TRANSACTIONS AT FORT CHIPEWYAN. ARRIVAL OF DR. RICHARDSON AND MR. HOOD.
PREPARATIONS FOR OUR JOURNEY TO THE NORTHWARD.
TRANSACTIONS AT FORT CHIPEWYAN.
March 26, 1820.
On the day after our arrival at Fort Chipewyan we called upon Mr.
MacDonald, the gentleman in charge of the Hudson’s Bay Establishment
called Fort Wedderburne, and delivered to him Governor Williams’
circular letter which desired that every assistance should be given to
further our progress, and a statement of the requisitions which we
should have to make on his post.
Our first object was to obtain some certain information respecting our
future route and accordingly we received from one of the North-West
Company’s interpreters, named Beaulieu, a half-breed who had been
brought up amongst the Dog-ribbed and Copper Indians, some satisfactory
information which we afterwards found tolerably correct respecting the
mode of reaching the Copper-Mine River which he had descended a
considerable way, as well as of the course of that river to its mouth.
The Copper Indians however he said would be able to give us more
accurate information as to the latter part of its course as they
occasionally pursue it to the sea. He sketched on the floor a
representation of the river and a line of coast according to his idea
of it. Just as he had finished an old Chipewyan Indian named Black Meat
unexpectedly came in and instantly recognised the plan. He then took
the charcoal from Beaulieu and inserted a track along the sea-coast
which he had followed in returning from a war excursion made by his
tribe against the Esquimaux. He detailed several particulars of the
coast and the sea which he represented as studded with well-wooded
islands and free from ice close to the shore in the month of July, but
not to a great distance. He described two other rivers to the eastward
of the Copper-Mine River which also fall into the Northern Ocean, the
Anatessy, which issues from the Contwayto or Rum Lake, and the
Thloueeatessy or Fish River, which rises near the eastern boundary of
the Great Slave Lake; but he represented both of them as being shallow
and too much interrupted by barriers for being navigated in any other
than small Indian canoes.
Having received this satisfactory intelligence I wrote immediately to
Mr. Smith of the North-West Company and Mr. McVicar of the Hudson’s Bay
Company, the gentlemen in charge of the posts at the Great Slave Lake,
to communicate the object of the Expedition and our proposed route, and
to solicit any information they possessed or could collect from the
Indians relative to the countries we had to pass through and the best
manner of proceeding. As the Copper Indians frequent the establishment
on the north side of the lake I particularly requested them to explain
to that tribe the object of our visit and to endeavour to procure from
them some guides and hunters to accompany our party. Two Canadians were
sent by Mr. Keith with these letters.
The month of April commenced with fine and clear but extremely cold
weather; unfortunately we were still without a thermometer and could
not ascertain the degrees of temperature. The coruscations of the
Aurora Borealis were very brilliant almost every evening of the first
week and were generally of the most variable kind. On the 3rd they were
particularly changeable. The first appearance exhibited three
illuminated beams issuing from the horizon in the north, east, and west
points, and directed towards the zenith; in a few seconds these
disappeared and a complete circle was displayed, bounding the horizon
at an elevation of fifteen degrees. There was a quick lateral motion in
the attenuated beams of which this zone was composed. Its colour was a
pale yellow with an occasional tinge of red.
On the 8th of April the Indians saw some geese in the vicinity of this
lake but none of the migratory birds appeared near the houses before
the 15th when some swans flew over. These are generally the first that
arrive; the weather had been very stormy for the four preceding days
and this in all probability kept the birds from venturing farther north
than where the Indians had first seen them.
In the middle of the month the snow began to waste daily and by degrees
it disappeared from the hills and the surface of the lake. On the 17th
and 19th the Aurora Borealis appeared very brilliant in patches of
light bearing North-West. An old Cree Indian having found a
beaver-lodge near to the fort, Mr. Keith, Back, and I accompanied him
to see the method of breaking into it and their mode of taking those
interesting animals. The lodge was constructed on the side of a rock in
a small lake having the entrance into it beneath the ice. The frames
were formed of layers of sticks, the interstices being filled with mud,
and the outside was plastered with earth and stones which the frost had
so completely consolidated that to break through required great labour
with the aid of the ice chisel and the other iron instruments which the
beaver hunters use. The chase however was unsuccessful as the beaver
had previously vacated the lodge.
On the 21st we observed the first geese that flew near the fort and
some were brought to the house on the 30th but they were very lean. On
the 25th flies were seen sporting in the sun and on the 26th the
Athabasca River, having broken up, overflowed the lake along its
channel; but except where this water spread there was no appearance of
decay in the ice.
May.
During the first part of this month the wind blew from the North-West
and the sky was cloudy. It generally thawed during the day but froze at
night. On the 2nd the Aurora Borealis faintly gleamed through very
dense clouds.
We had a long conversation with Mr. Dease of the North-West Company who
had recently arrived from his station at the bottom of the Athabasca
Lake. This gentleman, having passed several winters on the Mackenzie’s
River and at the posts to the northward of Slave Lake, possessed
considerable information respecting the Indians and those parts of the
country to which our inquiries were directed, which he very promptly
and kindly communicated. During our conversation an old Chipewyan
Indian named the Rabbit’s Head entered the room, to whom Mr. Dease
referred for information on some point. We found from his answer that
he was a stepson of the late chief Matonnabee who had accompanied Mr.
Hearne on his journey to the sea, and that he had himself been of the
party but, being then a mere boy, he had forgotten many of the
circumstances. He confirmed however the leading incidents related by
Hearne and was positive he reached the sea, though he admitted that
none of the party had tasted the water. He represented himself to be
the only survivor of that party. As he was esteemed a good Indian I
presented him with a medal which he received gratefully and concluded a
long speech upon the occasion by assuring me he should preserve it
carefully all his life. The old man afterwards became more
communicative and unsolicited began to relate the tradition of his
tribe respecting the discovery of the Copper-Mine, which we thought
amusing: and as the subject is somewhat connected with our future
researches I will insert the translation of it which was given at the
time by Mr. Dease, though a slight mention of it has been made by
Hearne.
The Chipewyans suppose the Esquimaux originally inhabited some land to
the northward which is separated by the sea from this country; and that
in the earliest ages of the world a party of these men came over and
stole a woman from their tribe whom they carried to this distant
country and kept in a state of slavery. She was very unhappy in her
situation and effected her escape after many years residence among
them. The forlorn creature wandered about for some days in a state of
uncertainty what direction to take, when she chanced to fall upon a
beaten path which she followed and was led to the sea. At the sight of
the ocean her hope of being able to return to her native country
vanished and she sat herself down in despair and wept. A wolf now
advanced to caress her and, having licked the tears from her eyes,
walked into the water, and she perceived with joy that it did not reach
up to the body of the animal; emboldened by this appearance she
instantly arose, provided two sticks to support herself, and determined
on following the wolf. The first and second nights she proceeded on
without finding any increase in the depth of the water and, when
fatigued, rested herself on the sticks whose upper ends she fastened
together for the purpose. She was alarmed on the third morning by
arriving at a deeper part, but resolved on going forward at any risk
rather than return; and her daring perseverance was crowned with
success by her attaining her native shore on the fifth day. She
fortunately came to a part where there was a beaten path which she knew
to be the track made by the reindeer in their migrations. Here she
halted and prepared some sort of weapon for killing them; as soon as
this was completed she had the gratification to behold several herds
advancing along the road, and had the happiness of killing a sufficient
number for her winter’s subsistence, which she determined to pass at
that place, and therefore formed a house for herself after the manner
she had learned from the Esquimaux. When spring came and she emerged
from her subterraneous dwelling (for such the Chipewyans suppose it to
have been) she was astonished by observing a glittering appearance on a
distant hill which she knew was not produced by the reflection of the
sun and, being at a loss to assign any other cause for it, she resolved
on going up to the shining object and then found the hill was entirely
composed of copper. She broke off several pieces and, finding it
yielded so readily to her beating, it occurred to her that this metal
would be very serviceable to her countrymen if she should find them
again. While she was meditating on what was to be done the thought
struck her that it would be advisable to attach as many pieces of
copper to her dress as she could and then proceed into the interior in
search of some inhabitants who, she supposed, would give her a
favourable reception on account of the treasure she had brought.
It happened that she met her own relations and the young men, elated
with the account she had given of the hill, made her instantly return
with them, which she was enabled to do, having taken the precaution of
putting up marks to indicate the path. The party reached the spot in
safety but the story had a melancholy catastrophe. These youths,
overcome by excess of joy, gave loose to their passions and offered the
grossest insults to their benefactress. She powerfully resisted them
for some time and, when her strength was failing, fled to the point of
the mountain as the only place of security. The moment she had gained
the summit the earth opened and ingulphed both herself and the mountain
to the utter dismay of the men who were not more astonished at its
sudden disappearance than sorrowful for this just punishment of their
wickedness. Ever since this event the copper has only been found in
small detached pieces on the surface of the earth.
On the 10th of May we were gratified by the appearance of spring though
the ice remained firm on the lake. The anemone (pulsatilla, pasque
flower) appeared this day in flower, the trees began to put forth their
leaves, and the mosquitoes visited the warm rooms. On the 17th and 18th
there were frequent showers of rain and much thunder and lightning.
This moist weather caused the ice to waste so rapidly that by the 24th
it had entirely disappeared from the lake. The gentlemen belonging to
both the Companies quickly arrived from the different posts in this
department, bringing their winter’s collection of furs which are
forwarded from these establishments to the depôts.
I immediately waited on Mr. Colin Robertson, the agent of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, and communicated to him, as I had done before to the
several partners of the North-West Company, our plan and the
requisitions we should have to make on each Company, and I requested of
all the gentlemen the favour of their advice and suggestions. As I
perceived that the arrangement of their winter accounts and other
business fully occupied them I forbore further pressing the subject of
our concerns for some days until there was an appearance of despatching
the first brigade of canoes. It then became necessary to urge their
attention to them; but it was evident from the determined commercial
opposition and the total want of intercourse between the two Companies
that we could not expect to receive any cordial advice or the assurance
of the aid of both without devising some expedient to bring the parties
together. I therefore caused a tent to be pitched at a distance from
both establishments and solicited the gentlemen of both Companies to
meet Mr. Back and myself there for the purpose of affording us their
combined assistance.
With this request they immediately complied and on May 25th we were
joined at the tent by Mr. Stuart and Mr. Grant of the North-West
Company and Mr. Colin Robertson of the Hudson’s Bay Company, all of
whom kindly gave very satisfactory answers to a series of questions
which we had drawn up for the occasion and promised all the aid in
their power.
PREPARATIONS FOR OUR JOURNEY TO THE NORTHWARD.
Furnished with the information thus obtained we proceeded to make some
arrangements respecting the obtaining of men and the stores we should
require for their equipment as well as for presents to the Indians; and
on the following day a requisition was made on the Companies for eight
men each and whatever useful stores they could supply. We learned with
regret that, in consequence of the recent lavish expenditure of their
goods in support of the opposition, their supply to us would of
necessity be very limited. The men too were backward in offering their
services, especially those of the Hudson’s Bay Company who demanded a
much higher rate of wages than I considered it proper to grant.
June 3.
Mr. Smith, a partner of the North-West Company, arrived from the Great
Slave Lake bearing the welcome news that the principal chief of the
Copper Indians had received the communication of our arrival with joy
and given all the intelligence he possessed respecting the route to the
sea-coast by the Copper-Mine River; and that he and a party of his men,
at the instance of Mr. Wentzel, a clerk of the North-West Company whom
they wished might go along with them, had engaged to accompany the
Expedition as guides and hunters. They were to wait our arrival at Fort
Providence on the north side of the Slave Lake. Their information
coincided with that given by Beaulieu. They had no doubt of our being
able to obtain the means of subsistence in travelling to the coast.
This agreeable intelligence had a happy effect upon the Canadian
voyagers, many of their fears being removed: several of them seemed now
disposed to volunteer; and indeed on the same evening two men from the
North-West Company offered themselves and were accepted.
June 5.
This day Mr. Back and I went over to Fort Wedderburne to see Mr.
Robertson respecting his quota of men. We learned from him that,
notwithstanding his endeavours to persuade them, his most experienced
voyagers still declined engaging without very exorbitant wages. After
some hesitation however six men engaged with us who were represented to
be active and steady; and I also got Mr. Robertson’s permission for St.
Germain, an interpreter belonging to this Company, to accompany us from
Slave Lake if he should choose. The bowmen and steersmen were to
receive one thousand six hundred livres Halifax per annum, and the
middle men one thousand two hundred, exclusive of their necessary
equipments; and they stipulated that their wages should be continued
until their arrival in Montreal or their rejoining the service of their
present employers.
I delivered to Mr. Robertson an official request that the stores we had
left at York Factory and the Rock Depôt with some other supplies might
be forwarded to Slave Lake by the first brigade of canoes which should
come in. He also took charge of my letters addressed to the Admiralty.
Five men were afterwards engaged from the North-West Company for the
same wages and under the same stipulations as the others, besides an
interpreter for the Copper Indians; but this man required three
thousand livres Halifax currency which we were obliged to give him as
his services were indispensable.
The extreme scarcity of provision at the posts rendered it necessary to
despatch all our men to the Mammawee Lake where they might procure
their own subsistence by fishing. The women and children resident at
the fort were also sent away for the same purpose; and no other
families were permitted to remain at the houses after the departure of
the canoes than those belonging to the men who were required to carry
on the daily duty.
The large party of officers and men which had assembled here from the
different posts in the department was again quickly dispersed. The
first brigade of canoes laden with furs was despatched to the depôt on
May 30th and the others followed in two or three days afterwards. Mr.
Stuart, the senior partner of the North-West Company, quitted us for
the same destination on June 4th; Mr. Robertson for his depôt on the
next day; and on the 9th we parted with our friend Mr. Keith, to whose
unremitting kindness we felt much indebted. I entrusted to his care a
box containing some drawings by Mr. Back, the map of our route from
Cumberland House, and the skin of a black beaver (presented to the
Expedition by Mr. Smith) with my official letters addressed to the
Under-Secretary of State. I wrote by each of these gentlemen to inform
Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood of the scarcity of stores at these posts
and to request them to procure all they possibly could on their route.
Mr. Smith was left in charge of this post during the summer; this
gentleman soon evinced his desire to further our progress by directing
a new canoe to be built for our use which was commenced immediately.
June 21.
This day an opportunity offered of sending letters to the Great Slave
Lake and I profited by it to request Mr. Wentzel would accompany the
Expedition agreeably to the desire of the Copper Indians, communicating
to him that I had received permission for him to do so from the
partners of the North-West Company. Should he be disposed to comply
with my invitation I desired that he would go over to Fort Providence
and remain near the Indians whom he had engaged for our service. I
feared lest they should become impatient at our unexpected delay and,
with the usual fickleness of the Indian character, remove from the
establishment before we could arrive. It had been my intention to go to
them myself, could the articles with which they expected to be
presented on my arrival have been provided at these establishments; but
as they could not be procured I was compelled to defer my visit until
our canoes should arrive. Mr. Smith supposed that my appearance amongst
them without the means of satisfying any of their desires would give
them an unfavourable impression respecting the Expedition which would
make them indifferent to exertion if it did not even cause them to
withdraw from their engagements.
The establishments at this place, Forts Chipewyan and Wedderburne, the
chief posts of the Companies in this department, are conveniently
situated for communicating with the Slave and Peace Rivers from whence
the canoes assemble in the spring and autumn; on the first occasion
they bring the collection of furs which has been made at the different
outposts during the winter; and at the latter season they receive a
supply of stores for the equipment of the Indians in their vicinity.
Fort Wedderburne is a small house which was constructed on Coal Island
about five years ago when the Hudson’s Bay Company recommenced trading
in this part of the country. Fort Chipewyan has been built many years
and is an establishment of very considerable extent, conspicuously
situated on a rocky point of the northern shore; it has a tower which
can be seen at a considerable distance. This addition was made about
eight years ago to watch the motions of the Indians who intended, as it
was then reported, to destroy the house and all its inhabitants. They
had been instigated to this rash design by the delusive stories of one
among them who had acquired great influence over his companions by his
supposed skill in necromancy. This fellow had prophesied that there
would soon be a complete change in the face of their country, that
fertility and plenty would succeed to the present sterility, and that
the present race of white inhabitants, unless they became subservient
to the Indians, would be removed and their place be filled by other
traders who would supply their wants in every possible manner. The poor
deluded wretches, imagining they would hasten this happy change by
destroying their present traders, of whose submission there was no
prospect, threatened to extirpate them. None of these menaces however
were put in execution. They were probably deterred from the attempt by
perceiving that a most vigilant guard was kept against them.
The portion of this extensive lake which is near the establishments is
called The Lake of the Hills, not improperly as the northern shore and
the islands are high and rocky. The south side however is quite level,
consisting of alluvial land, subject to be flooded, lying betwixt the
different mouths of the Elk River and much intersected by water. The
rocks of the northern shore are composed of syenite over which the soil
is thinly spread; it is however sufficient to support a variety of firs
and poplars and many shrubs, lichens and mosses. The trees were now in
full foliage, the plants generally in flower, and the whole scene quite
enlivening. There can scarcely be a higher gratification than that
which is enjoyed in this country in witnessing the rapid change which
takes place in the course of a few days in the spring; scarcely does
the snow disappear from the ground before the trees are clothed with
thick foliage, the shrubs open their leaves and put forth their
variegated flowers, and the whole prospect becomes animating. The
spaces between the rocky hills, being for the most part swampy, support
willows and a few poplars. These spots are the favourite resort of the
mosquitoes, which incessantly torment the unfortunate persons who have
to pass through them.
Some of the hills attain an elevation of five or six hundred feet at
the distance of a mile from the house; and from their summits a very
picturesque view is commanded of the lake and of the surrounding
country. The land above the Great Point at the confluence of the main
stream of the Elk River is six or seven hundred feet high and stretches
in a southern direction behind Pierre au Calumet. Opposite to that
establishment, on the west side of the river, at some distance in the
interior, the Bark Mountain rises and ranges to the North-West until it
reaches Clear Lake, about thirty miles to the southward of these forts,
and then goes to the south-westward. The Cree Indians generally procure
from this range their provision as well as the bark for making their
canoes. There is another range of hills on the south shore which runs
towards the Peace River.
The residents of these establishments depend for subsistence almost
entirely on the fish which this lake affords; they are usually caught
in sufficient abundance throughout the winter though at the distance of
eighteen miles from the houses; on the thawing of the ice the fish
remove into some smaller lakes and the rivers to the south shore.
Though they are nearer to the forts than in winter it frequently
happens that high winds prevent the canoes from transporting them
thither and the residents are kept in consequence without a supply of
food for two or three days together. The fish caught in the net are the
attihhawmegh, trout, carp, methye, and pike.[15]
[15] See above.
The traders also get supplied by the hunters with buffalo and
moose-deer meat (which animals are found at some distance from the
forts) but the greater part of it is either in a dried state or pounded
ready for making pemmican and is required for the men whom they keep
travelling during the winter to collect the furs from the Indians, and
for the crews of the canoes on their outward passage to the depôts in
spring. There was a great want of provision this season, and both the
Companies had much difficulty to provide a bare sufficiency for their
different brigades of canoes. Mr. Smith assured me that after the
canoes had been despatched he had only five hundred pounds of meat
remaining for the use of the men who might travel from the post during
the summer and that, five years preceding, there had been thirty
thousand pounds in store under similar circumstances. He ascribed this
amazing difference more to the indolent habits which the Indians had
acquired since the commercial struggle commenced than to their recent
sickness, mentioning in confirmation of his opinion that they could
now, by the produce of little exertion, obtain whatever they demanded
from either establishment.
At the opening of the water in spring the Indians resort to the
establishments to settle their accounts with the traders and to procure
the necessaries they require for the summer. This meeting is generally
a scene of much riot and confusion as the hunters receive such
quantities of spirits as to keep them in a state of intoxication for
several days. This spring however, owing to the great deficiency of
spirits, we had the gratification of seeing them generally sober. They
belong to the great family of the Chipewyan or Northern Indians,
dialects of their language being spoken in the Peace and Mackenzie’s
Rivers and by the populous tribes in New Caledonia, as ascertained by
Sir Alexander Mackenzie in his journey to the Pacific. They style
themselves generally _Dinneh_ men, or Indians, but each tribe or horde
adds some distinctive epithet taken from the name of the river or lake
on which they hunt, or the district from which they last migrated.
Those who come to Fort Chipewyan term themselves Saweessawdinneh
(Indians from the rising sun or Eastern Indians) their original hunting
grounds being between the Athabasca and Great Slave Lakes and Churchill
River. This district, more particularly termed the Chipewyan lands or
_barren country_, is frequented by numerous herds of reindeer which
furnish easy subsistence and clothing to the Indians, but the traders
endeavour to keep them in the parts to the westward where the beavers
resort. There are about one hundred and sixty hunters who carry their
furs to the Great Slave Lake, forty to Hay River, and two hundred and
forty to Fort Chipewyan. A few Northern Indians also resort to the
posts at the bottom of the Lake of the Hills, on Red Deer Lake, and to
Churchill. The distance however of the latter post from their hunting
grounds and the sufferings to which they are exposed in going thither
from want of food have induced those who were formerly accustomed to
visit it to convey their furs to some nearer station.
These people are so minutely described by Hearne and Mackenzie that
little can be added by a passing stranger whose observations were made
during short interviews and when they were at the forts, where they lay
aside many of their distinguishing characteristics and strive to
imitate the manners of the voyagers and traders.
The Chipewyans are by no means prepossessing in appearance: they have
broad faces, projecting cheek-bones and wide nostrils; but they have
generally good teeth and fine eyes. When at the fort they imitate the
dress of the Canadians except that instead of trousers they prefer the
Indian stockings, which only reach from the thigh to the ankle, and in
place of the waistband they have a piece of cloth round the middle
which hangs down loosely before and behind. Their hunting dress
consists of a leathern shirt and stockings over which a blanket is
thrown, the head being covered with a fur cap or band. Their manner is
reserved and their habits are selfish; they beg with unceasing
importunity for everything they see. I never saw men who either
received or bestowed a gift with such bad grace; they almost snatch the
thing from you in the one instance and throw it at you in the other. It
could not be expected that such men should display in their tents the
amiable hospitality which prevails generally amongst the Indians of
this country. A stranger may go away hungry from their lodges unless he
possess sufficient impudence to thrust uninvited his knife into the
kettle and help himself. The owner indeed never deigns to take any
notice of such an act of rudeness except by a frown, it being beneath
the dignity of a hunter to make disturbance about a piece of meat.
As some relief to the darker shades of their character it should be
stated that instances of theft are extremely rare amongst them. They
profess strong affection for their children and some regard for their
relations who are often numerous, as they trace very far the ties of
consanguinity. A curious instance of the former was mentioned to us and
so well authenticated that I shall venture to give it in the words of
Dr. Richardson’s Journal:
A young Chipewyan had separated from the rest of his band for the
purpose of trenching beaver when his wife, who was his sole companion
and in her first pregnancy, was seized with the pains of labour. She
died on the third day after she had given birth to a boy. The husband
was inconsolable and vowed in his anguish never to take another woman
to wife, but his grief was soon in some degree absorbed in anxiety for
the fate of his infant son. To preserve its life he descended to the
office of nurse, so degrading in the eyes of a Chipewyan as partaking
of the duties of a woman. He swaddled it in soft moss, fed it with
broth made from the flesh of the deer and, to still its cries, applied
it to his breast, praying earnestly to the great Master of Life to
assist his endeavours. The force of the powerful passion by which he
was actuated produced the same effect in his case as it has done in
some others which are recorded: a flow of milk actually took place from
his breast. He succeeded in rearing his child, taught him to be a
hunter and, when he attained the age of manhood, chose him a wife from
the tribe. The old man kept his vow in never taking a second wife
himself but he delighted in tending his son’s children and, when his
daughter-in-law used to interfere, saying that it was not the
occupation of a man, he was wont to reply that he had promised to the
Great Master of Life, if his child were spared, never to be proud like
the other Indians. He used to mention too, as a certain proof of the
approbation of Providence that, although he was always obliged to carry
his child on his back while hunting, yet that it never roused a moose
by its cries, being always particularly still at those times. Our
informant[16] added that he had often seen this Indian in his old age
and that his left breast even then retained the unusual size it had
acquired in his occupation of nurse.
[16] Mr. Wentzel.
We had proof of their sensibility towards their relations in their
declining to pitch their tents where they had been accustomed for many
years, alleging a fear of being reminded of the happy hours they had
formerly spent there in the society of the affectionate relatives whom
the sickness had recently carried off. The change of situation however
had not the effect of relieving them from sorrowful impressions, and
they occasionally indulged in very loud lamentations as they sat in
groups within and without their tents. Unfortunately the spreading of a
severe dysentery amongst them at this time gave occasion for the
renewal of their grief. The medicinal charms of drumming and singing
were plentifully applied and once they had recourse to conjuring over a
sick person. I was informed however that the Northern Indians do not
make this expedient for the cure of a patient so often as the Crees;
but when they do the conjurer is most assiduous and suffers great
personal fatigue. Particular persons only are trained in the mysteries
of the art of conjuring to procure the recovery of the sick or to
disclose future events.
On extraordinary occasions the man remains in his narrow conjuring
tents for days without eating before he can determine the matter to his
satisfaction. When he is consulted about the sick the patient is shut
up with him; but on other occasions he is alone and the poor creature
often works his mind up to a pitch of illusion that can scarcely be
imagined by one who has not witnessed it. His deluded companions seat
themselves round his tent and await his communication with earnest
anxiety, yet during the progress of his manœuvres they often venture to
question him as to the disposition of the Great Spirit.
These artful fellows usually gain complete ascendancy over the minds of
their companions. They are supported by voluntary contributions of
provision that their minds may not be diverted by the labour of hunting
from the peculiar duties of their profession.
The chiefs among the Chipewyans are now totally without power. The
presents of a flag and a gaudy dress still bestowed upon them by the
traders do not procure for them any respect or obedience except from
the youths of their own families. This is to be attributed mainly to
their living at peace with their neighbours and to the facility which
the young men find in getting their wants supplied independent of the
recommendation of the chiefs which was formerly required. In war
excursions boldness and intrepidity would still command respect and
procure authority; but the influence thus acquired would probably cease
with the occasion that called it forth. The traders however endeavour
to support their authority by continuing towards them the accustomed
marks of respect hoisting the flag and firing a salute of musketry on
their entering the fort.
The chief halts at a distance from the house and despatches one of his
young men to announce his approach and to bring his flag, which is
carried before him when he arrives. The messenger carries back to him
some vermilion to ornament the faces of his party, together with a
looking-glass and comb, some tobacco, and a few rounds of ammunition
that they may return the salute. These men paint round the eyes, the
forehead, and the cheekbones.
The Northern Indians evince no little vanity by assuming to themselves
the comprehensive title of The People, whilst they designate all other
nations by the name of their particular country. If men were seen at a
distance and a Chipewyan was asked who those persons were he would
answer The People if he recognised them to belong to his tribe and
never Chipewyans; but he would give them their respective names if they
were Europeans, Canadians, or Cree Indians.
As they suppose their ancestors to come originally from the east those
who happen to be born in the eastern part of their territory are
considered to be of the purest race. I have been informed that all the
Indians who trade at the different posts in the north-west parts of
America imagine that their forefathers came from the east, except the
Dog-Ribs who reside between the Copper Indian Islands and the
Mackenzie’s River and who deduce their origin from the west, which is
the more remarkable as they speak a dialect of the Chipewyan language.
I could gather no information respecting their religious opinions
except that they have a tradition of the deluge.
The Chipewyans are considered to be less expert hunters than the Crees,
which probably arises from their residing much on the barren lands
where the reindeer are so numerous that little skill is requisite. A
good hunter however is highly esteemed among them. The facility of
procuring goods since the commercial opposition commenced has given
great encouragement to their native indolence of disposition, as is
manifested by the difference in the amount of their collections of furs
and provision between the late and former years. From six to eight
hundred packs of furs used formerly to be sent from this department,
now the return seldom exceeds half that amount. The decrease in the
provision has been already mentioned.
The Northern Indians suppose that they originally sprang from a dog;
and about five years ago a superstitious fanatic so strongly impressed
upon their minds the impropriety of employing these animals, to which
they were related, for purposes of labour that they universally
resolved against using them any more and, strange as it may seem,
destroyed them. They now have to drag everything themselves on sledges.
This laborious task falls most heavily on the women; nothing can more
shock the feelings of a person accustomed to civilised life than to
witness the state of their degradation. When a party is on a march the
women have to drag the tent, the meat, and whatever the hunter
possesses, whilst he only carries his gun and medicine case. In the
evening they form the encampment, cut wood, fetch water, and prepare
the supper; and then, perhaps, are not permitted to partake of the fare
until the men have finished. A successful hunter sometimes has two or
three wives; whoever happens to be the favourite assumes authority over
the others and has the management of the tent. These men usually treat
their wives unkindly and even with harshness; except indeed when they
are about to increase the family and then they show them much
indulgence.
Hearne charges the Chipewyans with the dreadful practice of abandoning,
in extremity, their aged and sick people. The only instance that came
under our personal notice was attended with some palliating
circumstances: An old woman arrived at Fort Chipewyan during our
residence with her son, a little boy about ten years old, both of whom
had been deserted by their relations and left in an encampment when
much reduced by sickness: two or three days after their departure the
woman gained a little strength and, with the assistance of the boy, was
enabled to paddle a canoe to the fishing station of this post where
they were supported for some days until they were enabled to proceed in
search of some other relations who they expected would treat them with
more kindness. I learned that the woman bore an extremely bad
character, having even been guilty of infanticide and that her
companions considered her offences merited the desertion.
This tribe since its present intimate connection with the traders has
discontinued its war excursions against the Esquimaux, but they still
speak of that nation in terms of the most inveterate hatred. We have
only conversed with four men who have been engaged in any of those
expeditions; all these confirm the statements of Black Meat respecting
the sea-coast. Our observations concerning the half-breed population in
this vicinity coincided so exactly with those which have been given of
similar persons in Dr. Richardson’s account of the Crees that any
statement respecting them at this place is unnecessary. Both the
Companies have wisely prohibited their servants from intermarrying with
pure Indian women, which was formerly the cause of many quarrels with
the tribes.
The weather was extremely variable during the month of June; we
scarcely had two clear days in succession, and the showers of rain were
frequent; the winds were often strong and generally blowing from the
north-east quarter. On the evening of the 16th the Aurora Borealis was
visible but after that date the nights were too light for our
discerning it.
The mosquitoes swarmed in great numbers about the house and tormented
us so incessantly by their irritating stings that we were compelled to
keep our rooms constantly filled with smoke which is the only means of
driving them away: the weather indeed was now warm. Having received one
of Dollond’s eighteen-inch spirit thermometers from Mr. Stuart, which
he had the kindness to send us from his post at Pierre au Calumet after
he had learned that ours had been rendered useless, I observed the
temperature at noon on the 25th of June to be 63°.
On the following morning we made an excursion accompanied by Mr. Smith
round the fishing stations on the south side of the lake for the
purpose of visiting our men; we passed several groups of women and
children belonging to both the forts, posted wherever they could find a
sufficiently dry spot for an encampment. At length we came to our men,
pitched upon a narrow strip of land situated between two rivers. Though
the portion of dry ground did not exceed fifty yards yet they appeared
to be living very comfortably, having formed huts with the canoe’s sail
and covering, and were amply supported by the fish their nets daily
furnished. They sometimes had a change in their fare by procuring a few
ducks and other waterfowl which resort in great abundance to the
marshes by which they were surrounded.
July 2.
The canoe which was ordered to be built for our use was finished. As it
was constructed after the manner described by Hearne and several of the
American travellers a detail of the process will be unnecessary. Its
extreme length was thirty-two feet six inches, including the bow and
stern pieces, its greatest breadth was four feet ten inches, but it was
only two feet nine inches forward where the bowman sat, and two feet
four inches behind where the steersman was placed, and its depth was
one foot eleven and a quarter inches. There were seventy-three hoops of
thin cedar and a layer of slender laths of the same wood within the
frame. These feeble vessels of bark will carry twenty-five pieces of
goods, each weighing ninety pounds exclusive of the necessary provision
and baggage for the crew of five or six men, amounting in the whole to
about three thousand three hundred pounds’ weight. This great lading
they annually carry between the depôts and the posts in the interior;
and it rarely happens that any accidents occur if they be managed by
experienced bowmen and steersmen, on whose skill the safety of the
canoe entirely depends in the rapids and difficult places. When a total
portage is made these two men carry the canoe, and they often run with
it though its weight is estimated at about three hundred pounds
exclusive of the poles and oars which are occasionally left in where
the distance is short.
On the 5th we made an excursion for the purpose of trying our canoe. A
heavy gale came on in the evening which caused a great swell in the
lake and in crossing the waves we had the satisfaction to find that our
birchen vessel proved an excellent sea-boat.
July 7.
This morning some men and their families, who had been sent off to
search for Indians with whom they intended to pass the summer, returned
to the fort in consequence of a serious accident having befallen their
canoe in the Red Deer River; when they were in the act of hauling up a
strong rapid the line broke, the canoe was overturned, and two of the
party narrowly escaped drowning; fortunately the women and children
happened to be on shore or in all probability they would have perished
in the confusion of the scene. Nearly all their stores, their guns and
fishing nets were lost, and they could not procure any other food for
the last four days than some unripe berries.
Some gentlemen arrived in the evening with a party of Chipewyan Indians
from Hay River, a post between the Peace River and the Great Slave
Lake. These men gave distressing accounts of sickness among their
relatives and the Indians in general along the Peace River, and they
said many of them have died. The disease was described as dysentery. On
the 10th and 11th we had very sultry weather and were dreadfully
tormented by mosquitoes. The highest temperature was 73°.
ARRIVAL OF DR. RICHARDSON AND MR. HOOD.
July 13.
This morning Mr. Back and I had the sincere gratification of welcoming
our long-separated friends, Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood, who arrived in
perfect health with two canoes, having made a very expeditious journey
from Cumberland notwithstanding they were detained near three days in
consequence of the melancholy loss of one of their bowmen by the
upsetting of a canoe in a strong rapid but, as the occurrences of this
journey together with the mention of some other circumstances that
happened previous to their departure from Cumberland, which have been
extracted from Mr. Hood’s narrative, will appear in the following
chapter, it will be unnecessary to enter further into these points now.
The zeal and talent displayed by Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood in the
discharge of their several duties since my separation from them drew
forth my highest approbation. These gentlemen had brought all the
stores they could procure from the establishments at Cumberland and
Isle à la Crosse; and at the latter place they had received ten bags of
pemmican from the North-West Company, which proved to be mouldy and so
totally unfit for use that it was left at the Methye Portage. They got
none from the Hudson’s Bay post. The voyagers belonging to that
Company, being destitute of provision, had eaten what was intended for
us. In consequence of these untoward circumstances the canoes arrived
with only one day’s supply of this most essential article. The prospect
of having to commence our journey from hence almost destitute of
provision and scantily supplied with stores was distressing to us and
very discouraging to the men. It was evident however that any
unnecessary delay here would have been very imprudent as Fort Chipewyan
did not at the present time furnish the means of subsistence for so
large a party, much less was there a prospect of our receiving a supply
to carry us forward. We therefore hastened to make the necessary
arrangements for our speedy departure. All the stores were demanded
that could possibly be spared from both the establishments; and we
rejoiced to find that, when this collection was added to the articles
that had been brought up by the canoes, we had a sufficient quantity of
clothing for the equipment of the men who had been engaged here, as
well as to furnish a present to the Indians, besides some few goods for
the winter’s consumption; but we could not procure any ammunition which
was the most essential article, or spirits, and but little tobacco.
We then made a final arrangement respecting the voyagers who were to
accompany the party; and fortunately there was no difficulty in doing
this as Dr. Richardson and Mr. Hood had taken the very judicious
precaution of bringing up ten men from Cumberland who were engaged to
proceed forward if their services were required. The Canadians whom
they brought were most desirous of being continued, and we felt sincere
pleasure in being able to keep men who were so zealous in the cause and
who had given proofs of their activity on their recent passage to this
place by discharging those men who were less willing to undertake the
journey; of these three were Englishmen, one American, and three
Canadians. When the numbers were completed which we had been
recommended by the traders to take as a protection against the
Esquimaux we had sixteen Canadian voyagers and our worthy and only
English attendant John Hepburn, besides the two interpreters whom we
were to receive at the Great Slave Lake; we were also accompanied by a
Chipewyan woman. An equipment of goods was given to each of the men who
had been engaged at this place similar to what had been furnished to
the others at Cumberland; and when this distribution had been made the
remainder were made up into bales preparatory to our departure on the
following day. We were cheerfully assisted in these and all our
occupations by Mr. Smith who evinced an anxious desire to supply our
wants as far as his means permitted.
Mr. Hood having brought up the dipping needle from Cumberland House, we
ascertained the dip to be 85° 23′ 42″, and the difference produced by
reversing the face of the instrument was 6° 2′ 10″. The intensity of
the magnetic force was also observed. Several observations had been
procured on both sides of the moon during our residence at Fort
Chipewyan, the result of which gave for its longitude 111° 18′ 20″
West, its latitude was observed to be 58° 42′ 38″ North, and the
variation of the compass 22° 49′ 32″ East. Fresh rates were procured
for the chronometers and their errors determined for Greenwich time by
which the survey to the northward was carried on.