MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
Scarcity of Historical Data -- The Tribes of Chiapas -- The
Founders and Heroes of the Chiapanec Nation -- Wars with the Aztecs
-- The People of the Southern Coast -- They are vanquished by the
Olmecs -- Their Exodus and Journey -- They settle and separate --
Juarros' Account of the Origin and later History of the Pipiles --
Pipile Traditions -- The Founding of Mictlan -- Queen Comizahual
-- Acxitl's Empire of the East -- The Cholutecs -- Various Tribes
of Nicaragua -- Settlements on the Isthmus.
It is my purpose to relate in this chapter all that is known
of the scattered tribes of Central America, exclusive of the
Quiché-Cakchiquels. The historical information that has been preserved
respecting these tribes is, however, so meagre and of such a vague and
unsatisfactory character that the reader must expect nothing more than
a very disconnected and incomplete account of them.
Chiapas, which is geographically the most northerly portion of Central
America, though politically it belongs to Mexico, was inhabited in its
northern part by the Tzendales and Zoques, in its central and southern
region by the Chiapanecs, Zotziles, and Quelenes.[XII-1] The Tzendales
lived in the vicinity of Palenque, and are said to have been directly
descended from the builders of that city. Of the Zotziles and Quelenes
nothing is known, save that they, together with the Tzendales and the
Zoques, were at a late date subjugated by the Chiapanecs.[XII-2]
[Sidenote: THE CHIAPANECS.]
The Chiapanecs, according to some authorities, came originally from
Nicaragua. After a long and painful journey they arrived at the river
Chiapa. Finding the region to their taste they resolved to settle, and
founded a strong city upon the neighboring heights.[XII-3] Fuentes asserts
that they were descended from the Toltecs, and that their kingdom was
founded by a brother of Nima Quiché, one of the chiefs who led the
Toltecs to Guatemala.[XII-4] There can be no doubt that the Chiapanecs
were a very ancient people; indeed their traditions refer us back to
the time of Votan.[XII-5] Boturini, on the authority of Bishop Nuñez de
la Vega, speaks of an original record in which Votan is represented as
the third figure in the Chiapanec calendar. The record also enumerates
the places where Votan tarried, and states that ever since his visit
there has been in Teopixca a family bearing his name. Vega believes
that the original population of Chiapas and Soconusco were of the
race of Cham.[XII-6] The twenty heroes whose names are immortalized in the
calendar of the Chiapanecs are commonly said to have been the founders
or first rulers of that nation. We are told that they all distinguished
themselves, and that some died in their beds, some on the battle-field,
others at the hands of their rivals, but beyond this scarcely any
record of their lives or deeds has survived. One of them named Chinax,
a military leader represented with a flag in his hand, was hanged
and burned by an enemy; of another named Been, it is stated that he
traveled through Chiapas, leaving special marks of his visits in the
places through which he passed. It appears by the calendar that Imox,
sometimes called Mox, and occasionally Ninus, was the first settler
in Chiapas. According to the worthy prelate above mentioned, this
Ninus was the son of Belo, who was the son of Nimrod, who was the son
of Chus, who was the grandson of Cham. He was represented by or with
the ceiba tree,[XII-7] from whose roots, it is said, the Chiapanec race
sprang.[XII-8] It is Orozco y Berra's opinion that the Chiapanecs should
be placed before the better known tribes[XII-9] and after the builders of
Palenque and Copan. Their language has not been classified, but is said
to resemble that of the Nicoya region.[XII-10]
The spot on which the pioneer settlers of the Chiapan region
established their first stronghold was so difficult of access as to be
almost unassailable, and was fortified so strongly both by nature and
art, that it was practically impregnable. From here the inhabitants
kept up a constant warfare with the Aztec garrisons at Tzinacatla,
Soconusco and elsewhere.[XII-11] They cordially hated the Mexicans, and
persistently refused to intermarry with them. Their enemies seem
to have been stronger than they, but by their valor they not only
maintained their independence until the time of the Conquest, but, as
we have seen, they subjugated the surrounding nations. They incurred
the bitter enmity of the Chinantecs, because they forced the Zoques to
pay tribute.[XII-12]
[Sidenote: THE PIPILES.]
The southern coast region of Chiapas, between Tehuantepec and
Soconusco, was occupied by a people whose origin is involved in some
mystery. Brasseur relates that they came from Cholula; probably in the
ninth century, at the time when Huemac took that city and persecuted
the followers of Quetzalcoatl. Torquemada identifies them with the
Pipiles of Guatemala and Salvador,[XII-13] of whom I shall speak presently.
These coast people were an industrious, frugal race, and for a long
time they held peaceable possession of their territory, and prospered
exceedingly. But their happy life was destined to be rudely and
suddenly changed to one of bondage and oppression. A horde of fierce
Olmecs invaded and conquered their country, and immediately reduced
the vanquished to a state of miserable slavery. Not only were they
forced to pay excessive and ruinous tribute, but they were compelled
to yield up their children of both sexes to gratify the unnatural lusts
of their masters. They were, besides, made amenable to a most rigorous
system of laws, the least infraction of which was punished with death.
For a time they groaned passively under this cruel yoke, but at length
it grew unbearable. Then in their deep trouble they appealed to their
priests for help and advice. The priests consulted the oracles and
at the end of eight days announced to the people that the only way in
which they could escape from their persecutors was to leave the country
in a body, and go in search of another home. At first the people
seemed disposed to question the prudence and feasibility of this step,
but they were speedily re-assured by the priests, who declared that
the gods would aid and protect them in their flight. A day was then
set for their departure, and they were instructed in the meantime to
provide themselves with everything necessary for a long journey. At the
appointed time they assembled secretly, and set out at once. It would
be difficult to believe that an entire nation of slaves could have
made such an exodus unknown to and against the will of their masters,
even though we read of a parallel case in Holy Writ; but, however this
might be, they seem to have taken the road towards Guatemala without
hindrance, and to have been pursued by no Olmec Pharaoh.[XII-14]
According to the tradition, they continued their march down the coast
for twenty days, until they came to the banks of the river Michatoyatl.
Here their chief priest fell sick, and the country being very pleasant,
they halted for a time. Before long the priest died, and they then
proceeded on their journey, leaving, however, some families behind,
who settled here and founded a city, afterwards known in Guatemalan
history by the name of Itzcuintlan. After this there is some confusion
in the different accounts. Following the plainest version, similar
circumstances caused them to make another halt twenty leagues lower
down, in the neighborhood of the volcano Cuzcatlan.[XII-15] Here they found
a lovely climate, and a productive soil, and that part of them that has
since borne the name of Pipiles resolved to settle. The others went
farther south, towards the Conchagua Gulf;[XII-16] but of these I shall
speak again presently.
The authorities do not all assign this origin to the Pipiles, however.
Juarros says that Ahuitzotl, king of Mexico, sent to Guatemala, in the
garb of traders, a large number of Mexicans of the lowest class, under
the command of four captains and one general. These were instructed to
settle in the country. Ahuitzotl did this in order to have auxiliaries
so situated as to facilitate his intended military operations against
the chiefs of Guatemala. He died, however, before he could carry out
this policy. The new settlers spoke the Mexican language very poorly,
much as children might speak it; for this reason they were called
Pipiles, which in Mexican signifies children.[XII-17] They prospered
and multiplied wonderfully in their new home, and extended their
settlements to Sonsonate and Salvador. But after a time they incurred
the enmity of the Quichés and Cakchiquels, by whom they were so sorely
oppressed that there was danger of their being speedily exterminated.
In this emergency the Pipiles formed a military organization, much
as Ahuitzotl had originally intended. But some time later the chiefs
began to abuse the power with which they had been invested by imposing
heavy taxes and otherwise robbing the people. Moreover, the principal
lord, named Cuaucmichin, introduced human sacrifice, and made victims
of some of the most highly esteemed persons in the community. A riot
broke out, during which Cuaucmichin was put to death by the people of
his palace. The other chiefs were also deprived of their authority,
and left with the inferior rank of Alahuaes, or heads of calpullis. A
nobleman named Tutecotzemit, a man of mild disposition, kind heart, and
good ability to govern was then invested with the supreme authority. It
appears that he was not free from ambition, however. His first step was
to form a council, or senate, of eight nobles, connected with himself
by blood or marriage, to whom he granted a certain amount of authority.
He then appointed a number of subordinate officers, chosen from among
the nobility, who were subject to the orders of the senate. He next
proceeded to reduce the imposts and to remedy the evils that had arisen
from previous misgovernment. Having thus gained the confidence and
affection of the people, he caused himself to be formally proclaimed
king of the Pipiles with the right of transmitting the crown to his
children and their descendants. It is recorded that the Pipiles played
a very prominent part in the numerous wars that took place between the
several kingdoms of Guatemala. In later years they were engaged in
a very long and bitter conflict with the Cakchiquels, in which they
were finally worsted by Nimahuinac, king of that people, who forced
Tonaltut, lord of the Pipiles, to sue for peace, and only granted it
on the condition that the Pipiles should bind themselves to a perpetual
alliance with the Cakchiquel kings.[XII-18]
All that has been preserved of their earlier history is contained in
two traditions, which are half if not wholly mythical. The first of
these refers to the period immediately following the settlement of
the Pipiles at their last halting-place in Salvador, and especially to
the founding of Mictlan, a city which subsequently corresponded in its
sacred character to Cholula on the eastern plateau of Mexico, and Mitla
in Oajaca. The story goes that there issued one day from Lake Huixa a
mysterious old man of venerable aspect, clad in long blue robes, and
wearing upon his head a pontificial mitre. He was followed by a young
girl of peerless beauty, dressed in a similar manner, excepting the
mitre. Soon after his appearance the old man betook himself to the
summit of a neighboring hill. There under his directions the people
at once set about building a splendid temple, which received the name
of Mictlan. Round about the sacred edifice the palaces of the chiefs
rose in rapid succession, and in an incredibly short space of time
a thriving and populous city had grown out of the desert. The same
mysterious personage gave them laws and a system of government, under
which they continued to prosper until the end.[XII-19]
The other tradition to which I have alluded was preserved at the
time of the Conquest by the inhabitants of Cerquin, a province in the
mountainous region of northern Honduras. There is reason to believe
that the people to whom it relates were Pipiles, as they extended
their possessions in this direction, but their name is not given in
connection with the story, which attributes to a woman the honor of
having first introduced culture into this part of the country, two
hundred years before the advent of the Spaniards. She is described
as having been very beautiful, of a fair complexion, and well versed
in the art of magic. She appeared suddenly, as if dropped from the
sky, for which reason, and because of the great respect which she
inspired, she was named Comizahual, or 'flying tigress,' the tiger
being an animal held sacred by the natives. She took up her abode at
Cealcoquin, and erected there many temples which she ornamented with
monstrous figures of men and animals. In the principal temple she
placed a stone having three sides, on each of which were three faces
of hideous aspect. By means of the magic virtues which lay within this
stone she overthrew her enemies and added to her dominions. She reigned
gloriously for a number of years, and had three sons, though she was
unmarried and had never known a man. When she felt her end drawing
near, she summoned these princes to her presence, and after giving them
the best of advice regarding the way in which they should govern, she
divided her kingdom equally between them. She then caused herself to be
carried on her bed to the highest terrace of the palace, and suddenly
vanished, amid thunder and lightning. It is recorded that her three
sons governed well and wisely, but no particulars of their reigns are
given.[XII-20]
[Sidenote: EMPIRE OF THE EAST.]
Brasseur implies that the Pipiles were in some way connected with or
subject to the empire which he believes Topiltzin Acxitl, the last
Toltec king of Anáhuac, to have founded in Central America, since
he speaks of Mictlan being the seat of the spiritual power of that
realm. I have already expressed my opinion that this empire of the
East is the offspring of the Abbé's inventive imagination; but at the
same time, notwithstanding the two or three allusions upon which he
must found his theory are so vague as to be practically meaningless,
he manages to give a tolerably definite description of the condition
in which the Cakchiquels found it when they came after a long and
arduous pilgrimage from Anáhuac to do homage to Acxitl. He confesses
his ignorance of the particulars of the Toltec monarch's journey, and
of the means by which he attained universal dominion in the east, but
adds that it is certain that with the aid of the Toltec emigrants,
like himself, and the Chichimecs of all languages, who followed in his
footsteps, he had succeeded in establishing a kingdom larger, perhaps,
than that which he had lost, and in conferring upon his subjects the
benefits of civilization as well as the cult of Quetzalcoatl, of whom
he was the supreme representative. Taught by experience the benefits
of such a policy, he united under his authority the bands of emigrants
that were constantly arriving, and with their assistance conquered by
force of arms such of the surrounding provinces as would not peaceably
acknowledge his supremacy. It was his custom to leave those princes
who offered no resistance to his encroachments in possession of their
titles and dignities, merely making them nominal vassals of the empire.
By pursuing this policy Acxitl became so powerful that none of the
numerous Quiché and Cakchiquel chiefs who afterwards founded states in
these regions dared to assume the royal authority until they had been
formally instated in their possessions by him. Thus it was that at the
time when the Cakchiquels descended from the mountains to the plateau
of Vera Paz, they found Acxitl occupied in conferring the sovereignty
of that region upon one of the most renowned of the warriors who had
followed him from Tollan, named Cempoal Taxuch before his coronation,
and Orbaltzam afterwards.[XII-21]
[Sidenote: NICARAGUAN TRIBES.]
Let us now follow the fortunes of the Xuchiltepecs, or that part of
the tribes of the coast of Chiapas which separated from the Pipiles at
Cuzcatlan. Following the coast southward they arrived at the Gulf of
Conchagua. Here they were forced to halt, by the illness and subsequent
death of the priest who had hitherto been their guide. Before expiring,
the old man, who seems in some way to have gained a knowledge of that
region, gave them full information as to what they might expect of
the surrounding nations, exhorted them to settle and live in peace,
and predicted that their ancient enemies, the Olmecs, would eventually
become their slaves. The Xuchiltepecs accordingly stayed permanently
where they were, on the borders of Honduras, Salvador, and Nicaragua,
and bore henceforward the name of Cholutecs, from the country from
which they originally came.[XII-22]
Of the other tribes of Nicaragua nothing is known, except the names
and localities of those that inhabited the strip of country between
the Pacific coast and the lakes. Of these, the Orotiñans occupied the
country about the Gulf of Nicoya and south of the Lake of Nicaragua.
Their principal towns were Orotiña, Cantren, and Choroté.[XII-23] North of
these were the Dirians, whose chief cities were settled at the foot of
the volcano of Mombacho, and at Managua on the lake of that name.[XII-24]
North of the Dirians were the Nagrandans, or Mangnés, whose territory
lay between Lake Managua and the ocean.[XII-25] The Chontales inhabited the
mountainous region north-east of Lake Nicaragua.[XII-26] Immediately south
of the Cholutecs were the Chorotegans. These two nations are often
regarded as identical. According to Squier the Chorotegans included the
Orotiñans, Dirians, and Nagrandans.[XII-27] The Niquirans, or Nicaraguans,
were one of the most prominent tribes in Nicaragua.[XII-28] There is some
confusion about their origin. Torquemada implies that they were part
of the tribes that were driven from their home on the coast of Chiapas
by the Olmecs, who, after the death of their priest at the Gulf of
Conchagua, continued their journey to the Atlantic coast, along which
they traveled as far as Nombre de Dios, founding several towns on the
way. Thence they returned, in search of a fresh-water sea, to Nicoya,
where they were informed that a few leagues farther on was a fine lake.
They accordingly proceeded to the spot upon which Leon now stands,
and there formed settlements. But growing dissatisfied with this site,
they afterwards went to Nicaragua, where, by a treacherous ruse, they
killed the inhabitants and took possession of the land.[XII-29] Brasseur
tells much the same story of their travels and ultimate settlement in
Nicaragua, but asserts that they were Toltecs.[XII-30]
FOOTNOTES:
[XII-1] See for location of these tribes, vol. i., pp. 681-2.
[XII-2] _Herrera_, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; _Remesal_, _Hist.
Chyapa_, p. 264; _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. iii., p. 16.
[XII-3] _Remesal_, ib.; _Herrera_, ib.; _Murguia_, _Estadist.
Guajaca_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin_, tom. vii., p. 187.
[XII-4] _Juarros_, _Hist. Guat._, p. 8.
[XII-5] _Clavigero_, tom. iv., p. 52, tom. i., pp. 150-1;
_Larrainzar_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin_, tom. iii., p. 92;
_Bradford's Amer. Antiq._, p. 202.
[XII-6] _Boturini_, _Idea_, pp. 115, 118-19.
[XII-7] Five-leaved silk-cotton tree, _Bombax Ceiba_.
[XII-8] _Piñeda_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin_, tom. iii., pp. 344-5.
The names of these heroes were: Imox, Igh, Votan, Chanan, Abah, Tox,
Moxic, Lambat, Molo or Mulu, Elab, Batz, Evob, Been, Hix, Tziquin,
Chabin, Chic, Chinax, Cahogh, Aghual.
[XII-9] Who these 'better known tribes' are is not stated.
[XII-10] _Piñeda_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin_, tom. iii., p. 346.
The history, position and civilization of the Chiapanecs shows that
they preceded, or were at least contemporaries of the first tribes or
factions of the Aztec family. They were certainly a very ancient
people, and of Toltec origin, while their civilization undoubtedly
came from the north and not from the south. _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, pp. 44, 60, 120.
[XII-11] _Clavigero_, tom. iv., pp. 267-8; _Bernal Diaz_, _Hist.
Conq._, fol. 73, 178; _Herrera_, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.;
_Larrainzar_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin_, tom. iii., p. 92;
_Brasseur_, _Esquisses_, p. 17.
[XII-12] _Herrera_, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; _Remesal_, _Hist.
Chyapa_, p. 264.
[XII-13] _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 333. Brasseur, _Hist._, tom. ii.,
p. 76, identifies them with the Pipiles and Xuchiltepecs.
[XII-14] _Torquemada_, tom. i., p. 332.
[XII-15] Cuzcatlan was the ancient name of Salvador.
[XII-16] _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. ii., pp. 78-9. Torquemada, tom. i.,
p. 332, relates that twenty days after starting, one of their
high-priests died. They then traversed Guatemala, and journeying a
hundred leagues farther on, came to a country to which the Spaniards
have given the name of Choluteca, or Choroteca. Here another priest
died. After this the author goes on to tell the story which, according
to the version followed above, applies to the Xuchiltepecs who
proceeded to the Gulf of Conchagua, and which will be referred to
elsewhere.
[XII-17] _Juarros_, _Hist. Guat._, p. 224. A reduplication of _pilli_,
which has two meanings, 'noble,' and 'child,' the latter being
generally regarded as its meaning in the tribal name. _Buschmann_,
_Ortsnamen_, p. 137. See also _Molina_, _Vocabulario_.
[XII-18] _Juarros_, _Hist. Guat._, pp. 81-4, 17-18, 20, 23, 26.
[XII-19] 'L'époque que les événements paraissent assigner à cette
légende coïncide avec la période de la grande émigration toltèque et
la fondation des divers royaumes guatémaliens qui en furent la
conséquence.' _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. ii., p. 81.
[XII-20] _Torquemada_, tom. i., p. 336; _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. ii.,
pp. 106-7; _Herrera_, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iv.
[XII-21] _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. ii., pp. 101-5.
[XII-22] _Torquemada_, tom. i., p. 332; _Brasseur_, _Hist._, tom. ii.,
pp. 79, 107-8. See vol. i., of this work, p. 791, for territory of
Cholutecs.
[XII-23] _Torquemada_, tom. i., p. 332; _Levy_, _Nicaragua_, p. 6; see
vol. i., of this work, p. 792.
[XII-24] _Id._
[XII-25] _Id._
[XII-26] _Id._, p. 790.
[XII-27] _Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856), vol. ii., pp. 309-12; _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., p. 35.
[XII-28] For locality, see vol. i., p. 792.
[XII-29] _Torquemada_, tom. i., pp. 332-3.
[XII-30] _Hist._, tom. ii., pp. 108-9.