôn

moriôn oikeiotêti poiotêtos || heautôn heneka helkontôn 214

to poma, tôn d' hexês toutois exarpazontôn kai autôn eis

heauta kapeita tôn ephexês palin ek toutôn

metalambanontôn, achris an eis tên koilên aphikêtai

phleba, tounteuthen d' êdê tôn nephrôn to oikeion

epispômenôn. hôst' ouden thaumaston oinon men hydatos

analambanesthai thatton oikeiotêti poiotêtos, auton de

ton oinon ton men leukon kai katharon hetoimôs

anadidosthai dia leptotêta, ton d' au melana kai

tholeron ischesthai te kata tên hodon kai bradynein hypo

pachous.

Eiê d' an tauta kai tôn hyper tôn artêriôn emprosthen

eirêmenôn ou smikra martyria. pantachou gar hoson

oikeion te kai lepton haima tou mê toioutou rhaon

hepetai tois helkousin. atmon oun helkousai kai pneuma

kai lepton haima kata tas diastaseis hai artêriai tôn

kata tên koilian kai ta entera periechomenôn chymôn ê

oud' holôs ê pantapasin epispôntai brachy.

[299] "Of food to feeder," _i.e._ of the environment to

the organism. _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi.

[300] "Drawing"; _cf._ p. 116, note 2 (168).

[301] For these terms (_prosthesis_ and _prosphysis_ in

Greek) _cf._ p. 39, notes 5 (66) and 6 (67).

[302] Lit. "through the _energizing_ (or _functioning_)

of the attractive faculty"; the faculty ([Greek:

dynamis]) _in operation_ is an activity ([Greek:

energeia]). _cf._ p. 3, note 2 (6).

[303] This chapter is an excellent example of Galen's

method of reasoning _a priori_. The complementary

inductive method, however, is employed in the next

chapter. _cf._ p. 209, note 1 (288).

[304] The deductive.

[305] The _logos_ is the argument or "theory" arrived

at by the process of [Greek: logikê theôria] or

"theorizing"; _cf._ p. 151, note 3 (214); p. 205, note 1

(282).

[306] The Greek words for the uterus (_mêtrae_ and

_hysterae_) probably owe their plural form to the belief

that the organ was bicornuate in the human, as it is in

some of the lower species.

[307] Note this expression. For Galen's views on the

origin of species, _cf._ Introduction, p. xxxi.,

footnote (3).

[308] Herophilus of Chalcedon (_circa_ 300 B.C.) was,

like Erasistratus, a representative of the anatomical

school of Alexandria. His book on Midwifery was known

for centuries. _cf._ Introduction, p. xii.

[309] Relaxation of utero-sacral ligaments as an

important predisposing cause of prolapsus uteri.

[310] That is, at the end of the first stage of labour.

[311] The pylorus.

[312] "Chylosis," chylification. _cf._ p. 240, note 1

(314).

[313] Lit. barley-"chyle," _i.e._ barley-water.

[314] _i.e._ not the mere mechanical breaking down of

food, but a distinctively vital action of "alteration."

[315] _Pepsis._

[316] Book I., chaps. x., xi.

[317] _cf._ p. 222, note 1 (299).

[318] _Choledochous_.

[319] More exactly _peristolé_; _cf._ p. 97, note 1

(146).

[320] Neuburger says of Erasistratus that "dissection

had taught him to think in terms of anatomy." It was

chiefly the gross movements or structure of organs with

which he concerned himself. Where an organ had no

obvious function, he dubbed it "useless"; _e.g._ the

spleen (_cf._ p. 143).

[321] _i.e._ contracting and dilating; no longitudinal

movements involved; _cf._ p. 263, note 2 (341).

[322] _cf._ p. 282, note 1 (356).

[323] Book II., chaps. ii. and viii.

[324] Note use of psychological terms in biology. _cf._

also p. 133, note 3 (191).

[325] "In everything." _cf._ p. 66, note 3 (104).

[326] Galen confuses the nutrition of organs with that

of the ultimate living elements or cells; the stomach

does not, of course, feed itself in the way a cell does.

_cf._ Introduction, p. xxxii.

[327] _cf._ Asclepiades's theory regarding the urine, p.

51.

[328] The process of _application_ or _prosthesis_.

_cf._ p. 223, note 3 (301).

[329] Mutual influence of organism and environment.

[330] Qualitative change. _cf._ Book I., chap. ii.

[331] Apparently skin-diseases in which a superficial

crust (resembling the lichen on a tree-trunk)

forms--_e.g._ psoriasis.

[332] Note especially pneuma and innate heat, which

practically stand for oxygen and the heat generated in

oxidation. _cf._ p. 41, note 3 (70).

[333] Book I., chap. x.

[334] That is to say, faeces are obviously altered food.

This alteration cannot have taken place entirely in the

small intestine: therefore alteration of food must take

place in the stomach.

[335] _cf._ p. 39.

[336] Asclepiades held that there was no such thing as

real qualitative change; the food was merely broken up

into its constituent molecules, and absorbed unaltered.

_cf._ p. 49, note 5 (82).

[337] _i.e._ denial of forethought in the Physis.

[338] _v._ p. 9, _et passim_.

[339] _cf._ p. 97.

[340] It appears to me, from comparison between this and

other passages in Galen's writings (notably _Use of

Parts_, iv., 8), that he means by the "two coats" simply

the mucous and the muscular coats. In this case the

"straight" or "longitudinal" fibres of the inner coat

would be the _rugae_; the "circular" fibres of the inner

intestinal coat would be the _valvulae conniventes_.

[341] The term here rendered _peristalsis_ is

_peristolé_ in Greek; it is applied only to the

intermittent movements of muscles placed circularly

round a lumen or cavity, and comprehends _systolé_ or

contraction and _diastolé_ or dilatation. In its modern

significance, _peristalsis_, however, also includes the

movements of _longitudinal_ fibres. _cf._ p. 97, note 1

(146).

[342] _i.e._ those containing non-striped or

"involuntary" muscle fibres; organs governed by the

"natural" pneuma; _cf._ p. 186, note 3 (265).

[343] By this term is meant only what we should call the

"voluntary" muscles.

[344] _cf._ p. 97.

[345] For "symptom," _cf._ p. 13, and p. 12, note 3

(24). "Transitum namque materiae per angustum corpus id

accidens consequitur" (Linacre). Less a "result" or

"consequence" than an "accompaniment."

[346] _i.e._ this is a purely mechanical process.

[347] _i.e._. this phenomenon is a proof neither of

_peristolé_ nor of attraction. _cf._ p. 97, note 2

(147).

[348] Contraction and dilatation of course being

reversed.

[349] The _channa_ is a kind of sea-perch; "a species of

_Serranus_, either _S. scriba_ or _S. cabrilla_" (D'Arcy

W. Thompson). _cf._ Aristotle's _Nat. Hist._ (D'Arcy

Thompson's edition, Oxford, 1910), IV., xi., 538 A, 20.

The _synodont_ "is not to be identified with certainty,

but is supposed to be _Dentex vulgaris_," that is, an

edible Mediterranean perch. "It is not the stomach,"

adds Prof. Thompson, "but the air-bladder that gets

everted and hangs out of the mouth in fishes, especially

when they are hauled in from a considerable depth."

_cf._ _H. A._, VIII., ii., 591 B, 5.

[350] Under the term "neura," tendons were often

included as well as nerves. Similarly in modern Dutch

the word _zenuw_ ("sinew") means both a tendon and a

nerve; _zenuwachtig_ = "nervous."

[351] Rather than the alternative reading, [Greek: ton

esôthen chitôna]. Galen apparently supposes that the

outer coat will not be damaged, as the cuts will pass

_between_ its fibres. These cuts would be, presumably,

short ones, at various levels, no single one of them

involving the whole circumference of the gullet.

[352] _cf._ p. 205.

[353] Thus Galen elsewhere calls the spleen a mere

_emunctory_ ([Greek: ekmageion]) of the liver. _cf._ p.

214, note 1 (295).

[354] _cf._ p. 269.

[355] The urinary bladders of pigs (such as Galen

dissected) are thin, and appear to have only one coat.

[356] _cf._ p. 243.

[357] My suggestion is that Galen refers to (1) the

_mucous_ coat, with its _valvulae conniventes_, and (2)

the _muscular_ coat, of which the chief layer is made up

of circular fibres. _cf._ p. 262, note 1 (340).

[358] Or _utility_.

[359] Relationship between physiology and pathology

again emphasized. _cf._ p. 188, note 2 (267).

[360] Or physicist--the investigator of the Physis or

Nature. _cf._ p. 196, note 2 (274). Note here the use of

analogical reasoning. _cf._ p. 113, note 2 (166).

[361] _cf._ p. 95.

[362] I. xiii.; II. ii.

[363] Galen's idea is that if reversal of the direction

of flow can occur in the _primae viae_ (in vomiting), it

may also be expected to occur in the _secundae viae_ or

absorptive channels.

[364] For this "delivery," "up-yield," or _anadosis_,

_v._ p. 13, note 5 (26).

[365] The mesenteric veins.

[366] Linacre renders: "Una omnium confluxio ac

conspiratio"; and he adds the marginal note "Totum

corpus nostrum est conspirabile et confluxile per meatus

communes." _cf._ p. 48.

[367] The alimentary canal, as not being edible, is not

considered a _splanchnon_ or viscus.

[368] Lit. _rheums_; hence our term _rheumatism_.

[369] Here Galen apparently indicates that vital

functions are at least partly explicable in terms of

mechanical law. _cf._ Introduction, p. xxviii.

[370] _cf._ pp. 211, 247.

[371] See p. 298, note 1 (369).

[372] The ends of the veins in the alimentary canal from

which absorption or _anadosis_ had originally taken

place.

[373] _Diathesis_.

[374] _Diathesis_.

[375] _Pathos_.

[376] He means, not only under the stress of special

circumstances, but also normally.

[377] Lit. "rough artery." The air-passages as well as

the arteries proper were supposed by the Greeks to carry

air (pneuma); diastole of arteries was, like expansion

of the chest, a movement for drawing in air. _cf._ p.

317, note 1 (390).

[378] _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi.

[379] Lit. _orexis_.

[380] Lit. a "physical" organ; that is, a mere

instrument or organon of the Physis,--not one of the

Psyche or conscious personality. _cf._ semen, p. 132,

note 1 (189).

[381] _cf._ p. 317, note 2 (391); p. 319, chap. xv.

[382] Note that absorption takes place from the stomach

as well as the intestines. _cf._ p. 118, note 1 (171).

[383] That is, among the ultimate tissues or cells.

[384] Pp. 205-9.

[385] By this term, of course, the air-passages are also

meant; _cf._ p. 305.

[386] _cf._ p. 34, note 1 (57).

[387] _cf._ p. 121, note 4 (177).

[388] Pulmonary vein, or rather, left auricle. Galen

means a reflux through the mitral orifice; the left

auricle was looked on rather as the termination of the

pulmonary veins than as a part of the heart. _cf._ p.

323, note 4 (403). He speaks here of a kind of

"physiological" mitral incompetence.

[389] _Horror vacui._

[390] _cf._ p. 305, note 2 (377).

[391] _cf._ p. 308, note 1 (381).

[392] The "mechanical" principle of _horror vacui_

contrasted with the "physical" or semi-physiological

principle of specific attraction. _Appropriateness_ here

might almost be rendered _affinity_ or _kinship_. _cf_.

note 2 (393), _infra_.

[393] "Related," "akin." _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61).

[394] The coats exercise the _vital_ traction, the

cavities the merely _mechanical_. _cf_. p. 165, note 2

(232).

[395] Chap. xiv.

[396] These fossae were probably the recesses between

the _columnae carnae_.

[397] On _logos_ _cf._ p. 226, note 2 (305).

[398] He means the tricuspid orifice. _cf._ p. 121, note

4 (177).

[399] The right auricle was looked on less as a part of

the heart than as an expansion or "insertion" of the

vena cava.

[400] This "vein" (really the pulmonary artery) was

supposed to be the channel by which the lungs received

nutriment from the right heart. _cf._ p. 121, note 3

(176).

[401] The coronary vein.

[402] Galen's conclusion, of course, is, so far,

correct, but he has substituted an imaginary direct

communication between the ventricles for the actual and

more roundabout pulmonary circulation, of whose

existence he apparently had no idea. His views were

eventually corrected by the Renascence anatomists. _cf._

Introduction, pp. xxii.-xxiii.

[403] He means the left auricle, considered as the

termination of the pulmonary "arteries"; _cf._ p. 314,

note 3 (388).

[404] The aorta, its orifice being circular, appears

bigger than the slit-like mitral orifice.

[405] p. 87.

[406] Or we may render it "corpuscle"; Galen practically

means the _cell_. _cf._ p. 153, note 2 (216).

[407] _cf._ the term "cavernous tissue."

[408] I. x.

[409] Lit. _homoeomerous_, _i.e._ "the same all

through," of similar structure throughout, the

_elements_ of living matter, _cf._ p. 20, note 3 (38),

and _cf._ also the "cell" of Erasistratus, p. 153.

[410] "Delivered," "dispersed"; _cf._ p. 13, note 5

(26).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

(The numbers refer to the pages of the present edition;

fuller references will be found in the footnotes.)

Abortifacient drugs, 285

Abortion, 231, 285

Absorption from digestive tract (_v. Anadosis_)

Acidity of urine, 245, 287

Activity (function), 13

Adhesion (prosphysis) of nutriment to tissues, 39

Affinity, 33

Alimentary canal, 119, 309

coats of, 23, 263

Allopathic treatment, 199

Alteration (qualitative change), 7, 9, 241, 251

Anadosis (absorption from digestive tract), 63, 119

Anæmia, 173

Anasarca (dropsy), 41

Anastomoses (communications between arteries and veins), 321

Anaxagoras, "preformationist" doctrine of, 7

Ancient writers, value of, 279

Animal life, 3

Animals (_v._ also _History, Natural_)

cold-blooded, 181

long-necked, 275

Anorexia (want of appetite), 247

Aorta (main artery of body), 143, 323

Appetite, 249

Aristotle, 9, _et passim_ (_v._ also _Peripatetic School_)

Arrows, drugs for extracting heads of, 83

"Art" of Nature (_i.e._ of the living organism), 57

Arteries, structure of, 283

to-and-fro motion in, 313

attraction of air by, through skin, 317

Artery, pulmonary, 121, 323

Artificer, 133

Asclepiades, 49, _et passim_

Asepsis (absence of corruption), 201

Assimilation, 33

Asthenia (weakness), 239

Atomist School in Medicine, 45

Atrabiliary (melancholic) humour, 209

Attraction (_v._ also _Horror vacui_)

physiological, 45

magnetic, 73

Auricle, left, of heart, 315

right, of heart, 321

Authority, value of, 279

Aversion, 249

Baking, 259

Beauty, 47

Bile, yellow, 63, 123, 177, 191, 289

"vitelline," 209

black, 203 (_v._ also _Melancholic humour_)

Bile-passages, mechanical blocking of, 171

Biliousness, 193

Biology, repudiation of, by Atomist School, 45

Bladder, urinary, 51, 53, _et passim_

for bile (_v. Gall-bladder_)

Blood-production, 17, 169, 183, 191, 201

Boiling, 259

Boils, 253

Bone, structure of, 327

Bone-marrow, 327

Borborygmi (gurglings) in stomach, 237

Bread, constitution of, 11

Bubo (swollen lymphatic glands in groin), 185

Butchers (as the primitive anatomists), 51

Cadaver (corpse), experiment on, 265

Cartilage (gristle), 329

Catarrh (mucous discharge), 215

Cattle (as typifying "herd-morality"), 47

"Cell," of animal tissues, 153

nutrition of, 327

Change, qualitative (_v. Alteration_)

Channels (_v. Morphological hypothesis_)

Cheese-making, 91

Childbirth, 231, 285

Children's game, 27

Chill, 171, 203 (_v._ also _Cold_)

Cholagogues (drugs that draw off bile), 65

Cholera, 299

Chorion (membrane enclosing unborn child), 229

Chrysippus, 9

Chyle (emulsified contents of stomach), (_v. Emulsification_)

Cirrhosis (induration) of liver, 171

Coats (tunics), 23

Cold, action of, on skin, 301

Cold-in-the-head, 215 (_v._ also _Chill_)

Colon (large intestine), 313

Colour, 5

Conception, of semen, 233

Congius (measure), 111

Contractions (_v. Peristalsis_)

Cooking, 191

Corn, attractive power of, 87

Coryza (mucous discharge: now a "cold"), 215

Crisis, 75

Cyathus (measure), 65

Decay, 7

Deductive reasoning, 227

Deglutition (swallowing), 95, 261, 265, 273

Democritus, 153

Deposits (in tissues), 297

Desire (appetite), 249, 269

Destruction (act of perishing), 7

Diaphragm (midriff), 255

Diarrhoea, 247, 299

Diet, 35, 179, 255

Digestion, cause of, 243

impairment of, 185, 217, 237

Digestive tract, action on food, 251, _et seq._

structure (_v. Alimentary Canal_)

Diocles, 51

Disease, definition of, 197

Diseases, the four primary, 185

Disjunctive argument, 167

Distribution (diadosis) of nutriment to tissues, 163

Dropsy, 41, 67, 171

Drugs, 65, 285, 293 (_v._ also _Poisons_)

Dyscrasia (abnormal blending of the four qualities), 189

Dysentery, 205

Dyspepsia (_v. Indigestion_)

Education, 279

Effect (product, work done), 13

Emaciation, 161

Emanations, 77

Embryo, 229

Emesis (_v. Vomiting_)

Empiricist physicians, 69, 193

Emulsification, 239

Epicurus, 71

Epigastric muscles, 237

Epispastic (attractive), 117

Erasistratus, 95

Erasistrateans, 105

Etna, 259

Eucrasia (proper blending of the four qualities), 189

Evaporation, 51, 87, 251

Experience (_v. Empiricist physicians_)

Expulsive faculty, 231

Faculty (potentiality), 13

Fæces (ordure from bowel), 255

Fermentation, 209

Fever as a cause of indigestion, 185

Fibres, 329

of blood, 215

circular and longitudinal, 263

oblique, 281

Filtration, 91

Fish, voraciousness of, 269

Flavour, 5

Fluxions, 297

Foetus (unborn child), 233

death of, 287

Forced-feeding, 247

Forces, material, 127, 301

Function (activity), cause of, 197

Gall-bladder, 147, 245

absence of nerves in, 289

Gardens, irrigation of, 325

Genesis (development of embryo), 19

Germander (drug), 67

Gestation (carrying of embryo by mother), 229

Give-and-take between organs, 295

Gravity (explaining secretion of urine), 107

Greediness, 271

Growth, 27, 137

Gullet, 263

use of, by stomach, 271

function of its two coats, 273

Gurgling in stomach, 237

Habit of body, 69

Hæmorrhage, intestinal, 297

Hæmorrhoids (_v. Piles_)

Heartburn, 287

Heat, innate, 41, 141, 185

Hepatic veins (entering vena cava from liver), 147

Herophilus, 233

Hippocrates, 9, _et passim_

Histogenesis (tissue-production), 21

History, natural, 269

Homoeomeries (similar parts), 169

Homoeopathy, p. 199, Note 1 (276)

Honey, 179, 191

Horror vacui ("Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum"), 99, 155

Humours, the four, origin of, 167, 183, 209

Hydragogues (drugs that draw water out of the system), 65

Ileus volvulus (obstruction of bowels), 299, 303

Illusions, sensory, 7

Indigestion, 185, 217, 237

Inductive reasoning, 227

Inflammation, 89, 233

Interaction of any two bodies, 251

Intestine, small, 255

Intestines, structure of, 283

movements of, 243

Ionia, 29

Iron, 71

Irrigation of gardens and tissues, 325

Jaundice, 179, 207

Jejunum (part of small intestine), 299

Kidneys, 49, 89

Labour (_v. Childbirth_)

Larynx (voice-box), involved in swallowing, 265

Leprosy, 41

Leucippus, 153

Lichen (a skin-disease), 253

Liver, proper tissue of, 311

transverse fissure of, 147

induration of, 171

give-and-take between it and stomach, 291

Lodestone, 71

Love, 47

Lumen (internal cavity of a vessel), 119

Lycus, 109

Magnetism, 71

Marrow of bones, 327

Mastication, 253

Material forces, 127

Medicine, taking of, 269 (_v._ also _Drugs_)

Melancholic (_v. Atrabiliary_)

Membranes, foetal, 231, 285 (_v._ also _Chorion_)

Menander, 105

Menodotus, 81

Menstrual blood, 131, 171

Metabolism, diseases of, 41

Midwife, 235

Miscarriage, (_v. Abortion_)

Molecules (of Asclepiades), 63

Morphological hypothesis of bile-secretion, 125, 147

Motion, active and passive, 57

Mouth, lining of, 261

digestion in, 253

Mucus, 203, 215

Muscles, voluntary, 263

"Nature," 2;

its "Art," 57

Nature-lore (_v. Physiology_)

Nausea, 287

"Nerve," 151, 273

Nutriment, 41

Nutrition, 31, 149

Obstetric chair, 235

Obstruction of bowels, 299, 303

Oesophagus (_v. Gullet_)

Omentum (an apron-like fold of fat, overlying the intestine), 143,

255, 313

Organism, unity of, 61

Organs, nutrition of, 307

Os uteri (mouth of womb), 229

Ovum, human, 135

Oxidation, 211

Oxygen (_v. Pneuma_)

Pain, 287

Parturition, 231

Pathology, relation to Physiology, 189, 287

Peasants, 87

Perch (_v. Fish_)

Peripatetic (Aristotelian) School, 139

Peristalsis (contraction and dilatation), 97, 243, 263

Peritoneum, 53

Phidias, 129

Philistion, 173

Philotimus, 183

Phlegm, 67, 201, 215

Phlegmatic temperament, 193

"Physiology," 139

Piles, 171

Plant-life, 3

Plato, 173, 203, 215

Plethora (congestion), 119

Pneuma (as a vital principle), 153;

(as oxygen), 187

Poisons, action of, 251

Porch, the (Stoic School), 145

"Pores" (_v. Channels_)

Portal vein, 147

Potter's earth, 213

Practitioner, 197

Praxagoras, 51

Praxiteles, 129

"Preformationist" doctrine of Anaxagoras, p. 7, Note 5 (14)

Presentation (prosthesis) of nutriment to tissues, 39

Prevention and Cure, 169

Principles, the four fundamental (_v. Qualities_)

Prodicus, 201

Prolapse of uterus, 235

Propulsive faculty, 231

Prosphysis (_v. Adhesion_)

Prosthesis (_v. Presentation_)

Psyche, 3, 153

Psychology, repudiation of, by Atomist School, 45

Pulmonary artery, 121

Pylorus (outlet of stomach), 239

regurgitation through, 289

Pyrrhonists (typical sceptics), 197

Qualities, the four fundamental, 9, 183, 259

derivative, 21

Relativity, 17

Renal veins, 107

Respiration, 175, 305

Retentive faculty, 225

Rhetoric, 97

Safflower (drug), 67

Saliva, action of, 253

Scammony (drug), 67

Schools, two contrasted, in Medicine, 45

Scientist, 197

Scorpions, 253

Sculpture, 129

Sectarianism, 55

Sects, medical (_v. Schools_)

Self-control, 47

Self-education, 279

Semen, 131, 233

Sensation, 47

Septum, perforated, between ventricles of heart, 321

Serum (watery part of blood or milk), 91, 213

Shaping (development of organs), 19

Sieves, 91

Skin-diseases, 253 (_v._ also _Leprosy_ and _Lichens_)

Slaves, 103

Sociability, 47

Sophistry, 219, 279

Sophists, 7

Soul, 45

Specific selection of nutriment by tissues (_v. Attraction,

physiological_)

Spermatic ducts, 57

Spirit (_v. Pneuma_)

Spleen, function and diseases of, 205

"uselessness" of, 143

as an emunctory of the liver, 277

Statues, 129

Sting-ray (fish), bite of, 85

Stoics, 15, 145

Stomach, function of, 197, 237, 251, 255

coats of, 261

independent habits of, 271

give-and-take between it and liver, 291

Stone in bladder, 51

Strength, relative, of different organs, 293

Substance, 9

Superfluities (waste-substances), 35, 291

Swallowing (_v. Deglutition_)

Symptoms, 13

Synapse, 147

Teeth, 253

Temperament (crasis, mixture of elementary principles), 15, 139, 193

Temperance, 47

Theophrastus, 139

Thorns, drugs for extracting, 83

Tissues, development of, 21

their action in producing humours, 179, 195

Trachea (windpipe), 305

Transference (passive motion), 7

Transpiration, 153

Treatment, principles of, 199

Tricuspid orifice of heart, 321

Tubes, rigid, 119, 317, 325

Unity of organism, 61

Ureters, 23, 51

Urine, 51

"Useless" organs (Erasistratus), 143

Uterus (womb), 227

Vacuum, tendency to refill (_v. Horror vacui_)

Valves of heart, 121, 315

Vaporisation (_v. Evaporation_)

Vegetable diet, 35, 179

Vegetative life, 3

Veins, structure of, 283

"arterial" (_v. Pulmonary artery_)

coronary, 323

hepatic, 147

mesenteric, 293, 305

portal, 147

renal, 107, 143

vena cava (chief vein of body), 91

collapse of, 119

Ventricles of heart, communication between, 321

Vipers, 85

Vitalist School in Medicine, 45

Vivisection, 59, 241, 273

Voluntary motion, 3

Volvulus (intestinal obstruction), 299, 303

Vomiting, 241, 247, 267

fæcal, 299

Waste-products (_v. Superfluities_)

Whey (_v. Serum_)

Wine, 209, 329

Womb (_v. Uterus_)

Wounds, 185

Wrestling, 125

Zeno, of Citium, 9