Ti d' ên to sperma? hê archê tou zôou dê_Galen: On the Natural Faculties

drastikê; hê gar hylikê to katamênion estin. eit' autês

tês archês prôtê tautê tê dynamei chrômenês, hina

genêtai tôn hyp' autês ti dedêmiourgêmenôn, amoiron

einai tês oikeias dynameôs ouk endechetai. pôs oun

Erasistratos autên ouk oiden, ei dê prôtê men hautê tou

spermatos energeia to symmetron haimatos epispasthai

pros heauto? symmetron d' an eiê to lepton houtô kai

atmôdes, hôst' euthys eis pan morion helkomenon tou

spermatos drosoeidôs mêdamou tên || heautou 86

paremphainein idean. houtô gar autou kai kratêsei

rhadiôs to sperma kai tacheôs exomoiôsei kai trophên

heautô poiêsetai kapeit' oimai deuteron epispasetai kai

triton, hôs onkon heautô kai plêthos axiologon

ergasasthai traphenti. kai mên êdê kai hê alloiôtikê

dynamis exeurêtai mêd' autê pros Erasistratou

gegrammenê. tritê d' an hê diaplastikê phaneiê, kath'

hên prôton men hoion epipagon tina lepton hymena

peritithêsin heautô to sperma, ton hyph' Hippokratous

epi tês hektaias gonês, hên ekpesein elege tês

mousourgou, tô tôn ôôn eikasthenta chitôni; meta de

touton êdê kai tall', hosa pros ekeinou legetai dia tou

peri physios paidiou syngrammatos.

All' ei tôn diaplasthentôn hekaston houtô meineie

smikron, hôs ex archês egeneto, ti an eiê pleon?

auxanesthai toinyn auta chrê. pôs oun auxêthêsetai?

pantê diateinomena th' hama kai trephomena. kai moi tôn

emprosthen eirêmenôn epi tês kysteôs, hên hoi paides

emphysôntes etribon, anamnêstheis mathêsê mallon || kak 87

tôn nyn rhêthêsomenôn.

Ennoêson gar dê tên kardian houtô men mikran einai kat'

archas, hôs kenchrou mêden diapherein ê, ei boulei,

kyamou, kai zêtêson, hopôs an allôs hautê genoito megalê

chôris tou pantê diateinomenên trephesthai di' holês

heautês, hôs oligô prosthen edeiknyto to sperma

trephomenon. all' oude tout' Erasistratos oiden ho tên

technên tês physeôs hymnôn, all' houtôs auxanesthai ta

zôa nomizei kathaper tina krêseran ê seiran ê sakkon ê

talaron, hôn hekastô kata to peras epiplekomenôn homoiôn

heterôn tois ex archês auta syntitheisin hê prosthesis

gignetai.

Alla touto g' ouk auxêsis estin alla genesis, ô

sophôtate; gignetai gar ho thylakos eti kai ho sakkos

kai thoimation kai hê oikia kai to ploion kai tôn allôn

hekaston, hotan mêdepô to prosêkon eidos, hou charin

hypo tou technitou dêmiourgeitai, sympeplêrômenon ê.

pot' oun auxanetai? hotan êdê teleios ôn ho talaros, hôs

echein pythmena te tina kai stoma kai hoion gastera kai

ta toutôn metaxy, meizôn hapasi toutois genêtai. kai pôs

|| estai touto? phêsei tis. pôs d' allôs ê ei zôon 88

exaiphnês ê phyton ho talaros hêmin genoito? monôn gar

tôn zôntôn hê auxêsis. sy d' isôs oiei tên oikian

oikodomoumenên auxanesthai kai ton talaron plekomenon

kai thoimation hyphainomenon. all' ouch hôd' echei; tou

men gar êdê sympeplêrômenou kata to eidos hê auxêsis,

tou d' eti gignomenou hê eis to eidos hodos ouk auxêsis

alla genesis onomazetai; auxanetai men gar to on,

gignetai de to ouk on.

This also was unknown to Erasistratus, whom nothing escaped, if his

followers speak in any way truly in maintaining that he was familiar

with the Peripatetic philosophers. Now, in so far as he acclaims

Nature as being an artist in construction, even I recognize the

Peripatetic teachings, but in other respects he does not come near

them. For if anyone will make himself acquainted with the writings

of Aristotle and Theophrastus, these will appear to him to consist

of commentaries on the Nature-lore [physiology][196] of

Hippocrates--according to which the principles of heat, cold, dryness

and moisture act upon and are acted upon by one another, the hot

principle being the most active, and the cold coming next to it in

power; all this was stated in the first place by Hippocrates and

secondly by Aristotle.[197] Further, it is at once the Hippocratic and

the Aristotelian teaching that the parts which are being nourished

receive that nourishment throughout their whole substance, and that,

similarly, processes of _mingling_ and _alteration_ involve the entire

substance.[198] Moreover, that digestion is a species of alteration--a

transmutation of the nutriment into the proper quality of the thing

receiving it; that blood-production also is an alteration, and

nutrition as well; that growth results from extension in all

directions, combined with nutrition; that alteration is effected

mainly by the warm principle, and that therefore digestion, nutrition,

and the generation of the various humours, as well as the qualities of

the surplus substances, result from the _innate heat_;[199] all these

and many other points besides in regard to the aforesaid faculties,

the origin of diseases, and the discovery of remedies, were correctly

stated first by Hippocrates of all writers whom we know, and were in

the second place correctly expounded by Aristotle. Now, if all these

views meet with the approval of the Peripatetics, as they undoubtedly

do, and if none of them satisfy Erasistratus, what can the

Erasistrateans possibly mean by claiming that their leader was

associated with these philosophers? The fact is, they revere him as a

god, and think that everything he says is true. If this be so, then we

must suppose the Peripatetics to have strayed very far from truth,

since they approve of none of the ideas of Erasistratus. And, indeed,

the disciples of the latter produce his connection with the

Peripatetics in order to furnish his Nature-lore with a respectable

pedigree.

Now, let us reverse our argument and put it in a different way from

that which we have just employed. For if the Peripatetics were correct

in their teaching about Nature, there could be nothing more absurd

than the contentions of Erasistratus. And, I will leave it to the

Erasistrateans themselves to decide; they must either advance the one

proposition or the other. According to the former one the Peripatetics

had no accurate acquaintance with Nature, and according to the second,

Erasistratus. It is my task, then, to point out the opposition between

the two doctrines, and theirs to make the choice....

But they certainly will not abandon their reverence for Erasistratus.

Very well, then; let them stop talking about the Peripatetic

philosophers. For among the numerous physiological teachings regarding

the genesis and destruction of animals, their health, their diseases,

and the methods of treating these, there will be found one only which

is common to Erasistratus and the Peripatetics--namely, the view that

Nature does everything for some purpose, and nothing in vain.

But even as regards this doctrine their agreement is only verbal; in

practice Erasistratus makes havoc of it a thousand times over. For,

according to him, the spleen was made for no purpose, as also the

omentum; similarly, too, the arteries which are inserted into

kidneys[200]--although these are practically the largest of all those

that spring from the great artery [aorta]! And to judge by the

Erasistratean argument, there must be countless other useless

structures; for, if he knows nothing at all about these structures, he

has little more anatomical knowledge than a butcher, while, if he is

acquainted with them and yet does not state their use, he clearly

imagines that they were made for no purpose, like the spleen. Why,

however, should I discuss these structures fully, belonging as they do

to the treatise "On the Use of Parts," which I am personally about to

complete?

Let us, then, sum up again this same argument, and, having said a few

words more in answer to the Erasistrateans, proceed to our next topic.

The fact is, these people seem to me to have read none of Aristotle's

writings, but to have heard from others how great an authority he was

on "Nature," and that those of the Porch[201] follow in the steps of

his Nature-lore; apparently they then discovered a single one of the

current ideas which is common to Aristotle and Erasistratus, and made

up some story of a connection between Erasistratus and these

people.[202] That Erasistratus, however, has no share in the

Nature-lore of Aristotle is shown by an enumeration of the aforesaid

doctrines, which emanated first from Hippocrates, secondly from

Aristotle, thirdly from the Stoics (with a single modification,

namely, that for them the _qualities_ are _bodies_).[203]

Perhaps, however, they will maintain that it was in the matter of

_logic_ that Erasistratus associated himself with the Peripatetic

philosophers? Here they show ignorance of the fact that these

philosophers never brought forward false or inconclusive arguments,

while the Erasistratean books are full of them.

So perhaps somebody may already be asking, in some surprise, what

possessed Erasistratus that he turned so completely from the doctrines

of Hippocrates, and why it is that he takes away the attractive

faculty from the biliary[204] passages in the liver--for we have

sufficiently discussed the kidneys--alleging [as the cause of

bile-secretion] a favourable situation, the narrowness of vessels, and

_a common space_ into which the veins from the gateway [of the

liver][205] conduct the unpurified blood, and from which, in the first

place, the [biliary] passages take over the bile, and secondly, the

[branches] of the vena cava take over the purified blood. For it would

not only have done him no harm to have mentioned the idea of

_attraction_, but he would thereby have been able to get rid of

countless other disputed questions.

Kai taut' Erasistratos ouk oiden, hon ouden lanthanei,

eiper holôs alêtheuousin hoi ap' autou phaskontes

hômilêkenai tois ek tou peripatou philosophois auton.

achri men oun tou tên physin hymnein hôs technikên kagô

gnôrizô ta tou peripatou dogmata, tôn d' allôn ouden

oud' engys. ei gar tis homilêseie tois Aristotelous kai

Theophrastou grammasi, tês Hippokratous an auta doxeie

physiologias hypomnêmata synkeisthai, to thermon kai to

psychron || kai to xêron kai to hygron eis allêla drônta 89

kai paschonta kai toutôn autôn drastikôtaton men to

thermon, deuteron de tê dynamei to psychron Hippokratous

tauta sympanta prôtou, deuterou d' Aristotelous

eipontos. trephesthai de di' holôn hautôn ta trephomena

kai kerannysthai di' holôn ta kerannymena kai

alloiousthai di' holôn ta alloioumena, kai tauth'

Hippokrateia th' hama kai Aristoteleia. kai tên pepsin

alloiôsin tin' hyparchein kai metabolên tou trephontos

eis tên oikeian tou trephomenou poiotêta, tên d'

exaimatôsin alloiôsin einai kai tên threpsin hôsautôs

kai tên auxêsin ek tês pantê diataseôs kai threpseôs

gignesthai, tên d' alloiôsin hypo tou thermou malista

synteleisthai kai dia touto kai tên pepsin kai tên

threpsin kai tên tôn chymôn hapantôn genesin, êdê de kai

tois perittômasi tas poiotêtas hypo tês emphytou

thermasias engignesthai, tauta sympanta kai pros toutois

hetera polla ta te tôn proeirêmenôn dynameôn kai ta || 90

tôn nosêmatôn tês geneseôs kai ta tôn iamatôn tês

heureseôs Hippokratês men prôtos hapantôn hôn ismen

orthôs eipen, Aristotelês de deuteros orthôs exêgêsato.

kai mên ei tauta sympanta tois ek tou peripatou dokei,

kathaper oun dokei, mêden d' autôn areskei tô

Erasistratô, ti pote bouletai tois Erasistrateiois hê

pros tous philosophous ekeinous tou tês haireseôs autôn

hêgemonos homilia? thaumazousi men gar auton hôs theon

kai pant' alêtheuein nomizousin. ei d' houtôs echei

tauta, pampoly dêpou tês alêtheias esphalthai chrê

nomizein tous ek tou peripatou philosophous, hois mêden

hôn Erasistratos hypelambanen areskei. kai mên hôsper

tin' eugeneian autô tês physiologias tên pros tous

andras ekeinous synousian ekporizousi.

Palin oun anastrepsômen ton logon heterôs ê hôs oligô

prosthen etychomen eipontes. eiper gar hoi ek tou

peripatou kalôs ephysiologêsan, ouden an eiê

lêrôdesteron Erasistratou kai didômi tois

Erasistrateiois autois tên hairesin; ê gar ton proteron

logon ê touton || prosêsontai. legei d' ho men proteros 91

ouden orthôs egnôkenai peri physeôs tous peripatêtikous,

ho de deuteros Erasistraton. emon men oun hypomnêsai tôn

dogmatôn tên machên, ekeinôn d' hê hairesis.

All' ouk an apostaien tou thaumazein Erasistraton;

oukoun siôpatôsan peri tôn ek tou peripatou philosophôn.

pampollôn gar ontôn dogmatôn physikôn peri te genesin

kai phthoran tôn zôôn kai hygieian kai nosous kai tas

therapeias autôn hen monon heurethêsetai tauton

Erasistratô kakeinois tois andrasi, to tinos heneka

panta poiein tên physin kai matên mêden.

Alla kai auto touto mechri logou koinon, ergô de

myriakis Erasistratos auto diaphtheirei; matên men gar

ho splên egeneto, matên de to epiploon, matên d' hai eis

tous nephrous artêriai kataphyomenai, schedon hapasôn

tôn apo tês megalês artêrias apoblastanousôn ousai

megistai, matên d' alla myria kata ge ton Erasistrateion

logon; haper ei men oud' holôs gignôskei, brachei

mageirou sophôteros estin en tais anatomais, ei d' eidôs

ou legei tên chreian autôn, oietai || dêlonoti 92

paraplêsiôs tô splêni matên auta gegonenai. kaitoi ti

taut' epexerchomai tês peri chreias moriôn pragmateias

onta mellousês hêmin idia perainesthai?

Palin oun analabômen ton auton logon eipontes te ti

brachy pros tous Erasistrateious eti tôn ephexês

echômetha. dokousi gar moi mêden anegnôkenai tôn

Aristotelous houtoi syngrammatôn, all' allôn akouontes,

hôs deinos ên peri physin ho anthrôpos kai hôs hoi apo

tês stoas kat' ichnê tês ekeinou physiologias

badizousin, eith' heurontes hen ti tôn peripheromenôn

dogmatôn koinon autô pros Erasistraton anaplasai tina

synousian autou pros ekeinous tous andras. all' hoti men

tês Aristotelous physiologias ouden Erasistratô

metestin, ho katalogos tôn proeirêmenôn endeiknytai

dogmatôn, ha prôtou men Hippokratous ên, deuterou d'

Aristotelous, tritôn de tôn Stôïkôn, henos monou

metatithemenou tou tas poiotêtas einai sômata.

Tacha d' an tês logikês heneka theôrias hômilêkenai

phaien ton Erasistraton tois ek tou peripatou

philosophois, ouk eidotes, hôs ekeinoi men pseu||deis 93

kai aperantous ouk egrapsan logous, ta d' Erasistrateia

biblia pampollous echei tous toioutous.

Tach' an oun êdê tis thaumazoi kai diaporoiê, ti pathôn

ho Erasistratos eis tosouton tôn Hippokratous dogmatôn

apetrapeto kai dia ti tôn en hêpati porôn tôn

cholêdochôn, halis gar êdê nephrôn, aphelomenos tên

helktikên dynamin epikairon aitiatai thesin kai stomatôn

stenotêta kai chôran tina koinên, eis hên paragousi men

hai apo tôn pylôn to akatharton haima, metalambanousi de

proteroi men hoi poroi tên cholên, deuterai d' hai apo

tês koilês phlebos to katharon haima. pros gar tô mêden

an blabênai tên holkên eipôn allôn myriôn emellen

amphisbêtoumenôn apallaxesthai logôn.

At the actual moment, however, the Erasistrateans are engaged in a

considerable battle, not only with others but also amongst themselves,

and so they cannot explain the passage from the first book of the

"General Principles," in which Erasistratus says, "Since there are two

kinds of vessels opening[206] at the same place, the one kind

extending to the gall-bladder and the other to the vena cava, the

result is that, of the nutriment carried up from the alimentary canal,

that part which fits both kinds of stomata is received into both kinds

of vessels, some being carried into the gall-bladder, and the rest

passing over into the vena cava." For it is difficult to say what we

are to understand by the words "opening at the same place" which are

written at the beginning of this passage. Either they mean there is a

_junction_[207] between the termination of the vein which is on the

concave surface of the liver[208] and two other vascular terminations

(that of the vessel on the convex surface of the liver[209] and that

of the bile-duct), or, if not, then we must suppose that there is, as

it were, a common space for all three vessels, which becomes filled

from the lower vein,[210] and empties itself both into the bile-duct

and into the branches of the vena cava. Now, there are many

difficulties in both of these explanations, but if I were to state

them all, I should find myself inadvertently writing an exposition of

the teaching of Erasistratus, instead of carrying out my original

undertaking. There is, however, one difficulty common to both these

explanations, namely, that the whole of the blood does not become

purified. For it ought to fall into the bile-duct as into a kind of

sieve, instead of going (running, in fact, rapidly) past it, into the

larger stoma, by virtue of the impulse of _anadosis_.

Are these, then, the only inevitable difficulties in which the

argument of Erasistratus becomes involved through his disinclination

to make any use of the attractive faculty, or is it that the

difficulty is greatest here, and also so obvious that even a child

could not avoid seeing it?

Hôs nyn ge polemos ou smikros esti tois Erasistrateiois

ou pros tous allous monon alla kai pros allêlous, ouk

echousin, hopôs exêgêsôntai tên ek tou prôtou tôn

katholou logôn lexin, en hê phêsin; "Eis to || auto d' 94

anestomômenôn heterôn anestomômenôn heterôn dyo angeiôn

tôn t' epi tên cholêdochon teinontôn kai tôn epi tên

koilên phleba symbainei tês anapheromenês ek tês koilias

trophês ta enarmozonta hekaterois tôn stomatôn eis

hekatera tôn angeiôn metalambanesthai kai ta men epi tên

cholêdochon pheresthai, ta d' epi tên koilên phleba

peraiousthai." to gar "eis to auto anestomômenôn," ho

kat' archas tês lexeôs gegraptai, ti pote chrê noêsai,

chalepon eipein. êtoi gar houtôs eis tauton, hôste tô

tês en tois simois phlebos perati synaptein dyo hetera

perata, to t' en tois kyrtois kai to tou cholêdochou

porou, ê, ei mê houtô, chôran tina koinên epinoêsai chrê

tôn triôn angeiôn hoion dexamenên tina, plêroumenên men

hypo tês katô phlebos, ekkenoumenên d' eis te tous

cholêdochous porous kai tas tês koilês aposchidas; kath'

hekateran de tôn exêgêseôn atopa polla, peri hôn ei

pantôn legoimi, lathoim' an emauton exêgêseis

Erasistratou graphôn, ouch, hoper ex archês prouthemên,

perainôn. koinon d' amphoterais tais exêgêsesin atopon

to mê || kathairesthai pan to haima. chrê gar hôs eis 95

êthmon tina to cholêdochon angeion empiptein auto, ou

parerchesthai kai pararrhein ôkeôs eis to meizon stoma

tê rhymê tês anadoseôs pheromenon.

Ar' oun en toutois monon aporiais aphyktois ho

Erasistratou logos enechetai mê boulêthentos chrêsasthai

tais helktikais dynamesin eis mêden, ê sphodrotata men

en toutois kai saphôs houtôs, hôs an mêde paida lathein?

And if one looks carefully into the matter one will find that even

Erasistratus's reasoning on the subject of _nutrition_, which he takes

up in the second book of his "General Principles," fails to escape

this same difficulty. For, having conceded one premise to the

principle that matter tends to fill a vacuum, as we previously showed,

he was only able to draw a conclusion in the case of the veins and

their contained blood.[211] That is to say, when blood is running

away through the stomata of the veins, and is being dispersed, then,

since an absolutely empty space cannot result, and the veins cannot

collapse (for this was what he overlooked), it was therefore shown to

be necessary that the adjoining quantum of fluid should flow in and

fill the place of the fluid evacuated. It is in this way that we may

suppose the veins to be nourished; they get the benefit of the blood

which they contain. But how about the nerves?[212] For they do not

also contain blood. One might obviously say that they draw their

supply from the veins.[213] But Erasistratus will not have it so. What

further contrivance, then, does he suppose? He says that a nerve has

within itself veins and arteries, like a rope woven by Nature out of

three different strands. By means of this hypothesis he imagined that

his theory would escape from the idea of _attraction_. For if the

nerve contain within itself a blood-vessel it will no longer need the

adventitious flow of other blood from the real vein lying adjacent;

this fictitious vessel, perceptible only in theory,[214] will suffice

it for nourishment.

But this, again, is succeeded by another similar difficulty. For this

small vessel will nourish itself, but it will not be able to nourish

this adjacent simple nerve or artery, unless these possess some innate

proclivity for attracting nutriment. For how could the _nerve_, being

simple, attract its nourishment, as do the composite veins, by virtue

of the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled? For, although

according to Erasistratus, it contains within itself a cavity of

sorts, this is not occupied with blood, but with _psychic

pneuma_,[215] and we are required to imagine the nutriment introduced,

not into this cavity, but into the vessel containing it, whether it

needs merely to be nourished, or to grow as well. How, then, are we to

imagine it introduced? For this simple vessel [_i.e._ nerve] is so

small--as are also the other two--that if you prick it at any part

with the finest needle you will tear the whole three of them at once.

Thus there could never be in it a perceptible space entirely empty.

And an emptied space which merely existed in theory could not compel

the adjacent fluid to come and fill it.

At this point, again, I should like Erasistratus himself to answer

regarding this small elementary nerve, whether it is actually one and

definitely continuous, or whether it consists of many small bodies,

such as those assumed by Epicurus, Leucippus, and Democritus.[216] For

I see that the Erasistrateans are at variance on this subject. Some of

them consider it one and continuous, for otherwise, as they say, he

would not have called it _simple_; and some venture to resolve it into

yet other elementary bodies. But if it be one and continuous, then

what is evacuated from it in the so-called _insensible transpiration_

of the physicians will leave no empty space in it; otherwise it would

not be one body but many, separated by empty spaces. But if it

consists of many bodies, then we have "escaped by the back door," as

the saying is, to Asclepiades, seeing that we have postulated certain

_inharmonious elements_. Once again, then, we must call Nature

"inartistic"; for this necessarily follows the assumption of such

elements.

For this reason some of the Erasistrateans seem to me to have done

very foolishly in reducing the simple vessels to elements such as

these. Yet it makes no difference to me, since the theory of both

parties regarding nutrition will be shown to be absurd. For in these

minute simple vessels constituting the large perceptible nerves, it is

impossible, according to the theory of those who would keep the former

continuous, that any "refilling of a vacuum" should take place, since

no vacuum can occur in a continuum even if anything does run away; for

the parts left come together (as is seen in the case of water) and

again become one, taking up the whole space of that which previously

separated them. Nor will any "refilling" occur if we accept the

argument of the other Erasistrateans, since none of their _elements_

need it. For this principle only holds of things which are

perceptible, and not of those which exist merely in theory; this

Erasistratus expressly acknowledges, for he states that it is not a

vacuum such as this, interspersed in small portions among the

corpuscles, that his various treatises deal with, but a vacuum which

is clear, perceptible, complete in itself, large in size, evident, or

however else one cares to term it (for, what Erasistratus himself says

is, that "there cannot be a perceptible space which is entirely

empty"; while I, for my part, being abundantly equipped with terms

which are equally elucidatory, at least in relation to the present

topic of discussion, have added them as well).

Thus it seems to me better that we also should help the Erasistrateans

with some contribution, since we are on the subject, and should advise

those who reduce the vessel called _primary_ and _simple_ by

Erasistratus into other elementary bodies to give up their opinion;

for not only do they gain nothing by it, but they are also at variance

with Erasistratus in this matter. That they gain nothing by it has

been clearly demonstrated; for this hypothesis could not escape the

difficulty regarding _nutrition_. And it also seems perfectly evident

to me that this hypothesis is not in consonance with the view of

Erasistratus, when it declares that what he calls simple and primary

is composite, and when it destroys the principle of Nature's artistic

skill.[217] For, if we do not grant a certain _unity of

substance_[218] to these simple structures as well, and if we arrive

eventually at inharmonious and indivisible elements,[219] we shall

most assuredly deprive Nature of her artistic skill, as do all the

physicians and philosophers who start from this hypothesis. For,

according to such a hypothesis, Nature does not precede, but is

secondary to the _parts_ of the animal.[220] Now, it is not the

province of what comes secondarily, but of what pre-exists, to shape

and to construct. Thus we must necessarily suppose that the faculties

of Nature, by which she shapes the animal, and makes it grow and

receive nourishment, are present from the seed onwards; whereas none

of these inharmonious and non-partite corpuscles contains within

itself any formative, incremental,[221] nutritive, or, in a word, any

artistic power; it is, by hypothesis, unimpressionable and

untransformable,[222] whereas, as we have previously shown,[223] none

of the processes mentioned takes place without transformation,

alteration, and complete intermixture. And, owing to this necessity,

those who belong to these sects are unable to follow out the

consequences of their supposed elements, and they are all therefore

forced to declare Nature devoid of art. It is not from us, however,

that the Erasistrateans should have learnt this, but from those very

philosophers who lay most stress on a preliminary investigation into

the elements of all existing things.

Now, one can hardly be right in supposing that Erasistratus could

reach such a pitch of foolishness as to be incapable of recognizing

the logical consequences of this theory, and that, while assuming

Nature to be artistically creative, he would at the same time break up

substance into insensible, inharmonious, and untransformable elements.

If, however, he will grant that there occurs in the elements a process

of alteration and transformation, and that there exists in them unity

and continuity, then that _simple vessel_ of his (as he himself names

it) will turn out to be single and uncompounded. And the simple vein

will receive nourishment from itself, and the nerve and artery from

the vein. How, and in what way? For, when we were at this point

before, we drew attention to the disagreement among the

Erasistrateans,[224] and we showed that the nutrition of these simple

vessels was impracticable according to the teachings of both parties,

although we did not hesitate to adjudicate in their quarrel and to do

Erasistratus the honour of placing him in the better sect.[225]

Let our argument, then, be transferred again to the doctrine which

assumes this _elementary nerve_[226] to be a single, simple, and

entirely unified structure, and let us consider how it is to be

nourished; for what is discovered here will at once be found to be

common also to the school of Hippocrates.

It seems to me that our enquiry can be most rigorously pursued in

subjects who are suffering from illness and have become very

emaciated, since in these people all parts of the body are obviously

atrophied and thin, and in need of additional substance and

feeding-up; for the same reason the ordinary _perceptible_ nerve,

regarding which we originally began this discussion, has become thin,

and requires nourishment. Now, this contains within itself various

parts, namely, a great many of these primary, invisible, minute

nerves, a few simple arteries, and similarly also veins. Thus, all its

elementary nerves have themselves also obviously become emaciated;

for, if they had not, neither would the nerve as a whole; and of

course, in such a case, the whole nerve cannot require nourishment

without each of these requiring it too. Now, if on the one hand they

stand in need of feeding-up, and if on the other the principle of the

refilling of a vacuum[227] can give them no help--both by reason of

the difficulties previously mentioned and the actual thinness, as I

shall show--we must then seek another cause for nutrition.

How is it, then, that the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled is

unable to afford nourishment to one in such a condition? Because its

rule is that only so much of the contiguous matter should succeed as

has flowed away. Now this is sufficient for nourishment in the case

of those who are in good condition, for, in them, what is

_presented_[228] must be equal to what has flowed away. But in the

case of those who are very emaciated and who need a great restoration

of nutrition, unless what was presented were many times greater than

what has been emptied out, they would never be able to regain their

original habit. It is clear, therefore, that these parts will have to

exert a greater amount of _attraction_, in so far as their

requirements are greater. And I fail to understand how Erasistratus

does not perceive that here again he is putting the cart before the

horse. Because, in the case of the sick, there must be a large amount

of _presentation_[228] in order to feed them up, he argues that the

factor of "refilling"[227] must play an equally large part. And how

could much _presentation_ take place if it were not preceded by an

abundant _delivery_[229] of nutriment? And if he calls the conveyance

of food through the veins delivery, and its assumption by each of

these simple and visible nerves and arteries not delivery but

_distribution_,[230] as some people have thought fit to name it, and

then ascribes conveyance through the veins to the principle of

vacuum-refilling alone, let him explain to us the assumption of food

by the hypothetical elements.[231] For it has been shown that at least

in relation to these there is no question of the refilling of a vacuum

being in operation, and especially where the parts are very

attenuated. It is worth while listening to what Erasistratus says

about these cases in the second book of his "General Principles": "In

the ultimate simple [vessels], which are thin and narrow, presentation

takes place from the adjacent vessels, the nutriment being attracted

through the sides of the vessels and deposited in the empty spaces

left by the matter which has been carried away." Now, in this

statement firstly I admit and accept the words "through the sides."

For, if the simple nerve were actually to take in the food through its

mouth, it could not distribute it through its whole substance; for the

mouth is dedicated to the psychic pneuma.[232] It can, however, take

it in through its sides from the adjacent simple vein. Secondly, I

also accept in Erasistratus's statement the expression which precedes

"through the sides." What does this say? "The nutriment being

attracted through the sides of the vessels." Now I, too, agree that it

is attracted, but it has been previously shown that this is not

through the tendency of evacuated matter to be replaced.

Ei d' episkopoito tis epimelôs, oud' ho peri threpseôs

autou logos, hon en tô deuterô tôn katholou logôn

diexerchetai, tas autas aporias ekpheugei. tê gar pros

to kenoumenon akolouthia synchôrêthentos henos lêmmatos,

hôs prosthen edeiknymen, eperaine ti peri phlebôn monôn

kai tou kat' autas haimatos. ekreontos gar tinos kata ta

stomat' autôn kai diaphoroumenou kai mêt' athroôs topou

kenou dynamenou genesthai mête tôn phlebôn sympesein,

touto gar ên to paraleipomenon, anankaion ên hepesthai

to syneches anaplêroun tou kenou||menou tên basin. hai 96

men dê phlebes hêmin houtô threpsontai tou periechomenou

kat' autas haimatos apolauousai; ta de neura pôs? ou gar

dê kan toutois estin haima. procheiron men gar ên

eipein, helkonta para tôn phlebôn; all' ou bouletai. ti

pot' oun kantautha epitechnatai? phlebas echein en

heautô kai artêrias to neuron hôsper tina seiran ek

triôn himantôn diapherontôn tê physei peplegmenên. ôêthê

gar ek tautês tês hypotheseôs ekpheuxesthai tô logô tên

holkên; ou gar an eti deêsesthai to neuron en heautô

periechon haimatos angeion epirrhytou tinos exôthen ek

tês parakeimenês phlebos tês alêthinês haimatos heterou,

all' hikanon autô pros tên threpsin esesthai to

katepseusmenon angeion ekeino to logô theôrêton.

Alla kantautha palin auton homoia tis aporia diedexato.

touti gar to smikron angeion heauto men threpsei, to

parakeimenon mentoi neuron ekeino to haploun ê tên

artêrian ouch hoion t' estai trephein aneu tou symphyton

tin' hyparchein autois holkên tês trophês. || tê men gar 97

pros to kenoumenon akolouthia pôs an eti dynaito tên

trophên epispasthai to haploun neuron, hôsper hai

phlebes hai synthetoi? koilotês men gar tis estin en

autô kat' auton, all' ouch haimatos hautê g' alla

pneumatos psychikou mestê. deometha d' hêmeis ouk eis

tên koilotêta tautên eisagein tô logô tên trophên all'

eis to periechon autên angeion, eit' oun trephesthai

monon eite kai auxesthai deoito. pôs oun eisaxomen?

houtô gar esti smikron ekeino to haploun angeion kai

mentoi kai tôn allôn hekateron, hôst', ei tê leptotatê

belonê nyxeias ti meros, hama diairêseis ta tria. topos

oun aisthêtos athroôs kenos ouk an pot' en autô genoito;

logô de theôrêtos topos kenoumenos ouk ên anankastikos

tês tou synechous akolouthias.

Êboulomên d' au palin moi kantautha ton Erasistraton

auton apokrinasthai peri tou stoicheiôdous ekeinou

neurou tou smikrou, poteron hen ti kai syneches akribôs

estin ê ek pollôn kai smikrôn sômatôn, hôn Epikouros kai

Leukippos kai Dêmokritos hypethento, syn||keitai. kai 98

gar kai peri toutou tous Erasistrateious horô

diapheromenous. hoi men gar hen ti kai syneches auto

nomizousin ê ouk an haploun eirêsthai pros autou phasi;

tines de kai touto dialyein eis hetera stoicheiôdê

tolmôsin. all' ei men hen ti kai syneches esti, to

kenoumenon ex autou kata tên adêlon hypo tôn iatrôn

onomazomenên diapnoên oudemian en heautô kataleipsei

chôran kenên. houtô gar ouch hen alla polla genêsetai,

dieirgomena dêpou tais kenais chôrais. ei d' ek pollôn

synkeitai, tê kêpaia kata tên paroimian pros Asklêpiadên

apechôrêsamen anarma tina stoicheia tithemenoi. palin

oun atechnos hêmin hê physis legesthô; tois gar

toioutois stoicheiois ex anankês touth' hepetai.

Dio dê moi kai dokousin amathôs pany tên eis ta toiauta

stoicheia tôn haplôn angeiôn eisagein dialysin enioi tôn

Erasistrateiôn. emoi goun ouden diapherei. kath'

hekaterous gar atopos ho tês threpseôs estai logos,

ekeinois tois haplois angeiois tois smikrois tois

syntitheisi ta megala || te kai aisthêta neura kata men 99

tous synechê phylattontas auta mê dynamenês genesthai

tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias, hoti mêden en tô

synechei gignetai kenon, kan aporrheê ti; synerchetai

gar pros allêla ta kataleipomena moria, kathaper epi tou

hydatos horatai, kai palin hen gignetai panta tên chôran

tou diaphorêthentos auta katalambanonta; kata de tous

heterous, hoti tôn stoicheiôn ekeinôn ouden deitai tês

pros to kenoumenon akolouthias. epi gar tôn aisthêtôn

monôn, ouk epi tôn logô theôrêtôn echei dynamin, hôs

autos ho Erasistratos homologei diarrhêdên, ou peri tou

toioutou kenou phaskôn hekastote poieisthai ton logon,

ho kata brachy parespartai tois sômasin, alla peri tou

saphous kai aisthêtou kai athroou kai megalou kai

enargous kai hopôs an allôs onomazein ethelês.

Erasistratos men gar autos aisthêton athroôs ou phêsi

dynasthai genesthai kenon; egô d' ek periousias

euporêsas onomatôn tauton dêloun en ge tô nyn prokeimenô

logô dynamenôn kai talla prosethêka.

Kallion oun moi dokei kai || hêmas ti syneisenenkasthai 100

tois Erasistrateiois, epeidê kata touto gegonamen, kai

symbouleusai tois to prôton ekeino kai haploun hyp'

Erasistratou kaloumenon angeion eis heter' atta sômata

stoicheiôdê dialyousin apostênai tês hypolêpseôs, hôs

pros tô mêden echein pleon eti kai diapheromenois

Erasistratô. hoti men oun ouden echei pleon,

epidedeiktai saphôs; oude gar êdynêthê diaphygein tên

peri tês threpseôs aporian hê hypothesis; hoti d' oud'

Erasistratô symphônos estin, ho ekeinos haploun kai

prôton onomazei, syntheton apophainousa, kai tên tês

physeôs technên anairousa, prodêlon kai tout' einai moi

dokei. ei mê gar kan tois haplois toutois henôsin tina

tês ousias apoleipsomen, all' eis anarma kai amerista

katabêsometha stoicheia, pantapasin anairêsomen tês

physeôs tên technên, hôsper kai pantes hoi ek tautês

hormômenoi tês hypotheseôs iatroi kai philosophoi.

deutera gar tôn tou zôou moriôn kata tên toiautên

hypothesin hê physis, ou prôtê gignetai. diaplattein de

|| kai dêmiourgein ou tou deuterou gegonotos, alla tou 101

proÿparchontos estin; hôst' anankaion estin euthys ek

spermatôn hypothesthai tas dynameis tês physeôs, hais

diaplattei te kai auxanei kai trephei to zôon; all'

ekeinôn tôn sômatôn tôn anarmôn kai amerôn ouden en

heautô diaplastikên echei dynamin ê auxêtikên ê

threptikên ê holôs technikên; apathes gar kai

ametablêton hypokeitai. tôn d' eirêmenôn ouden aneu

metabolês kai alloiôseôs kai tês di' holôn kraseôs

gignetai, kathaper kai dia tôn emprosthen enedeixametha.

kai dia tautên tên anankên ouk echontes, hopôs ta

akoloutha tois stoicheiois, hois hypethento,

phylattoien, hoi apo tôn toioutôn haireseôn hapantes

atechnon ênankasthêsan apophênasthai tên physin. kaitoi

tauta g' ou par' hêmôn echrên manthanein tous

Erasistrateious, alla par' autôn tôn philosophôn, hois

malista dokei prôton episkopeisthai ta stoicheia tôn

ontôn hapantôn.

Oukoun oud' Erasistraton an tis orthôs achri tosautês

amathias nomizoi proêkein, hôs mêde tautên gnôrisai

dynêthênai tên akolou||thian, all' hama men hypothesthai 102

technikên tên physin, hama d' eis apathê kai anarma kai

ametablêta stoicheia katathrausai tên ousian. kai mên ei

dôsei tin' en tois stoicheiois alloiôsin te kai

metabolên kai henôsin kai synecheian, hen asyntheton

autô to haploun angeion ekeino, kathaper kai autos

onomazei, genêsetai. all' hê men haplê phleps ex hautês

traphêsetai, to neuron de kai hê artêria para tês

plebos. pôs kai tina tropon? en toutô gar dê kai

prosthen genomenoi tô logô tês tôn Erasistrateiôn

diaphônias emnêmoneusamen, epedeixamen de kai kath'

hekaterous men aporon einai tên tôn haplôn ekeinôn

angeiôn threpsin, alla kai krinai tên machên autôn ouk

ôknêsamen kai timêsai ton Erasistraton eis tên beltiona

metastêsantes hairesin.

Authis oun epi tên hen haploun hênômenon heautô pantê to

stoicheiôdes ekeino neuron hypotithemenên hairesin ho

logos metabas episkopeisthô, pôs traphêsetai; to gar

heurethen entautha koinon an êdê kai tês Hippokratous

haireseôs genoito.

Kallion d' an moi dokô to zêtou||menon epi tôn 103

nenosêkotôn kai sphodra kataleleptysmenôn basanisthênai.

panta gar toutois enargôs phainetai ta moria tou sômatos

atropha kai lepta kai pollês prosthêkês te kai

anathrepseôs deomena. kai toinyn kai to neuron touto to

aisthêton, eph' houper ex archês epoiêsamên ton logon,

ischnon men hikanôs gegone, deitai de threpseôs. echei

d' en heautô merê pampolla men ekeina ta prôta kai

aorata neura ta smikra kai tinas artêrias haplas oligas

kai phlebas homoiôs. hapant' oun autou ta neura ta

stoicheiôdê kataleleptyntai dêlonoti kai auta, ê, ei

mêd' ekeina, oude to holon. kai toinyn kai threpseôs ou

to men holon deitai neuron, hekaston d' ekeinôn ou

deitai. kai mên ei deitai men anathrepseôs, ouden d' hê

pros to kenoumenon akolouthia boêthein autois dynatai

dia te tas emprosthen eirêmenas aporias kai dia tên

hypoguion ischnotêta, kathaper deixô, zêtêteon hêmin

estin heteran aitian threpseôs.

Pôs oun hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia trephein

adynatos esti ton houtô diakeimenon? hoti tosouton

akolouthein || anankazei tôn synechôn, hoson aporrhei. 104

touto d' epi men tôn euektountôn hikanon estin eis tên

threpsin, isa gar ep' autôn einai chrê tois aporrheousi

ta prostithemena; epi de tôn eschatôs ischnôn kai pollês

anathrepseôs deomenôn ei mê pollaplasion eiê to

prostithemenon tou kenoumenou, tên ex archês hexin

analabein ouk an pote dynainto. dêlon oun, hôs helkein

auta deêsei tosoutô pleion, hosô kai deitai pleionos.

Erasistratos de kantautha proteron poiêsas to deuteron

ouk oid' hopôs ouk aisthanetai. dioti gar, phêsi, pollê

prosthesis eis anathrepsin gignetai tois nenosêkosi, dia

touto kai hê pros tautên akolouthia pollê. pôs d' an

pollê prosthesis genoito mê proêgoumenês anadoseôs

dapsilous? ei de tên dia tôn phlebôn phoran tês trophês

anadosin kalei, tên d' eis hekaston tôn haplôn kai

aoratôn ekeinôn neurôn kai artêriôn metalêpsin ouk

anadosin alla diadosin, hôs tines onomazein êxiôsan,

eita || tên dia tôn phlebôn monê tê pros to kenoumenon 105

akolouthia phêsi gignesthai, tên eis ta logô theôrêta

metalêpsin hêmin exêgêsasthô. hoti men gar ouket' epi

toutôn hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia legesthai

dynatai kai malist' epi tôn eschatôs ischnôn,

apodedeiktai. ti de phêsin ep' autôn en tô deuterô tôn

katholou logôn ho Erasistratos, axion epakousai tês

lexeôs; "Tois d' eschatois te kai haplois, leptois te

kai stenois ousin, ek tôn parakeimenôn angeiôn hê

prosthesis symbainei eis ta kenômata tôn apenechthentôn

kata ta plagia tôn angeiôn helkomenês tês trophês kai

katachôrizomenês." ek tautês tês lexeôs prôton men to

kata ta plagia prosiemai te kai apodechomai; kata men

gar auto to stoma to haploun neuron ouk an dynaito

dechomenon tên trophên houtôs eis holon heauto

dianemein; anakeitai gar ekeino tô psychikô pneumati;

kata de to plagion ek tês parakeimenês phlebos tês

haplês enchôrei labein auto. deuteron d' apodechomai tôn

ek tês Erasistratou lexeôs onomatôn to gegrammenon

ephexês tô kata ta plagia. || ti gar phêsi? "Kata ta 106

plagia tôn angeiôn helkomenês tês trophês." hoti men oun

helketai, kai hêmeis homologoumen, hoti d' ou tê pros to

kenoumenon akolouthia, dedeiktai prosthen.

VII

Let us, then, consider together how it is attracted. How else than in

the way that iron is attracted by the lodestone, the latter having a

faculty attractive of this particular quality [existing in iron]?[233]

But if the beginning of anadosis depends on the squeezing action of

the stomach,[234] and the whole movement thereafter on the peristalsis

and propulsive action of the veins, as well as on the traction exerted

by each of the parts which are undergoing nourishment, then we can

abandon the principle of replacement of evacuated matter, as not being

suitable for a man who assumes Nature to be a skilled artist; thus we

shall also have avoided the contradiction of Asclepiades[235] though

we cannot refute it: for the disjunctive argument used for the

purposes of demonstration is, in reality, disjunctive not of two but

of three alternatives; now, if we treat the disjunction as a

disjunction of two alternatives, one of the two propositions assumed

in constructing our proof must be false; and if as a disjunctive of

three alternatives, no conclusion will be arrived at.

VII

Exeurômen oun koinê, pôs helketai. pôs d' allôs ê hôs ho

sidêros hypo tês hêrakleias lithou dynamin echousês

helktikên toiautês poiotêtos? all' ei tên men archên tês

anadoseôs hê tês koilias enthlipsis parechetai, tên de

meta tauta phoran hapasan hai te phlebes peristellomenai

kai proôthousai kai tôn trephomenôn hekaston epispômenon

eis heauto, tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias

apostantes, hôs ou prepousês andri technikên hypothemenô

tên physin, houtôs an êdê kai tên antilogian eiêmen

pepheugotes tên Asklêpiadou mê dynamenoi ge lyein autên.

to gar eis tên apodeixin paralambanomenon lêmma to

diezeugmenon ouk ek dyoin all' ek triôn esti kata ge tên

alêtheian diezeugmenon. ei men oun hôs ek dyoin autô

chrê||saimetha, pseudos estai ti tôn eis tên apodeixin 107

pareilêmmenôn; ei d' hôs ek triôn, aperantos ho logos

genêsetai.

VIII

Now Erasistratus ought not to have been ignorant of this if he had

ever had anything to do with the Peripatetics--even in a dream. Nor,

similarly, should he have been unacquainted with the genesis of the

_humours_, about which, not having even anything moderately plausible

to say, he thinks to deceive us by the excuse that the consideration

of such matters is not the least useful. Then, in Heaven's name, is it

useful to know how food is digested in the stomach, but unnecessary to

know how _bile_ comes into existence in the veins? Are we to pay

attention merely to the evacuation of this humour, and not to its

genesis? As though it were not far better to prevent its excessive

development from the beginning than to give ourselves all the trouble

of expelling it![236] And it is a strange thing to be entirely unaware

as to whether its genesis is to be looked on as taking place in the

body, or whether it comes from without and is contained in the food.

For, if it was right to raise this problem, why should we not make

investigations concerning the _blood_ as well--whether it takes its

origin in the body, or is distributed through the food as is

maintained by those who postulate _homoemeries_?[237] Assuredly it

would be much more useful to investigate what kinds of food are

suited, and what kinds unsuited, to the process of

blood-production[238] rather than to enquire into what articles of

diet are easily mastered by the activity of the stomach, and what

resist and contend with it. For the choice of the latter bears

reference merely to digestion, while that of the former is of

importance in regard to the generation of useful blood. For it is not

equally important whether the aliment be imperfectly chylified[239] in

the stomach or whether it fail to be turned into useful blood. Why is

Erasistratus not ashamed to distinguish all the various kinds of

digestive failure and all the occasions which give rise to them,

whilst in reference to the errors of blood-production he does not

utter a single word--nay, not a syllable? Now, there is certainly to

be found in the veins both thick and thin blood; in some people it is

redder, in others yellower, in some blacker, in others more of the

nature of phlegm. And one who realizes that it may smell offensively

not in one way only, but in a great many different respects (which

cannot be put into words, although perfectly appreciable to the

senses), would, I imagine, condemn in no measured terms the

carelessness of Erasistratus in omitting a consideration so essential

to the practice of our art.

Thus it is clear what errors in regard to the subject of _dropsies_

logically follow this carelessness. For, does it not show the most

extreme carelessness to suppose that the blood is prevented from going

forward into the liver owing to the _narrowness of the passages_, and

that dropsy can never occur in any other way? For, to imagine that

dropsy is never caused by the spleen[240] or any other part, but

always by induration of the liver,[241] is the standpoint of a man

whose intelligence is perfectly torpid and who is quite out of touch

with things that happen every day. For, not merely once or twice, but

frequently, we have observed dropsy produced by chronic haemorrhoids

which have been suppressed,[242] or which, through immoderate

bleeding, have given the patient a severe chill; similarly, in women,

the complete disappearance of the monthly discharge,[243] or an undue

evacuation such as is caused by violent bleeding from the womb, often

provoke dropsy; and in some of them the so-called female flux ends in

this disorder. I leave out of account the dropsy which begins in the

flanks or in any other susceptible part; this clearly confutes

Erasistratus's assumption, although not so obviously as does that kind

of dropsy which is brought about by an excessive chilling of the whole

constitution; this, which is the primary reason for the occurrence of

dropsy, results from a failure of blood-production,[244] very much

like the diarrhoea which follows imperfect digestion of food;

certainly in this kind of dropsy neither the liver nor any other

viscus becomes indurated.

The learned Erasistratus, however, overlooks--nay, despises--what

neither Hippocrates, Diocles, Praxagoras, nor Philistion[245]

despised, nor indeed any of the best philosophers, whether Plato,

Aristotle, or Theophrastus; he passes by whole functions as though it

were but a trifling and casual department of medicine which he was

neglecting, without deigning to argue whether or not these authorities

are right in saying that the bodily parts of all animals are governed

by the Warm, the Cold, the Dry and the Moist, the one pair being

active and the other passive, and that among these the Warm has most

power in connection with all functions, but especially with the

genesis of the humours.[246] Now, one cannot be blamed for not

agreeing with all these great men, nor for imagining that one knows

more than they; but not to consider such distinguished teaching worthy

either of contradiction or even mention shows an extraordinary

arrogance.

Now, Erasistratus is thoroughly small-minded and petty to the last

degree in all his disputations--when, for instance, in his treatise

"On Digestion,"[247] he argues jealously with those who consider that

this is a process of putrefaction of the food; and, in his work "On

Anadosis,"[248] with those who think that the anadosis of blood

through the veins results from the contiguity of the arteries; also,

in his work "On Respiration," with those who maintain that the air is

forced along by contraction. Nay, he did not even hesitate to

contradict those who maintain that the urine passes into the bladder

in a vaporous state,[249] as also those who say that imbibed fluids

are carried into the lung. Thus he delights to choose always the most

valueless doctrines, and to spend his time more and more in

contradicting these; whereas on the subject of the _origin of blood_

(which is in no way less important than the chylification[250] of food

in the stomach) he did not deign to dispute with any of the ancients,

nor did he himself venture to bring forward any other opinion, despite

the fact that at the beginning of his treatise on "General Principles"

he undertook to say how all the various natural functions take place,

and through what parts of the animal! Now, is it possible that, when

the faculty which naturally digests food is weak, the animal's

digestion fails, whereas the faculty which turns the digested food

into blood cannot suffer any kind of impairment?[251] Are we to

suppose this latter faculty alone to be as tough as steel and

unaffected by circumstances? Or is it that weakness of this faculty

will result in something else than dropsy? The fact, therefore, that

Erasistratus, in regard to other matters, did not hesitate to attack

even the most trivial views, whilst in this case he neither dared to

contradict his predecessors nor to advance any new view of his own,

proves plainly that he recognized the fallacy of his own way of

thinking.[252]

For what could a man possibly say about blood who had no use for

_innate heat_? What could he say about yellow or black bile, or

phlegm? Well, of course, he might say that the bile could come

directly from without, mingled with the food! Thus Erasistratus

practically says so in the following words: "It is of no value in

practical medicine to find out whether a fluid of this kind[253]

arises from the elaboration of food in the stomach-region, or whether

it reaches the body because it is mixed with the food taken in from

outside." But, my very good Sir, you most certainly maintain also that

this humour has to be evacuated from the animal, and that it causes

great pain if it be not evacuated. How, then, if you suppose that no

good comes from the bile, do you venture to say that an investigation

into its origin is of no value in medicine?

Well, let us suppose that it is contained in the food, and not

specifically secreted in the liver (for you hold these two things

possible). In this case, it will certainly make a considerable

difference whether the ingested food contains a minimum or a maximum

of bile; for the one kind is harmless, whereas that containing a large

quantity of bile, owing to the fact that it cannot be properly

purified[254] in the liver, will result in the various

affections--particularly jaundice--which Erasistratus himself states

to occur where there is much bile. Surely, then, it is most essential

for the physician to know in the first place, that the bile is

contained in the food itself from outside, and, secondly, that for

example, beet contains a great deal of bile, and bread very little,

while olive oil contains most, and wine least of all, and all the

other articles of diet different quantities. Would it not be absurd

for any one to choose voluntarily those articles which contain more

bile, rather than those containing less?

What, however, if the bile is not contained in the food, but comes

into existence in the animal's body? Will it not also be useful to

know what _state of the body_ is followed by a greater, and what by a

smaller occurrence of bile?[255] For obviously it is in our power to

alter and transmute morbid states of the body--in fact, to give them a

turn for the better. But if we did not know in what respect they were

morbid or in what way they diverged from the normal, how should we be

able to ameliorate them?

Therefore it is not useless in treatment, as Erasistratus says, to

know the actual truth about the genesis of bile. Certainly it is not

impossible, or even difficult to discover that the reason why _honey_

produces yellow bile is not that it contains a large quantity of this

within itself, but because it [the honey] undergoes change, becoming

_altered_ and transmuted into bile. For it would be bitter to the

taste if it contained bile from the outset, and it would produce an

equal quantity of bile in every person who took it. The facts,

however, are not so.[256] For in those who are in the prime of life,

especially if they are warm by nature and are leading a life of toil,

the honey changes entirely into yellow bile. Old people, however, it

suits well enough, inasmuch as the alteration which it undergoes is

not into bile, but into blood. Erasistratus, however, in addition to

knowing nothing about this, shows no intelligence even in the division

of his argument; he says that it is of no practical importance to

investigate whether the bile is contained in the food from the

beginning or comes into existence as a result of gastric digestion. He

ought surely to have added something about its genesis in liver and

veins, seeing that the old physicians and philosophers declare that it

along with the blood is generated in these organs. But it is

inevitable that people who, from the very outset, go astray, and

wander from the right road, should talk such nonsense, and should,

over and above this, neglect to search for the factors of most

practical importance in medicine.

Having come to this point in the argument, I should like to ask those

who declare that Erasistratus was very familiar with the Peripatetics,

whether they know what Aristotle stated and demonstrated with regard

to our bodies being compounded out of the Warm, the Cold, the Dry and

the Moist, and how he says that among these the Warm is the most

active, and that those animals which are by nature warmest have

abundance of blood, whilst those that are colder are entirely lacking

in blood, and consequently in winter lie idle and motionless, lurking

in holes like corpses. Further, the question of the colour of the

blood has been dealt with not only by Aristotle but also by

Plato.[257] Now I, for my part, as I have already said, did not set

before myself the task of stating what has been so well demonstrated

by the Ancients, since I cannot surpass these men either in my views

or in my method of giving them expression. Doctrines, however, which

they either stated without demonstration, as being self-evident (since

they never suspected that there could be sophists so degraded as to

contemn the truth in these matters), or else which they actually

omitted to mention at all--these I propose to discover and prove.

Now in reference to the _genesis of the humours_, I do not know that

any one could add anything wiser than what has been said by

Hippocrates, Aristotle, Praxagoras, Philotimus[258] and many other

among the Ancients. These men demonstrated that when the nutriment

becomes altered in the veins by the innate heat, blood is produced

when it is in moderation, and the other humours when it is not in

proper proportion. And all the observed facts[259] agree with this

argument. Thus, those articles of food, which are by nature warmer are

more productive of bile, while those which are colder produce more

phlegm. Similarly of the periods of life, those which are naturally

warmer tend more to bile, and the colder more to phlegm. Of

occupations also, localities and seasons, and, above all, of

natures[260] themselves, the colder are more phlegmatic, and the

warmer more bilious. Also cold diseases result from phlegm, and warmer

ones from yellow bile. There is not a single thing to be found which

does not bear witness to the truth of this account. How could it be

otherwise? For, seeing that every part functions in its own special

way because of the manner in which the four qualities are compounded,

it is absolutely necessary that the function [activity] should be

either completely destroyed, or, at least hampered, by any damage to

the qualities, and that thus the animal should fall ill, either as a

whole, or in certain of its parts.

Also the diseases which are primary and most generic are four in

number, and differ from each other in warmth, cold, dryness and

moisture. Now, Erasistratus himself confesses this, albeit

unintentionally;[261] for when he says that the digestion of food

becomes worse in fever, not because the innate heat has ceased to be

in due proportion, as people previously supposed, but because the

stomach, with its activity impaired, cannot contract and triturate as

before--then, I say, one may justly ask him what it is that has

impaired the activity of the stomach.

Thus, for example, when a bubo develops following an accidental

wound[262] gastric digestion does not become impaired _until after the

patient has become fevered_; neither the bubo nor the sore of itself

impedes in any way or damages the activity of the stomach. But if

fever occurs, the digestion at once deteriorates, and we are also

right in saying that the activity of the stomach at once becomes

impaired. We must add, however, by what it has been impaired. For the

wound was not capable of impairing it, nor yet the bubo, for, if they

had been, then they would have caused this damage before the fever as

well. If it was not these that caused it, then it was the excess of

heat[263] (for these two symptoms occurred besides the bubo--an

alteration in the arterial and cardiac movements[264] and an excessive

development of natural heat). Now the alteration of these movements

will not merely not impair the function of the stomach in any way: it

will actually prove an additional help among those animals in which,

according to Erasistratus, the _pneuma_, which is propelled through

the arteries and into the alimentary canal, is of great service in

digestion;[265] there is only left, then, the disproportionate heat to

account for the damage to the gastric activity. For the pneuma is

driven in more vigorously and continuously, and in greater quantity

now than before; thus in this case, the animal whose digestion is

promoted by pneuma will digest more, whereas the remaining

factor--abnormal heat--will give them indigestion. For to say, on the

one hand, that the pneuma has a certain property by virtue of which it

promotes digestion, and then to say that this property disappears in

cases of fever, is simply to admit the absurdity. For when they are

again asked what it is that has altered the pneuma, they will only be

able to reply, "the abnormal heat," and particularly if it be the

pneuma in the food canal which is in question (since this does not

come in any way near the bubo).

Yet why do I mention those animals in which the property of the pneuma

plays an important part, when it is possible to base one's argument

upon human beings, in whom it is either of no importance at all, or

acts quite faintly and feebly?[266] But Erasistratus himself agrees

that human beings digest badly in fevers, adding as the cause that the

activity of the stomach has been impaired. He cannot, however, advance

any other cause of this impairment than abnormal heat. But if it is

not by accident that the abnormal heat impairs this activity, but by

virtue of its own essence and power, then this abnormal heat must

belong to the _primary diseases_. But, indeed, if _disproportion_ of

heat belongs to the primary diseases, it cannot but be that a

_proportionate_ blending [eucrasia] of the qualities produces the

normal activity.[267] For a disproportionate blend [dyscrasia] can

only become a cause of the primary diseases through derangement of the

eucrasia. That is to say, it is because the [normal] activities arise

from the eucrasia that the primary impairments of these activities

necessarily arise from its derangement.

I think, then, it has been proved to the satisfaction of those people

who are capable of seeing logical consequences, that, even according

to Erasistratus's own argument, the cause of the normal functions is

eucrasia of the Warm.[268] Now, this being so, there is nothing

further to prevent us from saying that, in the case of each function,

eucrasia is followed by the more, and dyscrasia by the less favourable

alternative. And, therefore, if this be the case, we must suppose

blood to be the outcome of proportionate, and yellow bile of

disproportionate heat. So we naturally find yellow bile appearing in

greatest quantity in ourselves at the warm periods of life, in warm

countries, at warm seasons of the year, and when we are in a warm

condition; similarly in people of warm temperaments, and in connection

with warm occupations, modes of life, or diseases.

And to be in doubt as to whether this humour has its genesis in the

human body or is contained in the food is what you would expect from

one who has--I will not say failed to see that, when those who are

perfectly healthy have, under the compulsion of circumstances, to fast

contrary to custom, their mouths become bitter and their urine

bile-coloured, while they suffer from gnawing pains in the

stomach--but has, as it were, just made a sudden entrance into the

world, and is not yet familiar with the phenomena which occur there.

Who, in fact, does not know that anything which is overcooked grows at

first salt and afterwards bitter? And if you will boil honey itself,

far the sweetest of all things, you can demonstrate that even this

becomes quite bitter. For what may occur as a result of boiling in the

case of other articles which are not warm by nature, exists naturally

in honey; for this reason it does not become sweeter on being boiled,

since exactly the same quantity of heat as is needed for the

production of sweetness exists from beforehand in the honey. Therefore

the external heat, which would be useful for insufficiently warm

substances, becomes in the honey a source of damage, in fact an

excess; and it is for this reason that honey, when boiled, can be

demonstrated to become bitter sooner than the others. For the same

reason it is easily transmuted into bile in those people who are

naturally warm, or in their prime, since warm when associated with

warm becomes readily changed into a disproportionate combination and

turns into bile sooner than into blood. Thus we need a cold

temperament and a cold period of life if we would have honey brought

to the nature of blood.[269] Therefore Hippocrates not improperly

advised those who were naturally bilious not to take honey, since they

were obviously of too warm a temperament. So also, not only

Hippocrates, but all physicians say that honey is bad in bilious

diseases but good in old age; some of them having discovered this

through the indications afforded by its nature, and others simply

through experiment,[270] for the Empiricist physicians too have made

precisely the same observation, namely, that honey is good for an old

man and not for a young one, that it is harmful for those who are

naturally bilious, and serviceable for those who are phlegmatic. In a

word, in bodies which are warm either through nature, disease, time of

life, season of the year, locality, or occupation, honey is productive

of bile, whereas in opposite circumstances it produces blood.

But surely it is impossible that the same article of diet can produce

in certain persons bile and in others blood, if it be not that the

genesis of these humours is accomplished _in the body_. For if all

articles of food contained bile from the beginning and of themselves,

and did not produce it by undergoing change in the animal body, then

they would produce it similarly in all bodies; the food which was

bitter to the taste would, I take it, be productive of bile, while

that which tasted good and sweet would not generate even the smallest

quantity of bile. Moreover, not only honey but all other sweet

substances are readily converted into bile in the aforesaid bodies

which are warm for any of the reasons mentioned.

Well, I have somehow or other been led into this discussion,--not in

accordance with my plan, but compelled by the course of the argument.

This subject has been treated at great length by Aristotle and

Praxagoras, who have correctly expounded the view of Hippocrates and

Plato.

VIII

Kai taut' ouk echrên agnoein ton Erasistraton, eiper kan

onar pote tois ek tou peripatou synetychen, hôsper oun

oude ta peri tês geneseôs tôn chymôn, hyper hôn ouden

echôn eipein oude mechri tou metriou pithanon oietai

parakrouesthai skêptomenos, hôs oude chrêsimos holôs

estin hê tôn toioutôn episkepsis. eit', ô pros theôn,

hopôs men ta sitia kata tên gastera pettetai chrêsimon

epistasthai, pôs d' en tais phlepsin hê cholê gignetai,

peritton? kai tês kenôseôs ara phrontisteon autês monês,

amelêteon de tês geneseôs? hôsper ouk ameinon hyparchon

makrô to kôlyein euthys ex archês gennasthai pleiona tou

pragmat' echein ekkenountas. thaumaston de kai to

diaporein, eit' en tô sômati tên genesin autês

hypotheteon eit' euthys exôthen en tois sitiois

periechesthai phateon. ei gar dê touto kalôs êporêtai,

ti ouchi kai peri tou haimatos episkepsometha, poteron

en tô sômati || lambanei tên genesin ê tois sitiois 108

parespartai, kathaper hoi tas homoiomereias

hypotithemenoi phasi? kai mên pollô g' ên chrêsimôteron

zêteisthai, poia tôn sitiôn homologei tê tês haimatôseôs

energeia kai poia diapheretai, tou zêtein, tina men tê

tês gastros energeia nikatai rhadiôs, tina d' antibainei

kai machetai. toutôn men gar hê eklexis eis pepsin

monên, ekeinôn d' eis haimatos chrêstou diapherei

genesin. oude gar ison estin ê mê kalôs en tê gastri

chylôthênai tên trophên ê mê chrêston haima gennêthênai.

pôs d' ouk aideitai tas men tês pepseôs apotychias

diairoumenos, hôs pollai t' eisi kai kata pollas

gignontai prophaseis, hyper de tôn tês haimatôseôs

sphalmatôn oud' achri rhêmatos henos oud' achri syllabês

mias phthenxamenos? kai mên heurisketai ge kai pachy kai

lepton en tais phlepsin haima kai tois men erythroteron,

tois de xanthoteron, tois de melanteron, tois de

phlegmatôdesteron. ei d' hoti kai dysôdes ouch hena

tropon all' en pollais pany diaphorais arrhêtois men

logô, sa||phestatais d' aisthêsesi phainetai gignomenon, 109

eideiê tis, ouk an oimai metriôs eti katagnôsesthai tês

Erasistratou rhathymias auton houtô g' anankaian eis ta

erga tês technês theôrian paralipontos.

Enargê gar dê kai ta peri tôn hyderôn hamartêmata tê

rhathymia tautê kata logon êkolouthêkota. to te gar tê

stenochôria tôn hodôn kôlyesthai nomizein prosô tou

hêpatos ienai to haima kai mêdepot' an allôs hyderon

dynasthai systênai pôs ouk eschatên endeiknytai

rhathymian? to te mê dia ton splêna mêde di' allo ti

morion, all' aei dia ton en tô hêpati skirrhon hyderon

oiesthai gignesthai teleôs argou tên dianoian anthrôpou

kai mêdeni tôn hosêmerai gignomenôn parakolouthountos.

epi men ge chroniais haimorrhoïsin epischetheisais ê dia

kenôsin ametron eis psyxin eschatên agagousais ton

anthrôpon ouch hapax oude dis alla pollakis êdê

tetheametha systantas hyderous, hôsper ge kai gynaixin

hê te tês eph' hekastô mêni katharseôs apôleia pantelês

kai ametros kenôsis, hotan haimorrhagêsôsi poth' hai

mêtrai sphodrôs, epekalesanto pol||lakis hyderon kai 110

tisin autôn kai ho gynaikeios onomazomenos rhous eis

tout' eteleutêse to pathos, hina tous apo tôn keneônôn

archomenous ê allou tinos tôn epikairôn moriôn hyderous

paralipô, saphôs men kai autous exelenchontas tên

Erasistrateion hypolêpsin, all' ouch houtôs enargôs hôs

hoi dia katapsyxin sphodran tês holês hexeôs

apoteloumenoi. prôtê gar hautê geneseôs hyderôn aitia

dia tên apotychian tês haimatôseôs gignomenê tropon

homoiotaton tais epi tê tôn sitiôn apepsia diarrhoiais.

ou mên eskirrhôtai ge kata tous toioutous hyderous oud'

allo ti splanchnon oude to hêpar.

All' Erasistratos ho sophos hyperidôn kai kataphronêsas,

hôn outh' Hippokratês oute Dioklês oute Praxagoras oute

Philistiôn all' oude tôn aristôn philosophôn oudeis

katephronêsen oute Platôn out' Aristotelês oute

Theophrastos, holas energeias hyperbainei kathaper ti

smikron kai to tychon tês technês paralipôn meros oud'

anteipein axiôsas, eit' orthôs eite kai mê || sympantes 111

houtoi thermô kai psychrô kai xêrô kai hygrô, tois men

hôs drôsi, tois d' hôs paschousi, ta kata to sôma tôn

zôôn hapantôn dioikeisthai phasi kai hôs to thermon en

autois eis te tas allas energeias kai malist' eis tên

tôn chymôn genesin to pleiston dynatai. alla to men mê

peithesthai tosoutois te kai têlikoutois andrasi kai

pleon autôn oiesthai ti gignôskein anemesêton, to de

mêt' antilogias axiôsai mête mnêmês houtôs endoxon dogma

thaumastên tina tên hyperopsian endeiknytai.

Kai mên smikrotatos esti tên gnômên kai tapeinos

eschatôs en hapasais tais antilogiais en men tois peri

tês pepseôs logois tois sêpesthai ta sitia nomizousi

philotimôs antilegôn, en de tois peri tês anadoseôs tois

dia tên parathesin tôn artêriôn anadidosthai to dia tôn

phlebôn haima nomizousin, en de tois peri tês anapnoês

tois periôtheisthai ton aera phaskousin. ouk ôknêse d'

oude tois atmoeidôs eis tên kystin ienai ta oura

nomizousin anteipein oude tois eis || ton pneumona 112

pheresthai to poton. houtôs en hapasi tas cheiristas

epilegomenos doxas agalletai diatribôn epi pleon en tais

antilogiais; epi de tês tou haimatos geneseôs ouden

atimoteras ousês tês en tê gastri chylôseôs tôn sitiôn

out' anteipein tini tôn presbyterôn êxiôsen out' autos

eisêgêsasthai tin' heteran gnômên etolmêsen, ho peri

pasôn tôn physikôn energeiôn en archê tôn katholou logôn

hyposchomenos erein, hopôs te gignontai kai di' hôntinôn

tou zôou moriôn. ê tês men pettein ta sitia pephykuias

dynameôs arrhôstousês apeptêsei to zôon, tês d'

haimatousês ta pephthenta ouden estai pathêma to

parapan, all' adamantinê tis hêmin hautê monê kai

apathês estin? ê allo ti tês arrhôstias autês ekgonon

hyparxei kai ouch hyderos? dêlos oun enargôs estin ho

Erasistratos ex hôn en men tois allois oude tais

phaulotatais doxais antilegein ôknêsen, entauthoi d'

out' anteipein tois prosthen out' autos eipein ti kainon

etolmêse, to sphalma tês heautou gnôrizôn haireseôs.

Ti gar an kai legein eschen hyper haimatos || anthrôpos 113

eis mêden tô symphytô thermô chrômenos? ti de peri

xanthês cholês ê melainês ê phlegmatos? hoti nê Dia

dynaton estin anamemigmenên tois sitiois euthys exôthen

paragignesthai tên cholên. legei goun hôde pôs autois

onomasi; "Poteron d' en tê peri tên koilian katergasia

tês trophês gennatai toiautê hygrasia ê memigmenê tois

exôthen prospheromenois paragignetai, ouden chrêsimon

pros iatrikên epeskephthai." kai mên, ô gennaiotate, kai

kenousthai chrênai phaskeis ek tou zôou ton chymon

touton kai megalôs lypein, ei mê kenôtheiê. pôs oun

ouden ex autou chrêston hypolambanôn gignesthai tolmas

achrêston legein eis iatrikên einai tên peri tês

geneseôs autou skepsin?

Hypokeisthô gar en men tois sitiois periechesthai, mê

diakrinesthai d' akribôs en hêpati; tauta gar amphotera

nomizeis einai dynata. kai mên ou smikron entautha to

diapheron ê elachistên ê pampollên cholên en heautois

periechonta prosarasthai sitia. ta men gar akindyna, ta

de pampollên periechonta tô mê dynasthai pasan autên en

|| hêpati katharthênai kalôs aitia katastêsetai tôn t' 114

allôn pathôn, hôn autos ho Erasistratos epi plêthei

cholês gignesthai phêsi, kai tôn ikterôn ouch hêkista.

pôs oun ouk anankaiotaton iatrô gignôskein, prôton men,

hôs en tois sitiois autois exôthen hê cholê periechetai,

deuteron d', hôs to men teutlon, ei tychoi, pampollên,

ho d' artos elachistên kai to men elaion pleistên, ho d'

oinos oligistên hekaston te tôn allôn anison tô plêthei

periechei tên cholên? pôs gar ouk an eiê geloiotatos,

hos an hekôn hairêtai ta pleiona cholên en heautois

periechonta pro tôn enantiôn?

Ti d' ei mê periechetai men en tois sitiois hê cholê,

gignetai d' en tois tôn zôôn sômasin? ê ouchi kai kata

touto chrêsimon epistasthai, tini men katastasei sômatos

hepetai pleiôn autês hê genesis, tini d' elattôn?

alloioun gar dêpou kai metaballein hoioi t' esmen kai

trepein epi to beltion aei tas mochthêras katastaseis

tou sômatos. all' ei mê gignôskoimen, kathoti mochthêrai

kai hopê tês deousês existantai, pôs an autas epanagein

hoioi t' eiêmen epi to || kreitton? 115

Oukoun achrêston estin eis tas iaseis, hôs Erasistratos

phêsin, epistasthai talêthes auto peri geneseôs cholês.

ou mên oud' adynaton oud' asaphes exeurein, hoti mê tô

pleistên en heautô periechein to meli tên xanthên cholên

all' en tô sômati metaballomenon eis autên alloioutai te

kai trepetai. pikron te gar an ên geuomenois, ei cholên

exôthen euthys en heautô perieichen hapasi t' an

hôsautôs tois anthrôpois ison autês egenna to plêthos.

all' ouch hôd' echei talêthes. en men gar tois akmazousi

kai malist' ei physei thermoteroi kai bion eien biountes

talaipôron, hapan eis xanthên cholên metaballei to meli;

tois gerousi d' hikanôs estin epitêdeion, hôs an ouk eis

cholên all' eis haima tên alloiôsin en ekeinois

lambanon. Erasistratos de pros tô mêden toutôn

gignôskein oude peri tên diairesin tou logou sôphronei,

poteron en tois sitiois hê cholê periechetai euthys ex

archês ê kata tên en tê koilia katergasian egeneto,

mêden einai chrêsimon eis iatrikên epeskephthai legôn.

echrên || gar dêpou prostheinai ti kai peri tês en 116

hêpati kai phlepsi geneseôs autês, en toisde tois

organois gennasthai tên cholên hama tô haimati tôn

palaiôn iatrôn te kai philosophôn apophênamenôn. alla

tois euthys ex archês sphaleisi kai diamartanousi tês

orthês hodou toiauta te lêrein anankaion esti kai

proseti tôn chrêsimôtatôn eis tên technên paralipein tên

zêtêsin.

Hêdeôs d' an entautha tou logou gegonôs êromên tous

homilêsai phaskontas auton epi pleiston tois ek tou

peripatou philosophois, ei gignôskousin, hosa peri tou

kekrasthai ta sômath' hêmôn ek thermou kai psychrou kai

xêrou kai hygrou pros Aristotelous eirêtai te kai

apodedeiktai, kai hôs to thermon en autois esti to

drastikôtaton kai hôs tôn zôôn hosa men thermotera

physei, tauta pantôs enaima, ta d' epi pleon psychrotera

pantôs anaima kai dia touto tou cheimônos arga kai

akinêta keitai phôleuonta dikên nekrôn. eirêtai de kai

peri tês chroias tou haimatos ouk Aristotelei monon,

alla kai Platôni. kai hêmeis nyn, hoper êdê kai prosthen

eipon, || ou ta kalôs apodedeigmena tois palaiois legein 117

prouthemetha, mête tê gnômê mête tê lexei tous andras

ekeinous hyperbalesthai dynamenoi; ta d' êtoi chôris

apodeixeôs hôs enargê pros autôn eirêmena dia to mêd'

hyponoêsai mochthêrous houtôs esesthai tinas sophistas,

hoi kataphronêsousi tês en autois alêtheias, ê kai

paraleleimmena teleôs hyp' ekeinôn axioumen heuriskein

te kai apodeiknynai.

Peri de tês tôn chymôn geneseôs ouk oid', ei echei tis

heteron prostheinai sophôteron hôn Hippokratês eipe kai

Aristotelês kai Praxagoras kai Philotimos kai alloi

polloi tôn palaiôn. apodedeiktai gar ekeinois tois

andrasin alloioumenês tês trophês en tais phlepsin hypo

tês emphytou thermasias haima men hypo tês symmetrias

tês kat' autên, hoi d' alloi chymoi dia tas ametrias

gignomenoi; kai toutô tô logô panth' homologei ta

phainomena. kai gar tôn edesmatôn hosa men esti

thermotera physei, cholôdestera, ta de psychrotera

phlegmatikôtera; kai tôn hêlikiôn hôsautôs

cholôdeste||rai men hai thermoterai physei, 118

phlegmatôdesterai d' hai psychroterai; kai tôn

epitêdeumatôn de kai tôn chôrôn kai tôn hôrôn kai poly

dê proteron eti tôn physeôn autôn hai men psychroterai

phlegmatôdesterai, cholôdesterai d' hai thermoterai; kai

nosêmatôn ta men psychra tou phlegmatos ekgona, ta de

therma tês xanthês cholês; kai holôs ouden estin heurein

tôn pantôn, ho mê toutô tô logô martyrei. pôs d' ou

mellei? dia gar tên ek tôn tettarôn poian krasin

hekastou tôn moriôn hôdi pôs energountos anankê pasa kai

dia tên blabên autôn ê diaphtheiresthai teleôs ê

empodizesthai ge tên energeian kai houtô nosein to zôon

ê holon ê kata ta moria.

Kai ta prôta ge kai genikôtata nosêmata tettara ton

arithmon hyparchei thermotêti kai psychrotêti kai

xêrotêti kai hygrotêti diapheronta. touto de kai autos

ho Erasistratos homologei kaitoi mê boulomenos. hotan

gar en tois pyretois cheirous tôn sitiôn tas pepseis

gignesthai legê, mê dioti tês emphytou || thermasias hê 119

symmetria diephthartai, kathaper hoi prosthen

hypelambanon, all' hoti peristellesthai kai tribein hê

gastêr ouch homoiôs dynatai beblammenê tên energeian,

eresthai dikaion auton, hypo tinos hê tês gastros

energeia beblaptai.

Genomenou gar, ei tychoi, boubônos epi prosptaismati,

prin men pyrexai ton anthrôpon, ouk an cheiron hê gastêr

pepseien; ou gar hikanon ên oudeteron autôn outh' ho

boubôn oute to helkos empodisai ti kai blapsai tên

energeian tês koilias; ei de pyrexeien, euthys men hai

pepseis gignontai cheirous, euthys de kai tên energeian

tês gastros beblaphthai phamen orthôs legontes. all'

hypo tinos eblabê, prostheinai chrê tô logô. to men gar

helkos ouch hoion t' ên autên blaptein, hôsper oud' ho

boubôn; ê gar an eblapse kai pro tou pyretou. ei de mê

tauta, dêlon, hôs hê tês thermasias pleonexia. dyo gar

tauta prosegeneto tô boubôni, hê tês kata tas artêrias

te kai tên kardian kinêseôs alloiôsis kai hê tês kata

physin thermasias pleonexia. all' hê men tês kinêseôs

alloiôsis ou monon ouden blapsei tên energeian tês

ga||stros, alla kai prosôphelêsei kat' ekeina tôn zôôn, 120

en hois eis tên pepsin hypetheto pleiston dynasthai to

dia tôn artêriôn eis tên koilian empipton pneuma. dia

loipên oun eti kai monên tên ametron thermasian hê blabê

tês energeias tê gastri. to men gar pneuma sphodroteron

te kai synechesteron kai pleon empiptei nyn ê proteron.

hôste tautê men mallon pepsei ta dia to pneuma kalôs

pettonta zôa, dia loipên d' eti tên para physin

thermasian apeptêsei. to gar kai tô pneumati phanai tin'

hyparchein idiotêta, kath' hên pettei, kapeita tautên

pyrettontôn diaphtheiresthai kath' heteron tropon estin

homologêsai to atopon. erôtêthentes gar authis, hypo

tinos êlloiôthê to pneuma, monên hexousin apokrinesthai

tên para physin thermasian kai malist' epi tou kata tên

koilian; oude gar plêsiazei kat' ouden touto tô boubôni.

Kaitoi ti tôn zôôn ekeinôn, en hois hê tou pneumatos

idiotês mega dynatai, mnêmoneuô, paron ep' anthrôpois,

en hois ê ouden ê pantapasin amy||dron ti kai mikron 121

ôphelei, poieisthai ton logon? all' hoti men en tois

pyretois houtoi kakôs pettousin, homologei kai autos kai

tên g' aitian prostitheis beblaphthai phêsi tês gastros

tên energeian. ou mên allên ge tina prophasin tês blabês

eipein echei plên tês para physin thermasias. all' ei

blaptei tên energeian hê para physin thermasia mê kata

ti symbebêkos, alla dia tên hautês ousian te kai

dynamin, ek tôn prôtôn an eiê nosêmatôn; kai mên ouk

endechetai tôn prôtôn men einai nosêmatôn tên ametrian

tês thermasias, tên d' energeian hypo tês eukrasias mê

gignesthai. oude gar di' allo ti dynaton gignesthai tên

dyskrasian aitian tôn prôtôn nosêmatôn all' ê dia tên

eukrasian diaphtheiromenên. tô gar hypo tautês

gignesthai tas energeias anankê kai tas prôtas autôn

blabas diaphtheiromenês gignesthai.

Hoti men oun kai kat' auton ton Erasistraton hê eukrasia

tou thermou tôn energeiôn aitia, tois theôrein to

akolouthon dynamenois hikanôs apodedeichthai nomizô.

toutou d' hyparchontos hêmin ouden eti chalepon || eph' 122

hekastês energeias tê men eukrasia to beltion hepesthai

legein, tê de dyskrasia ta cheirô. kai toinyn eiper

tauth' houtôs echei, to men haima tês symmetrou

thermasias, tên de xanthên cholên tês ametrou nomisteon

hyparchein engonon. houtô gar kai hêmin en te tais

thermais hêlikiais kai tois thermois chôriois kai tais

hôrais tou etous tais thermais kai tais thermais

katastasesin, hôsautôs de kai tais thermais krasesi tôn

anthrôpôn kai tois epitêdeumasi te kai tois diaitêmasi

kai tois nosêmasi tois thermois eulogôs hê xanthê cholê

pleistê phainetai gignomenê.

To d' aporein, eit' en tois sômasi tôn anthrôpôn ho

chymos houtos echei tên genesin eit' en tois sitiois

periechetai, mêd' hoti tois hygiainousin amemptôs, hotan

asitêsôsi para to ethos hypo tinos peristaseôs pragmatôn

anankasthentes, pikron men to stoma gignetai, cholôdê de

ta oura, daknetai d' hê gastêr, heôrakotos estin all'

hôsper exaiphnês nyn eis ton kosmon elêlythotos kai mêpô

ta kat' auton phainomena gignôskontos. epei tis ouk

oiden, hôs hekaston tôn hepsomenôn epi pleon halykôteron

men to prôton, hysteron || de pikroteron gignetai? kan 123

ei to meli boulêtheiês auto to pantôn glykytaton epi

pleiston hepsein, apodeixeis kai touto pikrotaton; ho

gar tois allois, hosa mê physei therma, para tês

hepsêseôs engignetai, tout' ek physeôs hyparchei tô

meliti. dia tout' oun hepsomenon ou gignetai glykyteron;

hoson gar echrên einai thermotêtos eis genesin

glykytêtos, akribôs autô touto pan oikothen hyparchei.

ho toinyn exôthen tois ellipôs thermois ên ôphelimon,

tout' ekeinô blabê te kai ametria gignetai kai dia touto

thatton tôn allôn hepsomenon apodeiknytai pikron. di'

auto de touto kai tois thermois physei kai tois

akmazousin eis cholên hetoimôs metaballetai. thermô gar

thermon plêsiazon eis ametrian kraseôs hetoimôs

existatai kai phthanei cholê gignomenon, ouch haima.

deitai toinyn psychras men kraseôs anthrôpou, psychras

d' hêlikias, hin' eis haimatos agêtai physin. oukoun apo

tropou synebouleusen Hippokratês tois physei

pikrocholois mê prospherein to meli, hôs an thermoteras

|| dêlonoti kraseôs hyparchousin. houtô de kai tois 124

nosêmasi tois pikrocholois polemion einai to meli kai tê

tôn gerontôn hêlikia philion ouch Hippokratês monon alla

kai pantes iatroi legousin, hoi men ek tês physeôs autou

tên dynamin endeixamenês heurontes, hoi d' ek tês peiras

monês. oude gar oude tois apo tês empeirias iatrois

heteron ti para tauta tetêrêtai gignomenon, alla

chrêston men geronti, neô d' ou chrêston, kai tô men

physei pikrocholô blaberon, ôphelimon de tô

phlegmatôdei; kai tôn nosêmatôn hôsautôs tois men

pikrocholois echthron, tois de phlegmatôdesi philion;

heni de logô tois men thermois sômasin ê dia physin ê

dia noson ê di' hêlikian ê di' hôran ê dia chôran ê di'

epitêdeuma cholês gennêtikon, haimatos de tois

enantiois.

Kai mên ouk endechetai tauton edesma tois men cholên

gennan, tois d' haima mê ouk en tô sômati tês geneseôs

autôn epiteloumenês. ei gar dê oikothen ge kai par'

heautou tôn edesmatôn hekaston echon kai ouk en tois tôn

zôôn sômasi || metaballomenon egenna tên cholên, en 125

hapasin an homoiôs autên tois sômasin egenna kai to men

pikron exô geuomenois ên an oimai cholês poiêtikon, ei

de ti glyky kai chrêston, ouk an oude to brachytaton ex

autou cholês egennato. kai mên ou to meli monon, alla

kai tôn allôn hekaston tôn glykeôn tois proeirêmenois

sômasi tois di' hotioun tôn eirêmenôn thermois ousin eis

cholên hetoimôs existatai.

Kaitoi taut' ouk oid' hopôs exênechthên eipein ou

proelomenos all' hyp' autês tou logou tês akolouthias

anankastheis. eirêtai d' epi pleiston hyper autôn

Aristotelei te kai Praxagora tên Hippokratous kai

Platônos gnômên orthôs exêgêsamenois.

For this reason the things that we have said are not to be looked upon

as proofs but rather as indications of the dulness[271] of those who

think differently, and who do not even recognise what is agreed on by

everyone and is a matter of daily observation. As for the scientific

proofs of all this, they are to be drawn from these principles of

which I have already spoken[272]--namely, that bodies act upon and are

acted upon by each other in virtue of the Warm, Cold, Moist and Dry.

And if one is speaking of any activity, whether it be exercised by

vein, liver, arteries, heart, alimentary canal, or any part, one will

be inevitably compelled to acknowledge that this activity depends upon

the way in which the four qualities are blended. Thus I should like to

ask the Erasistrateans why it is that the stomach contracts upon the

food, and why the veins generate blood. There is no use in recognizing

the mere fact of contraction, without also knowing the _cause_; if we

know this, we shall also be able to rectify the failures of function.

"This is no concern of ours," they say; "we do not occupy ourselves

with such causes as these; they are outside the sphere of the

_practitioner_,[273] and belong to that of the _scientific

investigator_."[274] Are you, then, going to oppose those who maintain

that the cause of the function of every organ is a natural

eucrasia,[275] that the dyscrasia is itself known as a _disease_, and

that it is certainly by this that the activity becomes impaired? Or,

on the other hand, will you be convinced by the proofs which the

ancient writers furnished? Or will you take a midway course between

these two, neither perforce accepting these arguments as true nor

contradicting them as false, but suddenly becoming

sceptics--Pyrrhonists, in fact? But if you do this you will have to

shelter yourselves behind the Empiricist teaching. For how are you

going to be successful in treatment, if you do not understand the real

essence of each disease? Why, then, did you not call yourselves

Empiricists from the beginning? Why do you confuse us by announcing

that you are investigating natural activities with a view to

treatment? If the stomach is, in a particular case, unable to exercise

its peristaltic and grinding functions, how are we going to bring it

back to the normal if we do not know the _cause_ of its disability?

What I say is[276] that we must cool the over-heated stomach and warm

the chilled one; so also we must moisten the one which has become

dried up, and conversely; so, too, in combinations of these

conditions; if the stomach becomes at the same time warmer and drier

than normally, the first principle of treatment is at once to chill

and moisten it; and if it become colder and moister, it must be warmed

and dried; so also in other cases. But how on earth are the followers

of Erasistratus going to act, confessing as they do that they make no

sort of investigation into the cause of disease? For the fruit of the

enquiry into activities is that by knowing the causes of the

dyscrasiae one may bring them back to the normal, since it is of no

use for the purposes of treatment merely to know what the activity of

each organ is.

Now, it seems to me that Erasistratus is unaware of this fact also,

that the actual disease is that condition of the body which, not

accidentally, but primarily and of itself, impairs the normal

function. How, then, is he going to diagnose or cure diseases if he is

entirely ignorant of what they are, and of what kind and number? As

regards the stomach, certainly, Erasistratus held that one should at

least investigate _how_ it digests the food. But why was not

investigation also made as to the primary originative cause of this?

And, as regards the veins and the blood, he omitted even to ask the

question "_how?_"

Yet neither Hippocrates nor any of the other physicians or

philosophers whom I mentioned a short while ago thought it right to

omit this; they say that when the heat which exists naturally in every

animal is well blended and moderately moist it generates blood; for

this reason they also say that the blood is a _virtually_ warm and

moist humour, and similarly also that yellow bile is warm and dry,

even though for the most part it appears moist. (For in them the

_apparently_ dry would seem to differ from the _virtually_ dry.) Who

does not know that brine and sea-water preserve meat and keep it

uncorrupted,[277] whilst all other water--the drinkable kind--readily

spoils and rots it? And who does not know that when yellow bile is

contained in large quantity in the stomach, we are troubled with an

unquenchable thirst, and that when we vomit this up, we at once become

much freer from thirst than if we had drunk very large quantities of

fluid? Therefore this humour has been very properly termed warm, and

also virtually dry. And, similarly, _phlegm_ has been called cold and

moist; for about this also clear proofs have been given by Hippocrates

and the other Ancients.

Prodicus[278] also, when in his book "On the Nature of Man" he gives

the name "phlegm" (from the verb [Greek: pephlechthai]) to that

element in the humours which has been burned or, as it were,

over-roasted, while using a different terminology, still keeps to the

fact just as the others do; this man's innovations in nomenclature

have also been amply done justice to by Plato.[279] Thus, the

white-coloured substance which everyone else calls _phlegm_, and which

Prodicus calls _blenna_ [mucus],[280] is the well-known cold, moist

humour which collects mostly in old people and in those who have been

chilled[281] in some way, and not even a lunatic could say that this

was anything else than cold and moist.

If, then, there is a warm and moist humour, and another which is warm

and dry, and yet another which is moist and cold, is there none which

is virtually _cold and dry_? Is the fourth combination of

temperaments, which exists in all other things, non-existent in the

humours alone? No; the _black bile_ is such a humour. This, according

to intelligent physicians and philosophers, tends to be in excess, as

regards seasons, mainly in the fall of the year, and, as regards ages,

mainly after the prime of life. And, similarly, also they say that

there are cold and dry modes of life, regions, constitutions, and

diseases. Nature, they suppose, is not defective in this single

combination like the three other combinations, it extends everywhere.

At this point, also, I would gladly have been able to ask Erasistratus

whether his "artistic" Nature has not constructed any organ for

_clearing away_ a humour such as this. For whilst there are two organs

for the excretion of urine, and another of considerable size for that

of yellow bile, does the humour which is more pernicious than these

wander about persistently in the veins mingled with the blood? Yet

Hippocrates says, "Dysentery is a fatal condition if it proceeds from

black bile"; while that proceeding from yellow bile is by no means

deadly, and most people recover from it; this proves how much more

pernicious and acrid in its potentialities is black than yellow bile.

Has Erasistratus, then, not read the book, "On the Nature of Man," any

more than any of the rest of Hippocrates's writings, that he so

carelessly passes over the consideration of the humours? Or, does he

know it, and yet voluntarily neglect one of the finest studies[282] in

medicine? Thus he ought not to have said anything about the

_spleen_,[283] nor have stultified himself by holding that an artistic

Nature would have prepared so large an organ for no purpose. As a

matter of fact, not only Hippocrates and Plato--who are no less

authorities on Nature than is Erasistratus--say that this viscus also

is one of those which cleanse the blood, but there are thousands of

the ancient physicians and philosophers as well who are in agreement

with them. Now, all of these the high and mighty Erasistratus affected

to despise, and he neither contradicted them nor even so much as

mentioned their opinion. Hippocrates, indeed, says that the spleen

wastes in those people in whom the body is in good condition, and all

those physicians also who base themselves on experience[284] agree

with this. Again, in those cases in which the spleen is large and is

increasing from internal suppuration, it destroys the body and fills

it with evil humours;[285] this again is agreed on, not only by

Hippocrates, but also by Plato and many others, including the Empiric

physicians. And the jaundice which occurs when the spleen is out of

order is darker in colour, and the cicatrices of ulcers are dark. For,

generally speaking, when the spleen is drawing the atrabiliary[286]

humour into itself to a less degree than is proper, the blood is

unpurified, and the whole body takes on a bad colour. And when does it

draw this in to a less degree than proper? Obviously, when it [the

spleen] is in a bad condition. Thus, just as the kidneys, whose

function it is to attract the urine, do this badly when they are out

of order, so also the spleen, which has in itself a native power of

attracting an atrabiliary quality,[287] if it ever happens to be weak,

must necessarily exercise this attraction badly, with the result that

the blood becomes thicker and darker.

Now all these points, affording as they do the greatest help in the

diagnosis and in the cure of disease were entirely passed over by

Erasistratus, and he pretended to despise these great men--he who does

not despise ordinary people, but always jealously attacks the most

absurd doctrines. Hence, it was clearly because he had nothing to say

against the statements made by the ancients regarding the function and

utility of the spleen, and also because he could discover nothing new

himself, that he ended by saying nothing at all. I, however, for my

part, have demonstrated, firstly from the _causes_ by which everything

throughout nature is governed (by the causes I mean the Warm, Cold,

Dry and Moist) and secondly, from obvious bodily phenomena, that there

must needs be a cold and dry humour.[288] And having in the next place

drawn attention to the fact that this humour is black bile

[atrabiliary] and that the viscus which clears it away is the

spleen--having pointed this out by help of as few as possible of the

proofs given by ancient writers, I shall now proceed to what remains

of the subject in hand.

What else, then, remains but to explain clearly what it is that

happens in the generation of the humours, according to the belief and

demonstration of the Ancients? This will be more clearly understood

from a comparison. Imagine, then, some new wine which has been not

long ago pressed from the grape, and which is fermenting and

undergoing _alteration_ through the agency of its contained heat.[289]

Imagine next two residual substances produced during this process of

alteration, the one tending to be light and air-like and the other to

be heavy and more of the nature of earth; of these the one, as I

understand, they call the _flower_ and the other the _lees_. Now you

may correctly compare yellow bile to the first of these, and black

bile to the latter, although these humours have not the same

appearance when the animal is in normal health as that which they

often show when it is not so; for then the yellow bile becomes

_vitelline_,[290] being so termed because it becomes like the yolk of

an egg, both in colour and density; and again, even the black bile

itself becomes much more malignant than when in its normal

condition,[291] but no particular name has been given to [such a

condition of] the humour, except that some people have called it

_corrosive_ or _acetose_, because it also becomes sharp like vinegar

and corrodes the animal's body--as also the earth, if it be poured out

upon it--and it produces a kind of fermentation and seething,

accompanied by bubbles--an abnormal putrefaction having become added

to the natural condition of the black humour. It seems to me also that

most of the ancient physicians give the name _black humour_ and not

_black bile_ to the normal portion of this humour, which is discharged

from the bowel and which also frequently rises to the top [of the

stomach-contents]; and they call _black bile_ that part which, through

a kind of combustion and putrefaction, has had its quality changed to

acid. There is no need, however, to dispute about names, but we must

realise the facts, which are as follow:--

In the genesis of blood, everything in the nutriment[292] which

belongs naturally to the thick and earth-like part of the food,[292]

and which does not take on well the alteration produced by the innate

heat--all this the spleen draws into itself. On the other hand, that

part of the nutriment which is roasted, so to speak, or burnt (this

will be the warmest and sweetest part of it, like honey and fat),

becomes _yellow bile_, and is cleared away through the so-called

biliary[293] vessels; now, this is thin, moist, and fluid, not like

what it is when, having been roasted to an _excessive_ degree, it

becomes yellow, fiery, and thick, like the yolk of eggs; for this

latter is already abnormal, while the previously mentioned state is

natural. Similarly with the black humour: that which does not yet

produce, as I say, this seething and fermentation on the ground, is

natural, while that which has taken over this character and faculty is

unnatural; it has assumed an acridity owing to the combustion caused

by abnormal heat, and has practically become transformed into

ashes.[294] In somewhat the same way burned lees differ from unburned.

The former is a warm substance, able to burn, dissolve, and destroy

the flesh. The other kind, which has not yet undergone combustion, one

may find the physicians employing for the same purposes that one uses

the so-called _potter's earth_ and other substances which have

naturally a combined drying and chilling action.

Now the vitelline bile also may take on the appearance of this

combusted black bile, if ever it chance to be roasted, so to say, by

fiery heat. And all the other forms of bile are produced, some from a

blending of those mentioned, others being, as it were,

transition-stages in the genesis of these or in their conversion into

one another. And they differ in that those first mentioned are unmixed

and unique, while the latter forms are diluted with various kinds of

_serum_. And all the serums in the humours are waste substances, and

the animal body needs to be purified from them. There is, however, a

natural use for the humours first mentioned, both thick and thin; the

blood is purified both by the spleen and by the bladder beside the

liver, and a part of each of the two humours is put away, of such

quantity and quality that, if it were carried all over the body, it

would do a certain amount of harm. For that which is decidedly thick

and earthy in nature, and has entirely escaped alteration in the

liver, is drawn by the spleen into itself[295]; the other part which

is only moderately thick, after being elaborated [in the liver], is

carried all over the body. For the blood in many parts of the body has

need of a certain amount of thickening, as also, I take it, of the

_fibres_ which it contains. And the use of these has been discussed by

Plato,[296] and it will also be discussed by me in such of my

treatises as may deal with the use of parts. And the blood also needs,

not least, the yellow humour, which has as yet not reached the extreme

stage of combustion; in the treatises mentioned it will be pointed out

what purpose is subserved by this.

Now Nature has made no organ for clearing away _phlegm_, this being

cold and moist, and, as it were, half-digested nutriment; such a

substance, therefore, does not need to be evacuated, but remains in

the body and undergoes _alteration_ there. And perhaps one cannot

properly give the name of _phlegm_ to the surplus-substance which runs

down from the brain,[297] but one should call it _mucus_ [blenna] or

_coryza_--as, in fact, it is actually termed; in any case it will be

pointed out, in the treatise "On the Use of Parts," how Nature has

provided for the evacuation of this substance. Further, the device

provided by Nature which ensures that the phlegm which forms in the

stomach and intestines may be evacuated in the most rapid and

effective way possible--this also will be described in that

commentary. As to that portion of the phlegm which is carried in the

veins, seeing that this is of service to the animal it requires no

evacuation. Here too, then, we must pay attention and recognise that,

just as in the case of each of the two kinds of bile, there is one

part which is useful to the animal and in accordance with its nature,

while the other part is useless and contrary to nature, so also is it

with the phlegm; such of it as is sweet is useful to the animal and

according to nature, while, as to such of it as has become bitter or

salt, that part which is bitter is completely undigested, while that

part which is salt has undergone putrefaction. And the term "_complete

indigestion_" refers of course to the second digestion--that which

takes place in the veins; it is not a failure of the first

digestion--that in the alimentary canal--for it would not have become

a humour at the outset if it had escaped this digestion also.

It seems to me that I have made enough reference to what has been said

regarding the genesis and destruction of humours by Hippocrates,

Plato, Aristotle, Praxagoras, and Diocles, and many others among the

Ancients; I did not deem it right to transport the whole of their

final pronouncements into this treatise. I have said only so much

regarding each of the humours as will stir up the reader, unless he be

absolutely inept, to make himself familiar with the writings of the

Ancients, and will help him to gain more easy access to them. In

another treatise[298] I have written on the humours according to

Praxagoras, son of Nicarchus; although this authority makes as many as

ten humours, not including the blood (the blood itself being an

eleventh), this is not a departure from the teaching of Hippocrates;

for Praxagoras divides into species and varieties the humours which

Hippocrates first mentioned, with the demonstration proper to each.

Those, then, are to be praised who explain the points which have been

duly mentioned, as also those who add what has been left out; for it

is not possible for the same man to make both a beginning and an end.

Those, on the other hand, deserve censure who are so impatient that

they will not wait to learn any of the things which have been duly

mentioned, as do also those who are so ambitious that, in their lust

after novel doctrines, they are always attempting some fraudulent

sophistry, either purposely neglecting certain subjects, as

Erasistratus does in the case of the humours, or unscrupulously

attacking other people, as does this same writer, as well as many of

the more recent authorities.

But let this discussion come to an end here, and I shall add in the

third book all that remains.

Mê toinyn hôs apodeixeis hyph' hêmôn eirêsthai nomizein

ta toiauta mallon ê peri tês tôn allôs gignôskontôn

anaisthêsias endeixeis, hoi mêde ta pros hapantôn

homologoumena kai kath' hekastên hêmeran phainomena

gignôskousin; tas d' apodeixeis autôn tas kat' epistêmên

ex ekeinôn chrê lambanein tôn archôn, hôn êdê kai

prosthen || eipomen, hôs to dran kai paschein eis allêla 126

tois sômasin hyparchei kata to thermon kai psychron kai

xêron kai hygron. kai eite phlebas eith' hêpar eit'

artêrias eite kardian eite koilian eit' allo ti morion

energein tis phêseien hêntinoun energeian, aphyktois

anankais anankasthêsetai dia tên ek tôn tettarôn poian

krasin homologêsai tên energeian hyparchein autô. dia ti

gar hê gastêr peristelletai tois sitiois, dia ti d' hai

phlebes haima gennôsi, para tôn Erasistrateiôn edeomên

akousai. to gar hoti peristelletai monon auto kath'

heauto gignôskein oudepô chrêston, ei mê kai tên aitian

eideiêmen; houtô gar an oimai kai ta sphalmata

therapeusaimen. ou melei, phasin, hêmin oude

polypragmonoumen eti tas toiautas aitias; hyper iatron

gar eisi kai tô physikô prosêkousi. poteron oun oud'

antereite tô phaskonti tên men eukrasian tên kata physin

aitian einai tês energeias hekastô tôn organôn, tên d'

au dyskrasian noson t êdê kaleisthai kai pantôs hyp'

au||tês blaptesthai tên energeian? ê peisthêsesthe tais 127

tôn palaiôn apodeixesin? ê triton ti kai meson hekaterou

toutôn praxete mêth' hôs alêthesi tois logois ex anankês

peithomenoi mêt' antilegontes hôs pseudesin, all'

aporêtikoi tines exaiphnês kai Pyrrhôneioi genêsesthe?

kai mên ei touto drasete, tên empeirian anankaion hymin

prostêsasthai. tô gar an eti tropô kai tôn iamatôn

euporoiête tên ousian hekastou tôn nosêmatôn agnoountes?

ti oun ouk ex archês empeirikous hymas autous ekalesate?

ti de pragmath' hêmin parechete physikas energeias

epangellomenoi zêtein iaseôs heneken? ei gar adynatos hê

gastêr esti tini peristellesthai kai tribein, pôs autên

eis to kata physin epanaxomen agnoountes tên aitian tês

adynamias? egô men phêmi tên men hypertethermasmenên

empsykteon hêmin einai, tên d' epsygmenên thermanteon;

houtô de kai tên exêrasmenên hygranteon, tên d'

hygrasmenên xêranteon. alla kai || kata syzygian, ei 128

thermotera tou kata physin hama kai xêrotera tychoi

gegenêmenê, kephalaion einai tês iaseôs empsychein th'

hama kai hygrainein; ei d' au psychrotera te kai

hygrotera, thermainein te kai xêrainein kapi tôn allôn

hôsautôs; hoi d' ap' Erasistratou ti pote kai praxousin

oud' holôs zêtein tôn energeiôn tas aitias

homologountes? ho gar toi karpos tês peri tôn energeiôn

zêtêseôs houtos esti, to tas aitias tôn dyskrasiôn

eidota eis to kata physin epanagein autas, hôs auto ge

monon to gnônai tên hekastou tôn organôn energeian hêtis

estin oupô chrêston eis tas iaseis.

Erasistratos de moi dokei kai auto tout' agnoein, hôs,

hêtis an en tô sômati diathesis blaptê tên energeian mê

kata ti symbebêkos alla prôtôs te kai kath' heautên,

hautê to nosêma estin auto. pôs oun eti diagnôstikos te

kai iatikos estai tôn nosêmatôn agnoôn holôs auta tina

t' esti kai posa kai poia? kata men dê tên gastera to ge

tosouton Erasistratos êxiôse zêteisthai to pôs pettetai

ta sitia; || to d' hêtis prôtê te kai archêgos aitia 129

toutou, pôs ouk epeskepsato? kata de tas phlebas kai to

haima kai auto to pôs parelipen.

All' outh' Hippokratês out' allos tis hôn oligô prosthen

emnêmoneusa philosophôn ê iatrôn axion ôet' einai

paralipein; alla tên kata physin en hekastô zôô

thermasian eukraton te kai metriôs hygran ousan haimatos

einai phasi gennêtikên kai di' auto ge touto kai to

haima thermon kai hygron einai phasi tê dynamei chymon,

hôsper tên xanthên cholên thermên kai xêran einai, ei

kai hoti malisth' hygra phainetai. diapherein gar autois

dokei to kata phantasian hygron tou kata dynamin. ê tis

ouk oiden, hôs halmê men kai thalatta taricheuei ta krea

kai asêpta diaphylattei, to d' allo pan hydôr to potimon

hetoimôs diaphtheirei te kai sêpei? tis d' ouk oiden,

hôs xanthês cholês en tê gastri periechomenês pollês

apaustô dipsei synechometha kai hôs emesantes autên

euthys adipsoi gignometha mallon ê ei pampoly poton

prosêrametha? || thermos oun eulogôs ho chymos houtos 130

eirêtai kai xêros kata dynamin, hôsper ge kai to phlegma

psychron kai hygron. enargeis gar kai peri toutou

pisteis Hippokratei te kai tois allois eirêntai

palaiois.

Prodikos d' en tô peri physeôs anthrôpou grammati to

synkekaumenon kai hoion hyperôptêmenon en tois chymois

onomazôn phlegma para to pephlechthai tê lexei men

heterôs chrêtai, phylattei mentoi to pragma kata tauto

tois allois. tên d' en tois onomasi tandros toutou

kainotomian hikanôs endeiknytai kai Platôn. alla touto

ge to pros hapantôn anthrôpôn onomazomenon phlegma to

leukon tên chroan, ho blennan onomazei Prodikos, ho

psychros kai hygros chymos estin houtos kai pleistos

tois te gerousi kai tois hopôsdêpote psygeisin

athroizetai kai oudeis oude mainomenos an allo ti ê

psychron kai hygron eipoi an auton.

Ar' oun thermos men tis esti kai hygros chymos kai

thermos kai xêros heteros kai hygros kai psychros allos,

oudeis d' esti psychros kai xêros tên dynamin, all' hê

tetartê syzygia tôn kraseôn || en hapasi tois allois 131

hyparchousa monois tois chymois ouch hyparchei? kai mên

hê ge melaina cholê toioutos esti chymos, hon hoi

sôphronountes iatroi kai philosophoi pleonektein ephasan

tôn men hôrôn tou etous en phthinopôrô malista, tôn d'

hêlikiôn en tais meta tên akmên. houtô de kai diaitêmata

kai chôria kai katastaseis kai nosous tinas psychras kai

xêras einai phasin; ou gar dê chôlên en tautê monê tê

syzygia tên physin einai nomizousin all' hôsper tas

allas treis houtô kai tênde dia pantôn ektetasthai.

Êuxamên oun kantauth' erôtêsai dynasthai ton

Erasistraton, ei mêden organon hê technikê physis

edêmiourgêse kathartikon tou toioutou chymou, alla tôn

men ourôn ara tês diakriseôs estin organa dyo kai tês

xanthês cholês heteron ou smikron, ho de toutôn

kakoêthesteros chymos alatai dia pantos en tais phlepsin

anamemigmenos tô haimati. kaitoi "Dysenteriê," phêsi pou

Hippokratês, "ên apo cholês melainês arxêtai,

thanasimon," ou mên hê g' apo tês xan||thês cholês 132

archomenê pantôs olethrios, all' hoi pleious ex autês

diasôzontai. tosoutô kakoêthestera te kai drimytera tên

dynamin hê melaina cholê tês xanthês estin. ar' oun oute

tôn allôn anegnô ti tôn tou Hippokratous grammatôn ho

Erasistratos ouden oute to peri physeôs anthrôpou

biblion, hin' houtôs argôs parelthoi tên peri tôn chymôn

episkepsin, ê gignôskei men, hekôn de paraleipei

kallistên tês technês theôrian? echrên oun auton mêde

peri tou splênos eirêkenai ti mêd' aschêmonein hypo tês

technikês physeôs organon têlikouton matên hêgoumenon

kateskeuasthai. kai mên ouch Hippokratês monon ê Platôn,

ouden ti cheirous Erasistratou peri physin andres, hen

ti tôn kathairontôn to haima kai tout' einai phasi to

splanchnon, alla kai myrioi syn autois alloi tôn palaiôn

iatrôn te kai philosophôn, hôn hapantôn prospoiêsamenos

hyperphronein ho gennaios Erasistratos out' anteipen

outh' holôs tês doxês autôn emnêmoneuse. kai mên hosois

ge to sôma thallei, toutois ho splên phthinei, phêsin

Hippokratês, kai hoi apo tês || empeirias hormômenoi 133

pantes homologousin iatroi. kai hosois g' au megas kai

hypoulos auxanetai, toutois kataphtheirei te kai

kakochyma ta sômata tithêsin, hôs kai touto palin ouch

Hippokratês monon alla kai Platôn alloi te polloi kai

hoi apo tês empeirias homologousin iatroi. kai hoi apo

splênos de kakopragountos ikteroi melanteroi kai tôn

helkôn hai oulai melainai. katholou gar, hotan

endeesteron ê prosêken eis heauton helkê ton

melancholikon chymon, akatharton men to haima,

kakochroun de to pan gignetai sôma. pote d' endeesteron

helkei? ê dêlon hoti kakôs diakeimenos? hôsper oun tois

nephrois energeias ousês helkein ta oura kakôs helkein

hyparchei kakopragousin, houtô kai tô splêni poiotêtos

melancholikês helktikên en heautô dynamin echonti

symphyton arrhôstêsanti pote tautên anankaion helkein

kakôs kan tôde pachyteron êdê kai melanteron gignesthai

to haima.

Taut' oun hapanta pros te tas diagnôseis tôn nosêmatôn

kai tas iaseis megistên parechomena chreian || 134

hyperepêdêse teleôs ho Erasistratos kai kataphronein

prosepoiêsato têlikoutôn andrôn ho mêde tôn tychontôn

kataphronôn all' aei philotimôs antilegôn tais

êlithiôtatais doxais. hô kai dêlon, hôs ouden echôn out'

anteipein tois presbyterois hyper hôn apephênanto peri

splênos energeias te kai chreias out' autos exeuriskôn

ti kainon eis to mêden holôs eipein aphiketo. all'

hêmeis ge prôton men ek tôn aitiôn, hois hapanta

dioikeitai ta kata tas physeis, tou thermou legô kai

psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou, deuteron d' ex autôn tôn

enargôs phainomenôn kata to sôma psychron kai xêron

einai tina chrênai chymon apedeixamen. hexês d', hoti

kai melancholikos houtos hyparchei kai to kathairon

auton splanchnon ho splên estin, dia bracheôn hôs eni

malista tôn tois palaiois apodedeigmenôn anamnêsantes

epi to leipon eti tois parousi logois aphixometha.

Ti d' an eiê leipon allo g' ê exêgêsasthai saphôs, hoion

ti boulontai te || kai apodeiknyousi peri tên tôn chymôn 135

genesin hoi palaioi symbainein. enargesteron d' an

gnôstheiê dia paradeigmatos. oinon dê moi noei gleukinon

ou pro pollou tôn staphylôn ektethlimmenon zeonta te kai

alloioumenon hypo tês en autô thermasias; epeita kata

tên autou metabolên dyo gennômena perittômata to men

kouphoteron te kai aerôdesteron, to de baryteron te kai

geôdesteron, hôn to men anthos, oimai, to de tryga

kalousi. toutôn tô men heterô tên xanthên cholên, tô d'

heterô tên melainan eikazôn ouk an hamartois, ou tên

autên echontôn idean tôn chymôn toutôn en tô kata physin

dioikeisthai to zôon, hoian kai para physin echontos

epiphainontai pollakis. hê men gar xanthê lekithôdês

gignetai; kai gar onomazousin houtôs autên, hoti tais

tôn ôôn lekithois homoioutai kata te chroan kai pachos.

hê d' au melaina kakoêthestera men poly kai hautê tês

kata physin; onoma d' ouden idion keitai tô toioutô

chymô, plên ei pou tines ê xystikon ê oxôdê keklêkasin

auton, hoti kai drimys homoiôs oxei gignetai kai || xyei 136

ge to sôma tou zôou kai tên gên, ei kat' autês

ekchytheiê, kai tina meta pompholygôn hoion zymôsin te

kai zesin ergazetai, sêpedonos epiktêtou proselthousês

ekeinô tô kata physin echonti chymô tô melani. kai moi

dokousin hoi pleistoi tôn palaiôn iatrôn auto men to

kata physin echon tou toioutou chymou kai diachôroun

katô kai pollakis epipolazon anô melana kalein chymon,

ou melainan cholên, to d' ek synkauseôs tinos kai

sêpedonos eis tên oxeian methistamenon poiotêta melainan

onomazein cholên. alla peri men tôn onomatôn ou chrê

diapheresthai, to d' alêthes hôd' echon eidenai.

Kata tên tou haimatos genesin hoson an hikanôs pachy kai

geôdes ek tês tôn sitiôn physeôs empheromenon tê trophê

mê dexêtai kalôs tên ek tês emphytou thermasias

alloiôsin, ho splên eis heauton helkei touto. to d'

optêthen, hôs an tis eipoi, kai synkauthen tês trophês,

eiê d' an touto to thermotaton en autê kai glykytaton,

hoion to te meli kai hê pimelê, xanthê genomenon cholê

dia tôn cholêdochôn onomazomenôn angeiôn ekkathairetai.

|| lepton d' esti touto kai hygron kai rhyton ouch 137

hôsper hotan optêthen eschatôs xanthon kai pyrôdes kai

pachy genêtai tais tôn ôôn homoion lekithois. touto men

gar êdê para physin; thateron de to proteron eirêmenon

kata physin estin; hôsper ge kai tou melanos chymou to

men mêpô tên hoion zesin te kai zymôsin tês gês

ergazomenon kata physin esti, to d' eis toiautên

methistamenon idean te kai dynamin êdê para physin, hôs

an tên ek tês synkauseôs tou para physin thermou

proseilêphos drimytêta kai hoion tephra tis êdê gegonos.

hôde pôs kai hê kekaumenê tryx tês akaustou diênenke.

thermon gar ti chrêma hautê g' hikanôs estin, hôste

kaiein te kai têkein kai diaphtheirein tên sarka. tê d'

hetera tê mêpô kekaumenê tous iatrous estin heurein

chrômenous eis hosaper kai tê gê tê kaloumenê keramitidi

kai tois allois, hosa xêrainein th' hama kai psychein

pephyken.

Eis tên tês houtô synkautheisês melainês cholês idean

kai hê lekithôdês ekeinê methistatai pollakis, hotan kai

autê poth' hoion optêtheisa tychê pyrôdei thermasia. ta

d' alla || tôn cholôn eidê sympanta ta men ek tês tôn 138

eirêmenôn kraseôs gignetai, ta d' hoion hodoi tines eisi

tês toutôn geneseôs te kai eis allêla metabolês.

diapherousi de tô tas men akratous einai kai monas, ta

d' hoion orrhois tisin exygrasmenas. all' hoi men orrhoi

tôn chymôn hapantes perittômata kai katharon autôn einai

deitai tou zôou to sôma. tôn d' eirêmenôn chymôn esti

tis chreia tê physei kai tou pacheos kai tou leptou kai

kathairetai pros te tou splênos kai tês epi tô hêpati

kysteôs to haima kai apotithetai tosouton te kai

toiouton hekaterou meros, hoson kai hoion, eiper eis

holon ênechthê tou zôou to sôma, blabên an tin'

eirgasato. to gar hikanôs pachy kai geôdes kai teleôs

diapepheugos tên en tô hêpati metabolên ho splên eis

heauton helkei; to d' allo to metriôs pachy syn tô

kateirgasthai pantê pheretai. deitai gar en pollois tou

zôou moriois pachytêtos tinos to haima kathaper oimai

kai tôn || empheromenôn inôn. kai eirêtai men kai 139

Platôni peri tês chreias autôn, eirêsetai de kai hêmin

en ekeinois tois grammasin, en hois an tas chreias tôn

moriôn dierchômetha; deitai d' ouch hêkista kai tou

xanthou chymou tou mêpô pyrôdous eschatôs gegenêmenou to

haima kai tis autô kai hê para toude chreia, di' ekeinôn

eirêsetai.

Phlegmatos d' ouden epoiêsen hê physis organon

kathartikon, hoti psychron kai hygron esti kai hoion

hêmipeptos tis trophê. deitai toinyn ou kenousthai to

toiouton all' en tô sômati menon alloiousthai. to d' ex

enkephalou katarrheon perittôma tacha men an oude

phlegma tis orthôs alla blennan te kai koryzan, hôsper

oun kai onomazetai, kaloiê. ei de mê, all' hoti ge tês

toutou kenôseôs orthôs hê physis prounoêsato, kai tout'

en tois peri chreias moriôn eirêsetai. kai gar oun kai

to kata te tên gastera kai ta entera synistamenon

phlegma hopôs an ekkenôthê kai auto tachista te kai

kallista, to pareskeuasmenon tê physei mêchanêma di'

ekeinôn eirêsetai kai auto tôn hypomnê||matôn. hoson oun 140

empheretai tais phlepsi phlegma chrêsimon hyparchon tois

zôois, oudemias deitai kenôseôs. prosechein de chrê

kantautha ton noun kai gignôskein, hôsper tôn cholôn

hekateras to men ti chrêsimon esti kai kata physin tois

zôois, to d' achrêston te kai para physin, houtô kai tou

phlegmatos, hoson men an ê glyky, chrêston einai touto

tô zôô kai kata physin, hoson d' oxy kai halmyron

egeneto, to men oxy teleôs êpeptêsthai, to d' halmyron

diasesêphthai. teleian d' apepsian phlegmatos akouein

chrê tên tês deuteras pepseôs dêlonoti tês en phlepsin;

ou gar dê tês ge prôtês tês kata tên koilian; ê oud' an

egegenêto tên archên chymos, ei kai tautên diepepheugei.

Taut' arkein moi dokei peri geneseôs te kai diaphthoras

chymôn hypomnêmat' einai tôn Hippokratei te kai Platôni

kai Aristotelei kai Praxagora kai Dioklei kai pollois

allois tôn palaiôn eirêmenôn; ou gar edikaiôsa panta

metapherein eis tonde ton logon ta teleôs ekeinois

gegrammena. tosouton de monon hyper hekastou eipon,

hoson exormêsei te tous || entynchanontas, ei mê 141

pantapasin eien skaioi, tois tôn palaiôn homilêsai

grammasi kai tên eis to rhaon autois syneinai boêtheian

parexei. gegraptai de pou kai di' heterou logou peri tôn

kata Praxagoran ton Nikarchou chymôn. ei gar kai hoti

malista deka poiei chôris tou haimatos, hendekatos gar

an eiê chymos auto to haima, tês Hippokratous ouk

apochôrei didaskalias. all' eis eidê tina kai diaphoras

temnei tous hyp' ekeinou prôtou pantôn hama tais

oikeiais apodeixesin eirêmenous chymous.

Epainein men oun chrê tous t' exêgêsamenous ta kalôs

eirêmena kai tous ei ti paraleleiptai prostithentas; ou

gar hoion te ton auton arxasthai te kai teleiôsai;

memphesthai de tous houtôs atalaipôrous, hôs mêden

hypomenein mathein tôn orthôs eirêmenôn, kai tous eis

tosouton philotimous, hôst' epithymia neôterôn dogmatôn

aei panourgein ti kai sophizesthai, ta men hekontas

paralipontas, hôsper Erasistratos epi tôn chymôn

epoiêse, ta de pa||nourgôs antilegontas, hôsper autos 142

th' houtos kai alloi polloi tôn neôterôn.

All' houtos men ho logos entauthoi teleutatô, to d'

hypoloipon hapan en tô tritô prosthêsô.

[167] _cf._ p. 89.

[168] This term is nowadays limited to the drawing

action of a blister, _cf._ p. 223.

[169] The radicles of the hepatic ducts in the liver

were supposed to be the active agents in extracting bile

from the blood. _cf._ pp. 145-149.

[170] _Anadosis_; _cf._ p. 13, note 5 (26).

[171] The term [Greek: koilia] is used both specifically

for the stomach proper and also (as probably here) in a

somewhat wider sense for the stomach _region_, including

the adjacent part of the small intestine; this was the

part of the alimentary canal from which nutriment was

believed to be absorbed by the mesenteric veins; _cf._

p. 309, note 2 (382).

[172] _cf._ p. 100, note 2 (152); p. 167, note 2 (234).

[173] A characteristic "lesion" in Erasistratus's

pathology.

[174] A certain subordinate place allowed to the horror

vacui.

[175] _i.e._ the parts to which the veins convey blood

after it leaves the liver--second stage of _anadosis_;

_cf._ p. 91, note 2 (138); p. 13, note 5 (26).

[176] What we now call the pulmonary artery. Galen

believed that the right ventricle existed for the

purpose of sending nutrient blood to the lungs.

[177] Lit. owing to the ongrowth (_epiphysis_) of

membranes; he means the tricuspid valve; _cf._ p. 314,

note 2 (387); p. 321, note 4 (398).

[178] Horror vacui.

[179] But Erasistratus had never upheld this in the case

of urinary secretion, _cf._ p. 99.

[180] This was the characteristically "anatomical"

explanation of bile-secretion made by Erasistratus.

_cf._ p. 170, note 2 (241). Why, then, says Galen, does not

urine, rather than bile, enter the bile-ducts?

[181] Urine, or, more exactly, blood-serum.

[182] Or ducts, canals, conduits, _i.e._ _morphological_

factors.

[183] Or artistic skill, "artistry." _cf._ Book I.,

chap. xii.

[184] "Only"; _cf._ Introd., p. xxviii.

Ti d' ên to sperma? hê archê tou zôou dêlonoti hê