TRANSFORMERS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.
Transformers are almost always necessary in long electric systems of
transmission, because the line voltage is greater than that of
generators, or at least that of distribution. As transformers at either
generating or receiving stations represent an increase of investment
without corresponding increase of working capacity, and also an
additional loss in operation, it is desirable to avoid their use as far
as is practicable. In short transmissions over distances of less than
fifteen miles it is generally better to avoid the use of transformers at
generating stations, and in some of these cases, where the transmission
is only two or three miles, it is even more economical to omit
transformers at the sub-stations.
Thus, where energy is to be transmitted two miles and then applied to
large motors in a factory, or distributed at 2,500 volts, the cost of
bare copper conductors for the three-phase transmission line will be
only about $6 per kilowatt of line capacity at 2,500 volts, with copper
at 15 cents per pound, and a loss of 5 per cent at full load. The
average loss in such a line will probably be as small as that in one set
of transformers and a line of higher voltage. Furthermore, the first
cost of the 2,500-volt generators and line without transformers will be
less than that of generators and line of higher voltage with step-down
transformers at the sub-station.
As generators up to 13,500 volts are now regularly manufactured, it is
quite common to omit step-up transformers at the main stations of rather
short transmission systems. This practice was followed in the
13,500-volt transmission to Manchester, N. H., the 10,000-volt
transmission to Lewiston, Me., and the 12,000-volt transmission to
Salem, N. C.
In most transmission over distances of twenty-five miles or more,
step-up transformers at generating stations as well as step-down
transformers at sub-stations are employed. As yet the highest voltages
that have been put into practical use on transmission lines (that is,
50,000 to 60,000) are much below the pressures that have been yielded by
transformers in experimental work. These latter voltages have in a
number of instances gone above 100,000. The numbers and capacities of
transformers used at main stations vary much in their relation to the
numbers and individual capacities of generators there. In some cases
there are three times as many transformers as three-phase generators,
and the capacity of each transformer is either equal to or somewhat
greater than one-third of the capacity of each generator.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Transformers at Central Sub-station, Montreal.]
Thus in the station at Spier Falls on the Hudson, whence power is
transmitted to Albany and other cities, the number of step-up
transformers will be thirty and their aggregate capacity will be 24,014
kilowatts, while the total number of three-phase generators will be ten,
with a combined capacity of 24,000 kilowatts. Another practice is to
give each transformer a capacity greater than one-third of that of the
three-phase generator with which it is to be connected, and make the
total number of transformers less than three times as great as the
number of generators. An example of this sort exists in the station on
Apple River, whence power is transmitted to St. Paul. This station
contains four three-phase generators of 750 kilowatts each, and six
transformers of 500 kilowatts each, these latter being connected in two
sets of three each. The use of three transformers for each three-phase
generator instead of three transformers for each two or three
generators, tends to keep transformers fully loaded when in use, and
therefore to increase their efficiency. On the other hand, efficiency
increases a little with the size of transformers, and the first cost per
unit capacity is apt to be less the greater the size of each.
Another solution of the problem is to provide one transformer for each
three-phase generator, each transformer being wound with three sets of
coils, so that the entire output of a generator can be sent into it.
This practice is followed at the Hochfelden water-power station, whence
power is transmitted to Oerlikon, Switzerland, also in the water-power
station at Grenoble, France, whence energy at 26,000 volts is
transmitted to a number of factories. With three-phase transformers each
generator and its transformer may form an independent unit that can be
connected with the line at pleasure, thus tending to keep transformers
at full load.
Though three-phase transformers are much used in Europe, they have thus
far had little application in the United States. Single-phase
transformers may, of course, be limited in number to that of the
three-phase generators with which they are used, but such transformers
must regularly be connected to the generators and line in groups of two
or three. Such an equipment was provided in part at the 7,500-kilowatt
station on the Missouri River at Cañon Ferry, which contains ten
three-phase generators of 750 kilowatts each. The transformers at this
station include twelve of 325 kilowatts each, connected in four groups
of three each, also six transformers of 950 kilowatts each which are
also connected in groups of three. Three of these larger transformers
have a capacity of 2,850 kilowatts, or nearly equal to that of four
generators.
With two-phase generators single-phase transformers must be connected in
pairs, and it is common to provide two transformers for each generator.
Thus, in the Rainbow station on the Farmington River, whence energy is
transmitted to Hartford, there are two generators of the two-phase type
and rated at 600 kilowatts each, also four transformers rated at 300
kilowatts each.
As the regulation of transformers on overloads is not as good as that of
generators, it seems good practice to give each group of transformers a
somewhat greater capacity than that of the generator or generators whose
energy is to pass through it. This plan was apparently followed at the
Cañon Ferry station, where the total generator capacity is 7,500
kilowatts and the total capacity of step-up transformers is 9,600
kilowatts. Each group of the 325-kilowatt transformers there has a
capacity of 975 kilowatts, while each generator is only of 750
kilowatts. Usually the number of groups of transformers at a two-phase
or three-phase generating station is made greater than the number of
transmission circuits supplied by the station, for some of the reasons
just considered. When this is not the case it is commonly desirable in
any event to have as many groups of step-up transformers as there are
transmission circuits, so that each circuit may be operated with
transformers that are independent of the other circuits.
At sub-stations it is desirable to have a group of transformers for each
transmission circuit, and it may be necessary to subdivide the
transformer capacity still further in order to keep transformers in
operation at nearly full load, or to provide a group of transformers for
each sort of service or for each distribution circuit. All of the
transformers at a sub-station should have a total capacity at least
equal to that of the generators whose energy they are to receive, minus
the losses in step-up transformers and the line. Transformers at
sub-stations do not necessarily correspond in number or individual
capacity with those at generating stations, and the number of
sub-station transformers bears no necessary relation to the number of
generators by which they are fed.
Two transmission circuits extend from Cañon Ferry to a sub-station at
Butte, and in that sub-station there are six transformers divided into
two groups for three-phase operation, each transformer being rated at
950 kilowatts. This sub-station equipment thus corresponds to only the
six 950-kilowatt transformers in the generating station, because the
four groups of smaller transformers there are used to supply the
transmission line to Helena.
In the sub-station at St. Paul that receives the entire output of the
plant on Apple River, where the six transformers of 500 kilowatts each
are located, ten transformers receive energy from two three-phase
transmission circuits. Six of these transformers are rated at 300
kilowatts each. The 300-kilowatt transformers are connected in two
groups of three each, and the 200-kilowatt in two groups of two each,
transforming current from three-phase to two-phase. The aggregate
capacity of the sub-station transformers is thus 2,600 kilowatts, while
that of transformers at the generating station is 3,000 kilowatts. With
four generators at the water-power plant there are ten transformers at
the sub-station, where all the energy, minus losses, is delivered.
At Watervliet, where one of the several sub-stations of the system with
its larger generating plant at Spier Falls is located, the capacity of
each transformer is 1,000 kilowatts, though each transformer at Spier
Falls has a rating below this figure.
In the sub-station at Manchester, N. H., that receives nearly all of the
energy from four water-power plants, containing eight generators with an
aggregate capacity of 4,030 kilowatts, there are located twenty-one
step-down transformers that have a total rating of 4,200 kilowatts.
These twenty-one transformers are fed by six circuits, of which five are
three-phase and one is two-phase. A part of the transformers supply
current to motor-generators, developing 500-volt current for a street
railway, and the remaining transformers feed circuits that distribute
alternating current.
From these examples it may be seen that in practice either one or more
groups of transformers are employed in sub-stations for each
transmission circuit, that the total number of these transformers may be
just equal to or several times that of the generators from which they
receive energy, and that the individual capacities of the transformers
range from less than one-third to more than that of a single generator.
Groups of transformers at a main station must correspond in voltage with
that of the generators in the primary and that of the transmission line
in the secondary windings. Sub-station transformers receive current at
the line voltage and deliver it at any of the pressures desired for
local distribution. Where step-up transformers are employed the
generator pressure in nearly all cases is at some point between 500 and
2,500 volts.
At the Cañon Ferry station the voltage of transformers is 550 in in the
primary and 50,000 in the secondary windings. In the Colgate
power-house, whence energy is transmitted to Oakland, the generator
pressure of 2,400 volts is raised to 40,000 volts by transformers.
Generator voltage in the power-house on Apple River is 800 and
transformers put the pressure up to 25,000 for the line to St. Paul.
Transformers at the Niagara Falls station raise the voltage from 2,200
to 22,000 for the transmission to Buffalo.
As transformers can be wound for any desired ratio of voltages in their
primary and secondary coils, a generator pressure that will allow the
most economical construction can be selected where step-up transformers
are employed. In general it may be said that the greater the capacity of
each generator, the higher should be its voltage and that of the primary
coils of step-up transformers, for economical construction. At
sub-stations the requirements of distribution must obviously fix the
secondary voltages of transformers.
Weight and cost of transformers depend in part on the frequency of the
alternating current employed, transformers being lighter and cheaper the
higher the number of cycles completed per second by their current, other
factors remaining constant. In spite of this fact the tendency during
some years has been toward lower frequencies, because the lower
frequencies present marked advantages as to inductive effects in
transmission systems, the distribution of power through induction
motors, the construction and operation of rotary converters, and the
construction of generators. Instead of the 133 cycles per second that
were common in alternating systems when long transmissions first became
important, sixty cycles per second is now the most general rate of
current changes in such transmission systems. But practice is constantly
extending to still lower frequencies. The first Niagara Falls plant with
its twenty-five cycles per second reached the lower limit for general
distribution, because incandescent lighting is barely satisfactory and
arc lighting decidedly undesirable at this figure.
In contrast with the great transmissions from Cañon Ferry to Butte,
Colgate to Oakland, and Electra to San Francisco, which operate at sixty
cycles, the system between Cañon City and Cripple Creek, in Colorado, as
well as the great plant at Sault Ste. Marie, employs thirty-cycle
current, and the lines from Spier Falls to Schenectady, Albany, and Troy
are intended for current at forty cycles per second. From these examples
it may be seen that the bulk and cost of transformers is not the
controlling factor in the selection of current frequency in a
transmission system.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--First Floor of Saratoga Sub-station.]
Transformers used at either generating or sub-stations are cooled by
special means in many cases.
The advantages of so-called artificial cooling are smaller weight and
first cost in transformers, and perhaps longer life for the insulation
of windings. For these advantages a small increase in the cost of
operation must be paid. Station transformers are usually cooled either
by forcing air through their cases under pressure, or else by passing
water through pipes in the oil with which the transformer cases are
filled. If cooling with air-blast is adopted, a blower, with electric
motor or some other source of power to operate it, must be provided.
Where transformers are oil-insulated and cooled with water there must be
some pressure to maintain the circulation. If free water under a
suitable head can be had for the cooling of transformers, as in most
water-power plants, the cost is very slight. Where water must be
purchased and pumped through the transformers its cost will usually be
greater than that of cooling with air-blast. One manufacturer gives the
following as approximate figures for the rate at which water at the
temperature of 15° centigrade must be forced through his transformers to
prevent a rise of more than 35° centigrade in their temperature,
probably when operating under full loads.
Transformers--Kilowatts. Gallons per minute.
150 0.5
400 .75
400 1.00
1,000 1.5
75 .37
An air-blast to cool transformers at main or sub-stations may be
provided in either of two ways. One plan is to construct an air-tight
compartment, locate the transformers over openings in its top, and
maintain a pressure in the compartment by means of blower-fans that draw
cool air from outside. Such an arrangement has been carried out at the
sub-station in Manchester, N. H. The basement underneath this
sub-station is air-tight, and in the concrete floor over it there are
twenty-seven rectangular openings, each twenty-five by thirty inches,
and intended for the location of a 200-kilowatt transformer. Aggregate
transformer capacity over these openings will thus be 5,400 kilowatts.
Pressure in this basement is maintained by drawing outside air through a
metal duct that terminates in a hood on the outside of the sub-station
about nine feet above the ground. In the roof of this sub-station there
are ample skylight openings to permit the exit of hot air that has been
forced through the transformers. In the air-tight basement are two
electric motors of ten horse-power each, connected to the blower that
maintains the pressure. It may be noted that in this case there is less
than one-horse power of motor capacity for each 200 kilowatts capacity
in transformers.
Where there are not more than six or nine transformers to be cooled, it
is common practice to provide a separate motor and blower for each group
of three transformers, and lead the air directly from each blower to its
group of transformers by a metal duct, thus avoiding the necessity for
an air-chamber. In such cases a blower giving a three-eighth-ounce air
pressure per square inch and a motor of one horse-power capacity are
generally provided for each group of three transformers rated at 100 to
150 kilowatts each. Where cooling with air-blast is adopted,
oil-insulation cannot be carried out because the air must come into
intimate contact with the transformer coils and core. Both
oil-insulation with water cooling and dry insulation with cooling by
air-blast have been widely used in transmission systems of large
capacity and high voltage.
In the Colgate plant, where the line pressure is 40,000 volts, the
700-kilowatt transformers are oil-insulated and water-cooled, and this
is also true of the 950-kilowatt transformers in the 50,000-volt
transmission between Cañon Ferry and Butte. On the other hand, the
transmission system between Spier Falls, Schenectady, and Albany,
carried out at 26,500 volts, includes transformers that range from
several hundred to 1,000 kilowatts each in capacity and are all
air-cooled. Either a water-cooled transformer or one cooled by air-blast
may be safely overloaded to some extent, if the circulation of air or
water is so increased that the overload does not cause heating beyond
the allowable temperature.
The circulation of air or water through a transformer should never be
forced to an extent that cools the transformer below the temperature of
the air in the room where it is located, as this will cause the
condensation of water on its parts.
In some cases it is desirable that means for the regulation of
transformer voltages through a range of ten per cent or more each way
from the normal be provided. This result is reached by the connection of
a number of sections at one end of the transformer winding to a terminal
board, where they may be cut in or out of action at will. Regulation is
usually desired, if at all, in a secondary winding of comparatively low
voltage, and the regulating sections generally form a part of such
winding, but these sections may be located in the primary winding.
In order to keep the number of transformers smaller and the capacity of
each larger than it would otherwise be, it is practicable to divide the
low-voltage secondary winding of each transformer into two or more
parts that have no electrical connection with each other. These
different parts of the winding may then be connected to distinct
distribution lines or other services. An example of this sort exists in
the Hooksett sub-station of the Manchester, N. H., transmission system.
Three-phase current at about 11,000 volts enters the primary windings of
three transformers at this sub-station. Each of these transformers has a
single primary, but two distinct secondary windings. Three of these
secondaries, one on each transformer, are connected together and feed a
rotary converter at about 380 volts, three-phase. The other three
secondary windings are connected in like manner to a second rotary
converter. Each of these transformers is rated at 250 kilowatts, and
each rotary is rated at 300 kilowatts, so that the transformer capacity
amounts to 750 kilowatts and that of the converters to 600 kilowatts,
giving a desirable margin of transformer capacity for railway service.
With the ordinary method of connection and windings, six transformers of
125 kilowatts each would have been required in this sub-station.
High voltage for transmission lines may be obtained by the combination
of two or more transformers with their secondary coils in series. This
method was followed in some of the early transmissions, as in that at
10,000 volts to San Bernardino and Pomona, begun in 1891, where twenty
transformers, giving 500 volts each, were used with their high-voltage
coils in series. Some disadvantages of such an arrangement are its high
cost per unit of transformer capacity and its low efficiency.
In a single-phase system the maximum line pressure must be developed or
received in the coils of each transformer, unless two or more are
connected in series. This is also true as to either phase of a two-phase
system with independent circuits. In three-phase circuits the coils of a
transformer connected between either two wires obviously operate at the
full line pressure. The same result is reached when the three
transformers of a group are joined to the line in mesh or Δ-fashion. If
the three transformers of a group are joined in star or Y-fashion, the
coils of each transformer are subject to fifty-eight per cent of the
voltage between any two wires of the three-phase line on which the group
is connected. It is no longer the practice to connect two or more
transformers in series either between two wires of a two-phase or
between two wires of a three-phase circuit, because it is cheaper and
more efficient to use a single transformer in each of these positions.
Where very high voltage must be developed or received with a three-phase
system, the star or Y-connection of each group of three transformers has
the advantage of a lower strain on the insulation of each transformer
than that with the mesh or Δ-grouping. Thus if the Δ-grouping is used,
the line pressure equals that of each transformer coil, but if the
Y-grouping is used the line voltage is 1.73 times that of each
transformer coil.
At the Colgate power-house, the 700-kilowatt transformers are designed
for a maximum pressure of 60,000 volts on the three-phase line when
Y-connected, so that the corresponding voltage is 34,675 in their
secondary coils. The primary coils of these same transformers are
connected in mesh or Δ-form and each coil operates at 2,300 volts, the
generator pressure.
Transformers are in some cases provided with several sets of connections
to their coils so that they may be operated at widely different
pressures. Thus, in the Colgate plant, each transformer has taps brought
out from its secondary coils so that it can be operated at either
23,175, 28,925, or 34,675, with 2,300 volts at its primary coil.
Corresponding to the three voltages named in each secondary coil are
voltages of 40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 on a three-phase line connected
with three of these transformers in Y-fashion.
The mesh or Δ-connection is used between the coils of transformers on
some transmission lines of very high voltage. The 950 kilowatt
transformers in the system between Cañon Ferry and Butte illustrate this
practice, being connected Δ-fashion to the 50,000-volt line.
When transformers that will operate at the desired line voltage on
Δ-connection can be obtained at slight advance over the cost of
transformers requiring Y-connections, it is often better practice to
select the former, because this will enable an increase of seventy-three
per cent in the voltage of transmission to be made at any future time by
simply changing to Y-connections. Such an increase of voltage may become
desirable because of growing loads or extension of transmission lines.
An example of this sort came up some time ago in connection with the
transmission between Ogden and Salt Lake City, which was operating at
16,000 volts, three-phase, with the high-pressure coils of transformers
connected in Δ-form. By changing to Y-connections the line voltage was
raised seventy-three per cent without increasing the strain on
transformer insulation.
In some cases it is desirable to change alternating current from
two-phase to three-phase, or _vice versa_, for purposes of transmission
or distribution, and this can readily be done by means of static
transformers. One method often employed to effect this result includes
the use of two transformers connected to opposite phases of the
two-phase circuit. The three-phase coil of one of these transformers
should be designed for the desired three-phase voltage, and should have
a tap brought out from its central point. The three-phase coil of the
other transformer should be designed for 87 per cent of the desired
three-phase voltage. One end of the coil designed for 87 per cent of the
three-phase voltage should be connected to the centre tap of the
three-phase coil in the other transformer. The other end of the 87 per
cent coil goes to one wire of the three-phase circuit. The other two
wires of this circuit should be connected, respectively, to the outside
end of the coil that has the central tap. As a matter of illustration it
may be required to transform 500-volt, two-phase current from
generators, to 20,000-volt, three-phase current for transmission. Two
transformers designed for 500 volts in their primary coils are necessary
for this work. One of these transformers should have a secondary coil
designed for 20,000 volts, so that the ratio of transformation is 20,000
÷ 500 or 40 to 1, and a tap should be brought out from the centre of
this coil. The other transformer should have a secondary voltage of 0.87
× 20,000 = 17,400, so that its ratio of transformation is 34.8 to 1.
These two transformers, with the connections above indicated, will
change the 500-volt, two-phase current to 20,000 volts, three-phase.
At one of the water-power stations supplying energy for use in Hartford,
four transformers of 300 kilowatts each change 500-volt, two-phase
current from the generators to 10,000-volt, three-phase, for the
transmission line.
In the Niagara water-power station the generators deliver two-phase
current at 2,200 volts, and 975-kilowatt transformers are connected in
pairs to change the pressure to 22,000 volts, three-phase, for
transmission to Buffalo.
A transformer is used in some cases to raise the voltage and compensate
for the loss in a transmission line. For this purpose the secondary of a
transformer giving the number of volts by which the line pressure is to
be increased is connected in series with the line. The primary winding
of this transformer may be supplied from the line boosted or from
another source.
Transformers ranging in capacity from 100 to 1,000 kilowatts each, such
as are commonly used for transmission work, have efficiencies of 96 to
98 per cent at full loads, when of first-class construction. Efficiency
increases slowly with transformer capacity within the limits named, and
98 per cent can be fairly expected in only the larger sizes. In any
given transformer the efficiency may be expected to fall a little, say
one or two per cent, between full load and half load, and another one
per cent between half load and quarter load. These figures for
efficiencies at partial loads vary somewhat with the design and make of
transformers. In general, it may be said that step-up or step-down
transformers will cost approximately $7.50 per kilowatt capacity, or
about one-half of the like cost of low-voltage dynamos. If dynamos of
voltage sufficiently high for the transmission line can be had at a
figure below the combined cost of low-volt dynamos and raising
transformers, it will usually pay to avoid the latter and develop the
line voltage in the armature coils. This plan avoids the loss in one set
of transformers.
TRANSFORMERS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.
+-------------------------------+----------+---------+---------+
| | Trans- | Trans- | Genera- |
| | formers | formers | tors at |
| |at Power- |at Sub- | Power- |
|Transmission System. |stations. |stations.|stations.|
| +----+-----+---+-----+---+-----+
| |No. | Kw. |No.| Kw. |No.| Kw. |
| | |Each.| |Each.| |Each.|
+-------------------------------+----+-----+---+-----+---+-----+
|Cañon Ferry to Butte | 12| 325 |[A]| [A] |...| ... |
| | 6| 950 | 6| 950 | 10| 750 |
|Apple River to St. Paul | ...| ... | 6| 300 |...| ... |
| | 6| 500 | 4| 200 | 4| 750 |
|White River to Dales | 3| 400 | 3| 375 | 2| 500 |
|Farmington River to Hartford | 4| 300 |...| ... | 2| 600 |
|Ogden to Salt Lake |[B]9| 250 |...| ... | 5| 750 |
|Colgate to Oakland | ...| 700 |...| ... | {3|1125 |
| | | | | | {4|2250 |
|Presumpscot River to Portland | ...| ... | {6| 200 |...| ... |
| | | | {3| 150 | 4| 500 |
| | | | | | {1| 180 |
| | | | | | {3| 300 |
|Four water-powers to Manchester| ...| ... | 21| 200 | {1| 450 |
| | | | | | {4| 650 |
| | | | | | {1|1200 |
+-------------------------------+----+-----+---+-----+---+-----+
[A] Other transformers at Helena sub-stations.
[B] Part of energy distributed directly from generators.