about immediate conversions; among others, those of three great
personages: Uthman ibn Talha, Amr ibnu'l-As and Khalid ibn Walid,
besides preparing the minds of the majority of the Arabs to follow
their example.
[Sidenote: THE PROPHET SENDS AMBASSADORS TO THE PRINCIPAL MONARCHS OF
THE WORLD]
The definitive defeat of the Jews rallied a great part of Arabia to
the Prophet; and the rest of the Peninsula was fatally bound, in
course of time, to come under the sway of Islam.
It was then that Mohammad turned towards neighbouring empires. Allah's
presence filled the universe and Islam, which counted already in its
ranks disciples of many different origins, was not destined to be
merely confined to the land of the Arabs. It spread over the whole
world. As it is written in the Qur'an: "_We have not sent thee
otherwise than to mankind at large._" (XXXIV, 27).
To the most powerful monarchs of Europe, therefore, Mohammad
despatched envoys carrying letters inviting those potentates to
embrace the religion of Allah, the Only One; and the missives bore a
seal on which the Prophet had caused to be engraved these words, set
out in three lines: "From Allah--the Prophet--Mohammad."
On receipt of the message, Al-Mundhir, King of Bahrayn, and Badhan,
Persian Satrap of Yaman, became converts to Islam. Al-Muqawqas,
Viceroy of Egypt, sent rich presents, among which, as well as Duldul,
a white mule, and Ya'fur, an ass, was a young slave, Mary the Copt.
She at once became Mohammad's concubine. Hirqal, (Heraclius), the
Roman Emperor, and the Najashi, (Negus), of Abyssinia, both replied by
most courteous letters.
Kesra (Chosroes), King of Persia, swore he would punish the Prophet
for his audacity and the Almighty immediately chastised the monarch,
for he was murdered by his son Shiru'e, (Siroes), who took his
father's place on the throne. Al-Harith, son of Abu Shamar, was fated
to see his kingdom torn asunder, even as he had torn the letters
delivered to him by the Prophet's envoy.
Only one of these ambassadors, Al-Harith ibn Amr, was received with
contumely and afterwards treacherously murdered near Karak in the
Balqua region, following orders given by Shurabil al-Ghassani who
governed this region under Roman rule.
[Sidenote: THE EXPEDITION OF MUTAH (_Year VII of the Hegira, A.D.
629_)]
When the news of the outrage on his ambassador came to the Prophet's
ears, he determined to be instantly avenged, although he did not
conceal from himself the dangers of the undertaking.
This time the Believers had to face, not only the Syrian Arabs,
outnumbering those of the Hijaz, but also the Roman troops who
occupied the Balqua-Land. The Prophet placed Zayd ibn Al-Haris at the
head of three thousand men; but foreseeing that in this unequal
struggle, his army might be deprived of its leader, he nominated in
advance, as successor, Jafar, son of Abu Talib; and if misfortune
befell Jafar, Abdullah ibn Rawaha; and lastly, in the case of anything
unluckily happening to the latter, it was left to the soldiers to
choose a commander themselves.
A Jew was present at the council of war and made the following
remarks: 'O Abul Qasim! (a surname of Mohammad), if thou art really a
Prophet, all the men thou hast appointed are irretrievably lost. When
our prophets of Israel, after having placed a general at the head of
their armies, used to add: 'and, if he is killed, name such an one in
his place,' that infallibly meant that he was bound to lose his life.'
Then, turning to Zayd, he went on: 'I swear to thee that if Mohammad
is a true Prophet, thou wilt never return from this expedition.' Zayd
replied simply: 'I swear to thee that Mohammad is the Prophet of
Allah.' Then the Apostle tied the white "Liwa" (flag) to a spearhead
and gave it into the hands of Zayd.
Filled with funereal sentiments, Mohammad accompanied his troops to
Saniyat-ul-Wida, (the Pass of Farewells). It was there that he halted
and gave them his final instructions: 'Remain ever in fear of Allah.
Fight in his name and kill His foes who are yours. But leave in peace
such men as dwell in the seclusion of monasteries. Spare women,
children and the blind. Destroy no monuments; cut down no trees; and
when ye shall have avenged the death of Al-Harith ibn Amr, summon the
Arab tribes of Syria to Islam.'
Shurahbil, anxious as to the results of his cowardly outrage, called
upon all the Arabs of the surrounding country: the Banu Bahra, the
Banu Lakhm, the Judham, the Baliyy, etc., and he notified his fears to
Theodurus, lieutenant of Heraclius, who sent him all the Roman troops
then occupying the land.
Shurahbil had therefore mustered an army of nearly a hundred thousand
men before the Mussulman forces arrived at Mu'an. When they found
themselves fronting such formidable cohorts, the Believers remained
two days and two nights in consultation and many among them proposed
that a messenger should be despatched to the Prophet who would then
decide whether they were to turn back or fight. Perhaps he might send
them reinforcements. But the utterances of Abdullah ibn Rawaha revived
the courage of the Believers. 'O comrades! how is it that ye seem to
fear the very thing ye come to seek: martyrdom in the Holy War? We
reckon not on numbers to gain the victory, but on the faith with which
Allah hath inspired us!'--'Thou dost speak truly!' they cried and,
hesitating no longer, advanced towards the enemy, coming in contact
with him at Mutah, a little village situated south of the Karab fort.
Like lions, they dashed into the centre of their massed foes, whose
chief, Malik ibn Rafila, was killed by a spear-thrust.... Recovering
from their first surprise and profiting by their great numerical
superiority, the Infidels were not long in getting the best of the
struggle and they encircled the Mussulmans completely. Outnumbered,
Zayd ibn Al-Haris died the death of a hero; and Jafar, obeying the
Prophet's instructions, bounded forward to uphold the standard that
Zayd's contracted fingers still gripped, and to take command in his
place.
Jafar rode a magnificent chestnut charger, but seeing the immediate
danger, he alighted and hamstrung his steed, so that if the master
succumbed, his horse should not be captured by the enemy to be used
against Islam. By his example, he was able to rally the Believers and
lead them in an enthusiastic charge, whilst waving the Islamic
standard which proudly spread its wings above their heads. But soon,
like an eagle wounded in its flight, the flag fell down; the hand that
held it being hacked off by a blow from a scimitar.
Jafar picked up the standard, grasping it in his left hand, when
another sword-cut sliced his unwounded wrist. Jafar stooped, and
seizing the flag between the bleeding stumps of his arms, he kept it
aloft by pressing the staff against his breast, and with sublime
heroism, continued to charge the enemy until he fell, riddled with
ninety wounds.
Abdullah ibn Rawaha succeeded him and met with the same fate shortly
afterwards. The Mussulmans, attacked on all sides, seeing their
leaders struck down, gave way and began to flee in disorder. Arqam ibn
Amir stopped them. 'O comrades!' he cried out, ''tis better to be
struck in the breast than in the back!' Picking up the standard, he
passed it on to Khalid ibn Walid who refused it at first, saying:
'Thou hast a better right to this honour than I, for thou wert at
Badr.'
But Arqam insisting, Khalid took charge of the flag. His impetuous
energy instilled fresh courage and confidence into the hearts of the
Believers, ashamed of their momentary weakness, and being a skilful
strategist as well as a valiant soldier, he succeeded with the help of
Allah, in freeing the Mussulman troops and reorganising the fighting
front in such masterly fashion that the Infidels were unable to claim
the victory.
At sunrise, the next day, he was first to attack, so as not to give
the enemy time to recover from his partial defeat. To deceive him with
regard to the numerical weakness of the Islamic forces, he resorted to
the following stratagem: by rapid evolutions of various sections of
his army, he made the rearguards pass to the van, and _vice versa_, in
such a way that the enemy, continually seeing fresh adversaries
confronting him, imagined that the Mussulmans had been greatly
reinforced during the night. The Infidels' certainty of triumph,
mainly founded on their numbers, vanished; and seized with
indescribable terror, they gave way, pursued by the Believers who
slaughtered them ruthlessly. During that memorable day, Khalid had
nine sabres broken in his hand.
By divine inspiration, the Prophet was informed of the ordeals of his
army. After general prayer, he went up in the pulpit, his eyes full of
tears, and cried out three times: 'The Gate of Good! Know ye all that
Zayd hath fallen a martyr; implore the mercy of Allah in his favour.
Then Jafar and Abdullah died martyrs; implore the mercy of Allah for
them. Then the standard was upheld by Khalid ibn Walid, who is the
sword among all the swords of Allah. And the Almighty granted him
victory.'
Mohammad afterwards went to see Asama bint Omis, the wife of Jafar,
and bent down over his children to "smell" them; tears welling up in
his eyes and trickling pearl-like down his beard. 'O Prophet!' asked
Asama, 'what maketh thee weep? Hast thou had news of Jafar and his
comrades?'--'Aye, and now they are no more!'
The wretched woman dropped down, groaning in despair and, lacerating
her cheeks with her nails. Attracted by her shrieks, the other wives
imitated her and the whole house resounded with lugubrious
lamentation. The Prophet ordered one of his companions to impose
silence on the women. 'It is not fitting,' said Mohammad, 'to mourn
thus for Jafar. Hath he not obtained the great reward? I pray Allah
that He may permit the father's place on this earth to be taken in
posterity by the most accomplished among his children!'
Suddenly he lifted his eyes to heaven and murmured: 'The Salvation and
Mercy of Allah be upon you!'--'To whom dost thou speak, O Prophet?'
asked one of his followers.--'I have just seen Jafar go by in the
midst of a procession of angels. He was mounting to Paradise with
ruby-studded wings in lieu of his amputated hands. He greeted me and I
returned his greeting.'
Sohail, who recorded this tradition, is careful to add: 'Such are
merely images: the wings are symbols of the supernatural strength of
Jafar's soul; and the rubies are the precious drops of his blood.'
In the midst of the universal mourning at Al-Madinah, the Prophet
ordered the funereal repast know as "Al-Oudhim," to be prepared. It
was destined for the families of the martyrs; for it is hard for those
whose souls are saddened to have to think about preparing nourishment
for the body.
When the return of the army was announced, the whole of the population
of the city, rich or poor, went out to meet it. The Prophet ordained
that the mounted men should lift up the children and give them a ride
on the pummels of the saddles. He took the son of Jafar in his arms
and seated the child in front of him. The soldiers, on arriving,
confirmed the tidings of their leaders' death and the people of
Al-Madinah, thinking that these heroes had not been fully avenged,
threw handfuls of dust in the soldiers' faces, and inveighed against
them: 'O cowards! ye fled, even when ye trod the Path of Allah!'
The Prophet bade the crowd be silent and made this declaration: 'On
the contrary, these warriors deserve your greatest praise, for they
returned and charged courageously!'
[Sidenote: THE TAKING OF MAKKAH (_The 21st Day of Ramadhan Year VIII
of the Hegira, January 11th A.D. 630_)]
It was not long before the idolaters of Makkah violated the ten years'
truce, signed at Al-Hudaibiyah.
By surprise, one night, they massacred a score of Mussulmans belonging
to the tribe of the Khuza'a, encamped at the well of Al-Watir. In face
of such terrible treachery, the Prophet threw all scruples to the
winds. Determined to attack, he proposed to organise an expedition.
The Makkans, well aware that their crime would not go unpunished,
delegated Abu Sufyan to go to Al-Madinah, to offer compensation and
ask for the truce to be maintained. On arriving, Abu Sufyan went to
the dwelling of Umm Habiba, his daughter, who, as we know, was one of
Mohammad's wives. But, when he made as if to sit down on a carpet, Umm
Habiba, guessing his purpose, quickly folded up the rug and placed it
on one side. 'O my daughter,' said Abu Sufyan in offended tones, 'dost
find thy father unworthy of that carpet, or is that carpet unworthy of
thy father?'--'That carpet belongeth to the Prophet,' she replied.
'Now thou art a worshipper of idols; therefore in a state of impurity,
and thou wouldst sully it with thy impiety.'--'Of a surety, O my
daughter, some misfortune hath happened, bringing disorder to thy
mind, since the day thou left us!'
Understanding, by this kind of welcome, that there was no hope for him
in that quarter, he sought out the Prophet from whom no reply was
obtained. Then he made desperate attempts to circumvent Abu Bakr; and
tried his best with Umar and Ali, supplicating them to intercede in
favour of his fellow-citizens, but with no greater success. Full of
apprehension, he mounted his camel and went back on the road to
Makkah.
The steps taken by Abu Sufyan no longer allowed the Prophet to conceal
his designs. His sole care was to hurry on with his preparation, so as
to surprise the men of Makkah before they had time to place the city
in a state of defence. On the tenth day of the month of Ramadhan,
after having left Abu Ruhm Kulthum al-Shifari as his lieutenant at
Al-Madinah, the Prophet set out, followed by an army of no
inconsiderable strength, increased on the way by numerous tribes
joining, and the total forces soon numbered ten thousand men.
The fast of Ramadhan was strictly kept by all the Faithful, but when
they reached the well of Al-Kadid in the middle of the day exactly,
the Prophet judged that their constancy had been sufficiently tested.
Fearing that deprivation of drink, joined to extreme fatigue, might
have a dangerous effect on their health, he asked for a jar filled
with water to be brought to him. Overlooking the crowd on his tall
she-camel, he swallowed a mouthful in front of all, so as teach by his
example that they might break their fast when on a journey as soon as
they felt their strength exhausted. Thus prescribes the Qur'an: "_But
he among you who shall be sick, or on a journey, shall fast that same
number of other days._" (II, 180.)
After that halt, the Prophet hastened the march of his army so
actively that he camped at Marru'dh-Dhahran, close to the town gates,
before the Quraish were able to find out anything about the important
strength of the Mussulman troops, or the road they had taken.
Abbas, Mohammad's uncle, kept in Makkah till then by his business
functions as superintendent of the water supply, joined the Believers
at Al-Juhfa, with the whole of his family. The sincerity of his
conversion had not caused him to forget the love he felt for his
fellow-citizens. He was most uneasy about their fate, in case they
should behave in such a way that Mohammad would be forced to take the
town by murderous onslaught.
Quoth Abbas: "When the tents were pitched, I rode the Prophet's white
mule and went to Al-Arak, on the road to the Arafa, hoping to meet a
carrier of wood, brickmaker, or pilgrim whom I might charge to take a
warning to the Quraish and exhort them to go and implore the mercy of
Allah.
"Whilst advancing with due precaution in the dark, two men passed
quite close to me. They were hidden from my sight by big boulders and
they talked in whispers. One of them, his mind engrossed by the
myriads of golden stars that the camp-fires of the Faithful caused to
scintillate on the hills beneath the real silvery stars of the
firmament, said: 'Never have I seen so many lights as this night on
those mountains.'--'They are probably the camp-fires of the Khuza'a,
determined to wage war to avenge their dead.'--'The Khuza'a are not so
numerous. No, truly, these cannot be their fires!' replied the first
speaker whose voice I recognised. It was that of Abu Sufyan. 'O father
of Handala!' I called to him.--'O father of Al-Fadl! if 'tis thee,
what dost thou want of me?' he returned, having also recognised my
voice.--'O Abu Sufyan! the Prophet is here at the head of such a great
army that all resistance is impossible. To-morrow the Quraish will be
cut to pieces!'--'What is to be done! Canst thou advise me?'--'If thou
art taken prisoner during the fight, thy head will be cut off. Doubt
it not. But get up behind me on my mule. I will take thee to Mohammad
and implore him for thee.'
"Abu Sufyan, understanding that this was his last hope of safety,
could only submit. He got up behind me and we went on in front of his
companion Budayl, who made up his mind to follow us.
"Every time the flicker of one of the many camp-fires lit up our
little group, on the dark background, sentinels stopped us, asking:
'Who is that man?' But when I told them that I was Abbas, the
Prophet's uncle, and as they recognised the mule, they allowed us to
pass....
"All went well until we came to the lights of Umar's tents. He came
forward to meet us and also demanded: 'Who is that man?' Just then,
the flame of the brazier lit up the face of my companion who held me
tightly. Umar knew him again, and cried out in sudden joy: 'Ah! 'tis
thee, Abu Sufyan, with no treaty or safe-conduct, O enemy of Allah!
The Almighty be praised for delivering thee into our hands!'
"He ran to the Prophet's tent. I made the mule gallop along,
outstripped him and jumped off, going into Mohammad's tent; but Umar
arrived, almost at the same instant. 'O Prophet!' he shouted. 'Here is
Abu Sufyan, Allah's enemy, without treaty or safe-conduct, given up to
us by the Almighty! Charge me to cut his head off!'
"I interfered: 'O Prophet! He is under my protection. No one but me
shall go near him this night.' As Umar kept on manifesting still
greater hatred, I said to him: 'Softly, O Umar! If Abu Sufyan was one
of the Banu Adi ibn Kab, thy relatives, thou wouldst not behave in
this way; but he is one of the Banu Abd Manaf, related to the Prophet,
which thou must not forget!'
"Umar made answer: 'Softly, O Abbas! Know that thy conversion gave me
more pleasure than that of my father, Al-Khattab, would have caused
me, for he lived and died in idolatry; for the sole reason that, as I
know well, the Prophet attached more importance to thy conversion than
to that of my father.' Allah's Messenger cut our dispute short by
saying: 'Take away Abu Sufyan, O Abbas, and to-morrow at dawn, come
back here with him.'
"I obeyed. Abu Sufyan passed the night in perfect safety in my tent,
but seeing all the Mussulmans rise up at one bound at the first
glimmer of daybreak, he was overcome by anxiety. 'O father of
Al-Fadl!' he asked; 'what are they about? Do they want to kill
me?'--'Be not alarmed,' I told him in reply. 'They only want to pray.'
"At the sight of these ten thousand men, the mysterious light
reflected by the rosy dawn playing on them; all piously repeating
every gesture of the Prophet; bowing down when he bowed down and
prostrating themselves when he prostrated himself, he could not
refrain from exclaiming: 'By Allah! I have never seen kings obeyed as
this man is obeyed; not even Chosroes, nor Cæsar, nor any of the most
powerful monarchs of the universe!'
"'Come,' I told him, when prayers had been said. 'I will intercede for
thee; and thou wilt intercede for thy qawm.'--'How now?' asked the
Prophet when the idolater came before him. 'Dost thou not acknowledge,
O Abu Sufyan! that there is no God but Allah?'--'By my father and my
mother! How patient, generous and conciliatory thou art! Yea, I
acknowledge it. If with Allah there were other gods, they would have
given me some little help.'--'Dost thou acknowledge that I am the
Prophet of Allah?'--'By my father and my mother! As for that, there is
still some doubt in my mind. I will see later.'--'Woe unto thee! O Abu
Sufyan!' I exclaimed, indignant at his reply. 'Hasten to bear witness
to the whole truth, or I deprive thee of my protection and thine head
will fall from thy shoulders!'
"Abu Sufyan still hazarded a few objections: 'What wilt thou do with
the statue of Al-Uzza that is in my dwelling?'--'Thou shalt throw it
in the privy!' shouted an angry voice. It was that of Umar, listening
behind the canvas of the tent, hoping to be ordered to execute the man
who had been an enemy of Allah. 'Woe unto thee, O Umar! thou art an
indecent fellow,' he replied. 'Let me come to terms with my uncle's
son.'
"Having made up his mind by this time, he recited the profession of
Islamic faith integrally, at the same time as his companion Budayl,
who had just rejoined us.
"I remarked to the Prophet: 'Thou knowest how proud is Abu Sufyan.
Invest him with some authority, no matter what, and he will be bound
to us definitively.'
"My idea met with Mohammad's approbation and he gave out the following
proclamation: 'He who taketh refuge in the dwelling of Abu Sufyan will
be in safety; he who taketh refuge in the Temple will be in safety; he
who layeth down his arms and remaineth shut up in his house will be in
safety.'
"The Prophet then said to me: 'O Abbas! bring Abu Sufyan to a halt
where the valley is narrow, on the mountain top, so that all the
warriors of Allah will pass before his eyes.' I obeyed and took my
stand with Abu Sufyan on one of the rocks overhanging the outlet of
the valley. One after the other passed the soldiers of the Sulaym, the
Muzayna, the Banu Ghifar, the Banu Ka'b, the Kinana, the Juhayn, etc.,
and my companion, despite all his efforts, could not hide the
impression made upon him by the numbers of the Believers. When he
caught sight of the Ashja, he cried out: 'Those tribesmen,
notwithstanding, were the most inveterate of all the Prophet's
enemies!'--'Truly,' I retorted, 'but Allah, in His Generosity,
instilled Islam in their hearts!'
"At last, the Prophet appeared, surrounded by his bodyguard, the
flower of his army, comprising the Ansars and the Mohadjirun, called
"Al-Khadra," the green guards. When Abu Sufyan saw these warriors
entirely covered in sombre armour, from which the sun caused blinding
sparks to fly, he started in affright: 'By Allah! O Abbas, who are
those men?'--'The Prophet with his companions, the Ansars and the
Mohadjirun.'--'None can make a stand against such troops! Verily, O
Abbas, this morning, thy brother's son is resplendent with the majesty
of a glorious king!'--'His majesty is not that of a king, O Abu
Sufyan! 'tis that of a Prophet. And now that thine eyes convince thee
that all resistance would be rank folly, hasten back to thy people and
let thy good advice save them from misfortune!' Without losing a
minute, Abu Sufyan went on his way to the town, where immediately on
arriving, he was surrounded by anxious crowds overwhelming him with
questions. 'O Assembly of the Quraish!' he cried, 'Mohammad is upon us
with such an army that ye cannot hope to resist him for a single
instant!'"
His wife, Hind, furious at the emotion caused by these tidings, caught
him by his moustaches to make him hold his tongue and she bawled:
'Hearken not to the old fool and traitor! Kill him!' Tearing himself
out of the shrew's clutches, Abu Sufyan went on: 'Woe unto you, if ye
let yourselves be led astray by this woman! Again I say to you, ye are
lost without fail if ye dream of resistance.' He then added proudly:
'All those who take refuge in the dwelling of Abu Sufyan will be in
safety.'--'May Allah cause thee to perish!' was the reply made to him
on all sides. 'How can thy house afford security for all of us?'
It was then that he concluded to announce that which he had
intentionally omitted, out of pure vanity: 'Likewise will be in safety
all those taking refuge in the Temple; and eke those who, laying down
their arms, remain behind closed doors in their dwellings.'
[Sidenote: ENTRY OF THE PROPHET INTO MAKKAH]