“Shall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive
evil?” (ii. 10).
“The small and great are there (in the grave), and the servant is
free from his master” (iii. 19).
“Shall mortal man be more just than God? shall a man be more pure
than his Maker?” (iv. 17).
“Behold, happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise
not thou the chastening of the Almighty” (v. 17).
“Is there not an appointed time to man upon earth? are not his days
also like the days of an hireling?” (vii. 1).
“He is wise in heart, and mighty in strength; who hath hardened
himself against him, and hath prospered?” (ix. 4).
“Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him” (xiii. 15).
“For I know that my Redeemer liveth, and he will rise in the end
over the dust” (xix. 25).
“And when my skin is gone, when worms have destroyed this body, and
when my flesh is no more, yet shall I see God” (xix. 26).
“And unto man he said, Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is
wisdom; and to depart from evil, that is understanding” (xxviii.
28).
The following passages are noteworthy, on account of both their lofty
thought and their poetical form:—
Eliphaz mildly rebukes Job, exhorting him to repentance (iv.).
Job’s charge against the cruelty of his friends (v. 12–30).
Bildad’s view of God’s justice (viii. 3–13).
Job’s conception of God’s Omnipotence (ix. 2–12).
Zophar’s explanation of God’s justice (xi. 2–7, 10–15).
Job’s declaration of his faith in God (xiii. 6–16; xix. 23–27;
xxiii. 3–12).
Job’s confession of man’s dependence on God’s wisdom (xxviii. 1, 2,
12–28).
Job’s defence of his innocence (xxxi.).
Elihu’s defence of God’s justice (xxxiii. 8, 9, 12–30).
Job is shown his ignorance (xxxviii. 3–24); his impotence (xl.
9–14).
Job’s contrition (xlii. 2–6).
The three books, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, are distinguished from the
rest of the Bible by their peculiar accents, which are on this account
called מעמי אמ״ת “the accents of the books, תהלים, משלי and
איוב.”
The Song of Solomon, שיר השירים (lit., The Song of Songs = the most
poetical song).—The faithfulness of the beloved to her lover, her
resistance to all temptation, and the concentration of all her thoughts
on the well-being of her lover, form the theme of the book. The
relation between lover and beloved has been interpreted allegorically
as representing the relation between God and Israel. The latter remains
faithful to his God, throughout all vicissitudes of fortune. “I am for
my lover, and my lover is for me,” is the centre of this feeling of
faith. According to the heading and the tradition, King Solomon is the
author of the book.
Ruth, רות—The book contains the history of Ruth, a Moabite woman,
who, by her marriage with Boaz, became the founder of the house of
David. Elimelech of Beth-lehem in Judah, with his wife Naomi and his
two sons, left his country in time of famine in order to stay in the
land of Moab. There the two sons marry Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth.
Elimelech and the two sons die. Naomi returns to Judah; Orpah, at the
request of Naomi, remains in Moab and goes back to her family, but Ruth
insists on accompanying Naomi, saying, “Whither thou goest I will go,
and where thou lodgest I will lodge; thy people shall be my people, and
thy God my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be
buried: so the Lord do to me, and more also, if ought but death will
part thee and me” (i. 16, 17).
Naomi having lost her property, Ruth was obliged to glean ears of corn
in the fields in order to maintain herself and her mother-in-law. She
happened to glean in the field of Boaz, a near relative of Elimelech.
Boaz having noticed her, and having heard of her conduct toward Naomi,
married her; his son was Obed; the son of the latter was Jesse, the
father of David. Thus the virtues of Ruth, modesty, faithfulness, and
industry, were rewarded; this is one of the lessons derived from the
book. The principal object of the book, however, is to show the origin
of the house of David.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah, איכה—The name of the author is not
mentioned in the book, but tradition informs us that the prophet
Jeremiah composed these lamentations. The first four chapters are
alphabetical; in the third chapter there are three verses for each
letter; the fifth chapter is not alphabetical. The cause of the
lamentations is the catastrophe of the kingdom of Judah through the
victories of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, although neither
Nebuchadnezzar nor Babylon is mentioned in the book.
Ecclesiates, קהלת—This book contains reflections on the vanity of
man’s labours and plans; whatever man aims at as the source of his
happiness and blessing proves in the end useless and deceptive. Man is
disappointed to find everything transient; he discovers just people in
misery, and wicked people in apparent comfort; he begins to doubt
whether virtue and wisdom are really conducive to true happiness. Thus
man, left to himself, is at a loss to find the right way to happiness.
The author therefore concludes his reflections with the exhortation:
“The end of the word in which everything is heard is, Fear God, and
keep His commandments, for that is the whole of man. For every deed
will God bring to account, together with every hidden thought, whether
good or bad” (xii. 13, 14).
Koheleth mentioned in the heading is King Solomon. The philosophical
reflections are frequently intermixed with proverb-like lessons and
maxims, of which the following are a few examples:—
“For in much wisdom is much grief; and he that increaseth knowledge
increaseth sorrow” (i. 18).
“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose
under the heaven” (iii. 1).
“The fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh”
(iv. 5).
“Better is an handful with quietness, than both the hands full with
travail and vexation of spirit” (iv. 6).
“Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and readiness
to hear is better than the fools’ giving of sacrifice; for they
consider not that they do evil” (iv. 17).
“Be not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to
utter any thing before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon
earth; therefore let thy words be few” (v. 1).
“When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for He hath
no pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed” (v. 3).
“A good name is better than precious ointment; and the day of death
better than the day of one’s birth” (vii. 1).
“Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry; for anger resteth in the
bosom of fools” (vii. 9).
“Be not righteous over much; neither make thyself over wise: why
shouldst thou destroy thyself?” (vii. 16).
“Be not over much wicked, neither be thou foolish: why shouldst
thou die before thy time?” (vii. 17).
“There is not a just man upon earth, that doth good, and sinneth
not” (vii. 20).
“Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no
ointment” (ix. 8).
“A wise man’s heart is at his right hand; but a fool’s heart at his
left” (x. 2).
“He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an
hedge, a serpent shall bite him” (x. 8).
“He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth
the clouds shall not reap” (xi. 4).
“Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the evil
days come not, nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say, I have
no pleasure in them” (xii. 1).
“Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit
shall return to the God who gave it” (xii. 7).
Esther, אסתר—The history of the conception and frustration of the
wicked plans of Haman against Mordecai and the Jews is described in
this book. Ahasuerus, king of Persia, sent Vashti, his wife, away, and
married Esther, a cousin of Mordecai. Haman, enraged against the Jews
because Mordecai did not bow before him, planned to kill the Jews on
the thirteenth of Adar; but Esther frustrated Haman’s design; Haman
himself and his ten sons were killed; and the Jews were allowed to take
up arms against those who attacked them. The Jews defended themselves
victoriously on the thirteenth of Adar; in Shushan, the capital, also
on the fourteenth. This deliverance was the cause of the institution of
Purim.
The name of the author is not mentioned; the book was probably written
by Mordecai and Esther (comp. Esther ix. 29).
Daniel, דניאל—The author of this book is not named. The book is
called Daniel because it contains the history and the visions of
Daniel. According to a tradition mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud
(Baba Bathra, 15a), the men of the Great Synagogue wrote or edited the
book probably from trustworthy traditions, partly written, partly oral.
The last six chapters seem to have been written by Daniel himself; he
speaks in them of himself in the first person.
The object of the book is to show that God is the Ruler of the
Universe. The author, therefore, gives, on the one hand, examples of
men of great piety and genuine faith in God—Daniel and his friends;
and, on the other hand, examples of men of great
wickedness—Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar; the former enjoyed glorious
victories, the latter received their due punishment. The style is
throughout bold and emphatic; the frequent heaping of synonyms is to
serve the purpose of emphasis. In the last chapters the author shows
that the misdeeds of the wicked and the sufferings of the pious are
foreseen by God, and that both the punishment of the former and the
redemption of the latter form part of the Divine plan in the government
of mankind. We are thus exhorted to remain firm in our faith in time of
oppression, and to wait patiently for deliverance, which is sure to
come.
Although Daniel belonged to those distinguished men to whom God
communicated coming events in visions, he is not classed among the
prophets, because he had no Divine message to bring to his fellow-men,
and he was not charged to address them in the name of God. Daniel was
brought to Babylon, together with other captives, in the third year of
Jehoiakim, and remained there during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar,
Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and the first years of Cyrus the Persian.
He distinguished himself by great piety and wisdom, so that in a
prophecy of Ezekiel (xiv. 14), in the sixth year of the exile of King
Jehoiachin, he is mentioned, together with Noah and Job, as famous for
piety, as one of those whom God protects from danger because of their
righteousness, although their piety could not save their fellow-men.
The same prophet mentions him as a wise man (xxviii. 3).
The book is divided into two parts: (A.) An account written in Chaldee
of Daniel’s wisdom and piety, with a Hebrew Introduction (i. to vi.).
(2.) The visions of Daniel in Chaldee and Hebrew (vii. to xii.). In the
introductory chapter the author narrates the principal facts of the
training of Daniel in Babylonian wisdom, and his great success at the
court of Nebuchadnezzar. Then follows the Chaldee portion, including
the following subjects:—
(1.) Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream.—The king demands that the sages initiated
in Babylonian wisdom shall tell him his dream, which he himself has
forgotten, and its interpretation. They cannot do it, and many of them
are put to death. Daniel arrests the slaughter; for he prays to God,
and God reveals to him the king’s dream.
When Daniel appeared before the king he began thus: “The secret which
the king wants to know, no wise men can tell. But there is a God in
heaven, the revealer of secrets, and He has let King Nebuchadnezzar
know what will come to pass in the remote future” (ii. 27, 28). The
dream was this: He saw a big statue, its head of gold, breast and arms
of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs and feet of iron and clay. A
large stone fell upon the legs of the statue, broke them, and the whole
statue fell together and was crushed into pieces; then the stone grew
larger, and filled the whole earth. The following was the
interpretation of the vision: The statue represented a series of
earthly kingdoms; the gold was Nebuchadnezzar, the silver referred to
his successors, the brass to the Persian government, the iron to the
Greek, and the mixture of iron and clay to the kingdoms that would then
follow, all of which would ultimately be overthrown, and the Divine
kingdom would then be recognised by all. Daniel was greatly rewarded;
he and his friends received high positions in the government of the
empire.
(2.) Nebuchadnezzar erected a large statue, and commanded that at
certain times all should worship it; disobedience was to be punished
with death. Daniel’s friends did not bow before it, and were accused
before the king. They said to the king, “There is a God whom we
worship; He can save us from the burning furnace and from thy hand, O
king. And if He does not save us, let it be known to thee, O king, that
we shall not worship thy god, and not bow down before the golden image
which thou hast set up” (iii. 17, 18).
They were thrown into the furnace, and miraculously saved. Thereupon
Nebuchadnezzar sends letters to all the peoples of his empire,
testifying to the greatness of God, and narrating what wonderful thing
had occurred to him. He had a strange dream, and none but Daniel was
able to interpret it; the dream was literally fulfilled according to
Daniel’s interpretation. The dream, which, after the manner of such
phenomena, introduced and mingled together diverse elements, was this:
He saw a high tree with many branches and much foliage. Suddenly an
angel from heaven came, and ordered the tree to be cut down, but the
root to be left for seven seasons, bound with fetters of iron and
brass, in the midst of the grass of the field. The heart of man was to
be taken from it, and replaced by a heart of beasts. The interpretation
was, that the mighty Nebuchadnezzar would be removed from the society
of man, and live like a beast with beasts for seven seasons. This
happened to him just when he was boasting of his greatness and said,
“Is this not great Babylon which I have built for the royal house, in
my great power, and to my great glory?” (iv. 27). He was humbled,
recognised the dominion of God over the whole universe, and was again,
after seven seasons, restored to his former power and dignity. “Praised
be God,” he exclaimed, “whose deeds are all truth, and whose ways are
justice, and who can humble those who walk in pride” (Ibid. 34).
(3.) King Belshazzar, in the midst of a banquet, at which the holy
vessels of the Temple in Jerusalem were used, perceived a hand writing
on the wall opposite him strange signs which none could read. Daniel
was called, and read the writing: “Mene, mene, tekel upharsin,” and
explained it thus: The days of thy government are counted and brought
to a close; thou hast been weighed and found wanting; thy kingdom is
divided, and given to the Medes and Persians (v. 25–28). That same
night King Belshazzar was killed, and the Mede Darius was made king (v.
30–vi. 1).
(4.) King Darius, advised by his officers, who sought to find an
opportunity for overthrowing Daniel, issued an order, that within
thirty days no god or other being except Darius should be prayed to,
and that transgressors against this decree should be punished with
death. Daniel prayed to God three times a day at his open window. He
was thrown into the lions’ den; but God protected him from the mouths
of the lions. When he was taken out of the den, his accusers were
thrown into it, and the lions immediately devoured them. Thus Darius
was forced publicly to recognise the Omnipotence of God.
(5.) A dream of Daniel is related by the author in Daniel’s own words,
who had written down the dream, and explained the chief points. [10]
The following is the dream:—He saw four beasts, viz., a lion, a bear
with three ribs in its mouth, a leopard with four wings and four heads,
and a fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns, one of the horns
being small, but having “a mouth speaking haughtily.” In a court of
justice the latter beast was sentenced to death, and the other beasts
were to be deprived of their power; but respite was granted to them for
a time and a season. The royal power was given to one who approached
the judge appearing like a human being, and not like any of the beasts.
His rule was to remain for ever. The interpretation of the dream is
this: There will be four different kingdoms; out of the fourth ten
different kingdoms will be formed. One of these will haughtily presume
to oppose the Will of God, and to abolish the festivals and the
religion of the holy ones. It will succeed for “a season, seasons, and
half a season,” and will then be utterly destroyed, whilst the rule of
“the holy ones” [11] will in the end be firmly established and continue
for ever.
The indefinite character of the vision shows that it was intended to
apply to all those oppressors of the Jews who at different times have
presumed, or still presume, to be able to abolish the religion of “the
holy ones.” Whether the oppression lasts a “season of seasons” (or “a
season and seasons”), i.e., a very long time, or “half a season,” i.e.,
a very short time, the holy ones are exhorted to remain firm in their
faith in God’s justice. The truth of this vision is especially
illustrated by the failure of the attempts of Antiochus Epiphanes after
a temporary success. More definite are the numbers 2300
“evening-mornings” (viii. 14), 1290 days and 1335 days (xii. 11, 12);
but the absence of any further description as to the date of the first
of these days leaves even to these numbers a certain degree of
indetermination. From the context we learn that they are somehow
connected with the persecution to which the Jews were subjected by
Antiochus Epiphanes. 2300 days (or 6 years 110 days) passed between the
decree of the Syrian king enforcing idolatry and the peace with Lysias
granting religious liberty; there were 1290 days between the decree
forbidding the practice of the holy religion and the enforcement of
idolatry in the Temple of Jerusalem, and 1335 days is the period
between the latter event and the death of Antiochus.
(B.) The second part contains visions of Daniel as written down by
himself.
(1.) In the third year of Belshazzar, Daniel had the following
vision:—Being in Susan, in the province of Elam, near the river Ulai,
he saw a ram with two unequal horns pushing towards west, north, and
south. From the west came a goat with one horn, and overthrew the ram;
in the place of the one horn four horns grew up in all directions;
there was one small horn which pushed on against the south, the east,
and Palestine; it rose even against the host of heaven and the chief of
the host, and destroyed his holy place. Daniel heard one holy one
saying to another, “This state of things will last till
‘evening-morning 2300.’” The angel Gabriel gave him the interpretation
of the vision: The ram represented the empire of the Medes and the
Persians, the goat that of the Greeks, out of which four kingdoms would
be formed; in one of these a wicked king would venture to rise against
the Prince of princes, but his power would in the end be destroyed.
Daniel was told to keep the vision secret, for it referred to a distant
future (viii. 26).
(2.) In the first year of Darius, son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the
Medes, Daniel reflected on the seventy years of exile foretold by
Jeremiah, and fervently prayed to God for pardon and the restoration of
Jerusalem. At the end of his prayer the angel Gabriel appeared to him,
and told him that the hoped-for restoration would not take place before
the lapse of seventy weeks of trouble and anxiety. There would elapse
seven weeks before the “princely anointed” (משיח נגיד) led the Jews
back to Palestine; sixty-two weeks of trouble and anxiety were
predicted for the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple;
and one week’s misery on the arrival of a new prince or governor, who
would strengthen the covenant of the enemies and entirely suspend the
Divine Service in the Temple for a short time. [12]
(3.) In the third year of Cyrus, king of Persia, Daniel, after three
weeks’ mourning and fasting, had the following vision on the
twenty-fourth day of the first month:—He saw near the river Tigris
(Hiddekel) a man of extraordinary appearance, who told him that he came
in answer to his prayers; that for twenty-one days (x. 13) he was
opposed by the prince of the kingdom of Persia, and had on his side
only one of the princes, Michael. Future events are foretold: the fall
of Persia, the division of the Greek kingdom, the wars between the
Northern country (Syria) and the Southern (Egypt), the troubles of the
Jews, the ultimate deliverance of the Jews out of danger, and the
glorious victory of the teachers “who taught many, and led them to
righteousness” (המשבילים ומצדקי הרבים xii. 3). When Daniel asked,
“Till when have we to wait for the end of these wondrous things?” (עד
מתי קץ הפלאות Ibid. 6), he was told, “After a season, seasons, and a
half (למועד מועדים וחצי Ibid. 7) [13] all these things will come to
an end.” He further asks, “What then?” He is told, “The things must
remain sealed till the time of the end (עד עת קץ Ibid. 9), when the
wise and good (משכלים) will understand them.” The vision ends with
the words addressed to Daniel: “But thou go toward the end, and thou
wilt rest, and rise for thy lot at the end of the days” (xii. 13).
Ezra, עזרא—The Book of Ezra relates the first return of the Jews
under Zerubbabel from Babylon to Palestine by the permission of King
Cyrus (כורש) of Persia, the construction of the altar, the foundation
and the building of the Temple by permission of King Darius. It also
describes the second settlement of Jews from Babylon in Palestine under
Ezra, the Scribe, in the reign of Artaxerxes, and his energy in
purifying the community from intermarriages with heathen people. The
book is written in Hebrew, with the exception of iv. 8–vii. 27, which
includes several documents written in Chaldee by the Persian kings. The
author of the book is probably Ezra; he speaks of himself in the first
person (vii. 28; viii. 1, &c.); he is also named as the author of the
book in the Babylonian Talmud; and lastly, the name of the book is
Ezra, although Ezra is only mentioned in the second half of the book.
The special merit of Ezra was the promotion of the study of the Law;
his name is followed by the title, “A ready scribe of the Law of Moses”
(סופר מהיר בתורת ה׳ vii. 6), and “Scribe of the words of the
commandments of the Lord and His statutes for Israel” (ספר דברי מצות
ה׳ וחקיו על ישראל vii. 11); the task he set to himself was “to study
the Law of God (לדרוש את תורת ה׳), and to practise it, and to teach
in Israel Law and judgment” (vii. 10).
Nehemiah, נחמיה—The heading probably indicates the author, “Words of
Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah.” [14] The book contains the history of
Nehemiah’s visit to Jerusalem by the permission of King Artaxerxes, and
the building of the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s supervision, in
spite of the opposition of Sanballat and Tobiah the Ammonite; his
example of disinterestedness and of liberality towards the poor, which
is followed by the princes and the rich; the reading and expounding of
the Law by Ezra; the celebration of the festival of the first of Tishri
and of Tabernacles; the renewal of the covenant “to walk in the Law of
God, which was given through Moses the servant of God,” to keep
Sabbath, to abstain from intermarrying with the heathen, and to
contribute towards maintaining the Sanctuary; the provision for filling
Jerusalem with inhabitants by selecting by lot one-tenth of the general
population to dwell in the holy city; the dedication of the walls of
Jerusalem; and Nehemiah’s energy in enforcing the laws of Sabbath and
of marriages. The two books Ezra and Nehemiah are also called by some
“two books of Ezra,” and by some “the book of Ezra.” Nehemiah is
written in Hebrew.
The Chronicles, דברי הימים—The two books of Chronicles contain the
following three parts: (1) Genealogical tables (I., i.–ix.); (2) the
history of the death of King Saul, the history of David and Solomon
(I., x.–II., ix.); (3) the history of the kingdom of Judah from
Rehoboam till the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (II.,
x.–xxxvi.). Special attention has been given by the author to the
arrangements made at various periods for the Temple-service, by King
David (I., xxiii. sqq.), King Hezekiah (II., xxix.), and King Josiah
(II., xxxiv., xxxv.).
The author is not named in the book; according to the tradition it is
Ezra. As the genealogical tables give six generations after Zerubbabel
(I., iii. 19–24), we may assume that the author wrote about fifty years
after Zerubbabel; that is, the last years of Ezra and Nehemiah.
The sources from which the author derived his information were, besides
the Biblical books, the following:—The book of the kings of Judah; the
book of the kings of Israel, registers probably kept in the Temple
archives; the histories of Samuel the Seer, Nathan the prophet, and Gad
the Seer; the prophecy of Ahijah of Shilo; the visions of Jedo; the
Midrash of the prophet Iddo; the history of Jehu, son of Hanani; the
history of Isaiah, son of Amoz, and the history of Hozai.
This is the last book of the series of Holy Writings. Books that were
written later, whatever their intrinsic value may be, were not
considered holy, and were not received into this collection. There are
a number of books known as Apocrypha (גנוזים), lit. “Hidden things”
or “put aside,” that is, kept separate from the Holy Scriptures. They
were not considered as genuine, as they consisted of a mixture of fact
and fiction, truth and error. They were, however, not suppressed or
forbidden; in the Talmud several quotations from these books are met
with. The following are the principal books belonging to the
Apocrypha:—
(1.) The Book of Wisdom, or the Wisdom of Solomon. Wisdom based on the
fear of God, and guided by it, is the source of man’s true happiness,
and if wisdom and virtue are not rewarded by success in mundane
affairs, the reward is sure to come in the future world. This is the
quintessence of the lessons taught in this book. The kings and
potentates of the earth are frequently exhorted to be just and kind
towards their people, and to remember that they are but human beings,
weak and mortal, like the rest of mankind; wisdom alone can raise them
to higher perfection and happiness.
“For the very true beginning of her is the desire of discipline,
and the care of discipline is love. And love is the keeping of her
laws; and the giving heed unto her laws is the assurance of
incorruption. And incorruption maketh us near God. Therefore the
desire of wisdom bringeth to a kingdom. If your delight be then in
thrones and sceptres, O ye kings of the people, honour wisdom, that
ye may reign for evermore” (vi. 17–21).
“For regarding not wisdom, they got not only this hurt, that they
knew not the things which were good, but also left behind them to
the world a memorial of their foolishness, so that in the things
wherein they offended they could not so much as be hid. But wisdom
delivered from pain those that attended upon her. When the
righteous fled from his brother’s wrath, she guided him into right
paths, shewed him the kingdom of God, and gave him knowledge of
holy things that made him rich in his travels, and multiplied the
fruit of his labours” (x. 8–10).
(2.) The Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach.—Proverbs, maxims, and moral
lessons collected by Joshua (Jesus), son of Sirach of Jerusalem. After
having studied the Law, the Prophets, and the other Holy Writings, he
thought it advisable to write a book on knowledge and wisdom for those
who seek instruction, in order to lead them to greater obedience to the
Law. Joshua’s grandson migrated from Palestine to Egypt, and translated
the work of his grandfather into Greek for those who could not read the
Hebrew original. The translation was made in the thirty-eighth year of
King Euergetes II. of Egypt (3888 A.M.).
The contents of the book are similar to those of the Proverbs of
Solomon: the author recommends the acquisition of wisdom, patience,
faith in God, meekness, obedience of children to parents, charity,
cautiousness in the use of the tongue, temperance, honesty, and the
like. As models of piety and wisdom the principal heroes in the Bible,
from Adam to Joshua, son of Jehozadak, are named, and in addition to
these Simon the high priest.
“My son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul for
temptation. Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure, and make
not haste in time of trouble. Cleave unto him, and depart not away,
that thou mayest be increased at thy last end. Whatsoever is
brought upon thee take cheerfully, and be patient when thou art
changed to a low estate. For gold is tried in the fire, and
acceptable men in the furnace of adversity. Believe in him, and he
will help thee: order thy way aright, and trust in him” (ii. 1–6).
“But he that giveth his mind to the law of the Most High, and is
occupied in the meditation thereof, will seek out the wisdom of the
most ancient, and be occupied in prophecies. He will keep the
sayings of most renowned men, and where subtle parables are, He
will be there also. He will seek out the secrets of grave
sentences, and be conversant in dark parables” (xxxix. 1–3).
(3.) Baruch.—The book may be divided into two parts. In the first part
Baruch, son of Nerijah, the amanuensis of the prophet Jeremiah,
addresses, in Babylon, Jehoiachin, the captive king of Judah, and the
other captive Jews; they send money to Jerusalem for sacrifices, with a
letter exhorting their brethren to return to God, and comforting them
with the prospect of a glorious future. The second part contains a
letter of Jeremiah to his brethren in Jerusalem denouncing idolatry.
The letters are probably not genuine, not being in harmony with the
facts related in the books of Jeremiah and Kings.
(4.) The Book of Tobit.—Tobit, of the tribe of Naphtali, a good and
pious man, was one of those who were carried away into the Assyrian
captivity. One of the charitable acts to which he devoted himself with
special zeal was the burying of the dead. Twice was misfortune brought
upon him for practising this deed of piety. Once he had to flee, and to
remain away from his family in misery and want, and a second time
something fell into his eyes, and he became blind. In both cases he was
saved out of his trouble, and was greatly rewarded for his patience,
his faith in God, and his perseverance in the performance of the Divine
commandments. The author of the book is not known.
(5.) Judith.—An incident of Jewish history during the Persian rule.
Judith is set forth as an ideal of piety, beauty, courage, and
chastity. Holofernes, a general in the service of Nebuchadnezzar, king
of Assyria, conquers many lands, but meets with vigorous resistance in
Judea; he besieges Bethulia and endeavours to suppress the Jewish
religion. He falls by the hands of Judith. Thus the stratagem and the
courage of the Jewish heroine, combined with the plans of Divine
justice, frustrated the wicked plans of the heathen conqueror, and
delivered the besieged city.
(6.) Additions to the Books of Daniel and Ezra, containing—
(a.) The song of the three men in the furnace (Dan. iii.).
(b.) The false charges brought against Susanna, and her deliverance
through Daniel.
(c.) Bel and the Dragon. Cyrus, the Persian, worshipped these idols,
but was convinced by Daniel that they had no claim whatever to man’s
worship.
(d.) The apocryphal Book of Esdras, containing portions of the Books of
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah; only chaps. iii. and iv. being
original. In these it is related how Zerubbabel distinguished himself
before King Darius in describing Woman and Truth as the mightiest
rulers of mankind, and thus obtained permission to return to Palestine
and rebuild the Temple. A second apocryphal Book of Esdras is named, in
which Ezra is represented as a prophet addressing his brethren in the
name of God, and telling them the visions he had.
(7.) The Books of the Maccabees.—Three books containing the history of
the Maccabees, and various episodes of the wars against the Syrian
oppressors, both legendary and historical.
Sixth Principle.—“I firmly believe that all the words of the Prophets
are true.”
By “the Prophets” the prophets thus designated in the Bible are to be
understood who have proved themselves to be the true messengers of God,
and were accepted as such by the people. They either counselled the
people what to do under various circumstances, in times of peace and in
times of war, in times of security and in times of danger, or they
announced the coming catastrophe as a punishment sent by the Almighty
for disobedience, and foretold future happiness and prosperity in case
of improvement and return to God. Those prophecies that referred to the
proximate future have been verified by subsequent events, and so also
will those prophecies that refer to the remote future and have not yet
been fulfilled.
“A prophet out of thy midst, of thy brethren, like unto me, will the
Lord thy God raise up unto thee; unto him ye shall hearken” (Deut.
xviii. 15). “The former things, behold, they are come to pass, and new
things do I declare; before they will spring forth, I shall let you
hear” (Isa. xlii. 9). “I have also spoken unto the prophets, and I have
multiplied visions, and by the ministry of the prophets have I used
similitudes” (Hosea xii. 11). “And by a prophet the Lord brought Israel
out of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved” (Ibid. 14).
In the sixth article we declare our belief in the fact that the
Almighty has communicated His Will to human beings, although we are
incapable of forming a clear and definite idea of the manner in which
such communication took place. The selection of the individual for the
office of a prophet, as well as of the time, the place, and the object
of the Divine communication, is dependent solely on the Will of God,
whose Wisdom and Plan no mortals are able to fathom. We know only the
fact that Malachi closed the series of Prophets, but are ignorant of
the reason why since Malachi no human being has “found a vision from
the Lord.” Mankind is, however, not altogether deprived of the benefit
of prophecy; the holy book need only be opened, and the message of the
prophets is heard once more.
Seventh Principle.—“I firmly believe that the prophecy of Moses was a
direct prophecy, and that Moses was the chief of the prophets, both of
those who preceded him and of those who followed him.”
All that has been said with regard to the sixth article applies to the
prophecy of Moses. There is, however, this distinction between the
words of Moses and the words of other prophets:—whilst other prophets
chiefly addressed their own generation, blaming their brethren for
disobedience to the Divine Law, threatening with punishments and
comforting with blessings of which experience was to be made in the
remote future, Moses addresses all times and generations, communicating
to them laws “for all generations,” “everlasting statutes,” “the things
which have been revealed for us and our children for ever.” He is
therefore proclaimed by the Almighty as the greatest prophet. When
Miriam and Aaron had spoken against Moses, God rebuked them, saying,
“If there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will make myself known
unto him in a vision, I will speak with him in a dream. My servant
Moses is not so; he is faithful in all my house; with him will I speak
mouth to mouth, even manifestly, and not in dark speeches; and the form
of the Lord shall he behold” (Num. xii. 6–8). The Torah concludes with
the praise of Moses, as follows: “And there hath not arisen a prophet
since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face: in
all the signs and the wonders, which the Lord sent him to do in the
land of Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his
land; and in all the mighty hand, and in all the great terror, which
Moses wrought in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. xxxiv. 10–12).
The phrase “knew God face to face,” or “I will speak with him mouth to
mouth,” and the like, denotes figuratively “the clearest, most direct,
and most simple communication,” the figure being taken from the way in
which men communicate to each other things when they desire to be
clearly understood, and to leave no doubt as to the truth and the
meaning of the communication.
Eighth Principle.—“I firmly believe that the Law which we possess now
is the same which has been given to Moses on Sinai.”
The whole Torah, including both history and precepts, is of Divine
origin; nothing is contained in the Torah that was not revealed to
Moses by the Almighty, although we do not know in what manner Moses
received the information. The history of preceding generations was
probably handed down to his time by tradition; in part it may have been
contained in documents then extant, as is likely to have been the case
with the various genealogies mentioned in the Pentateuch. But it was by
Divine inspiration that Moses knew to distinguish between truth and
error, between fiction and reality. The events recorded in the
Pentateuch are to demonstrate and to keep constantly before our eyes
the fact that there is a higher Power that ordains the fate of men and
nations according to their deeds. Everything is described in a simple
and objective manner. Although the whole Torah is the work of Moses,
the great prophet speaks of himself everywhere in the third person,
except in the Book of Deuteronomy, in which he records his addresses to
the people in the last year of his life.
The last few verses, which describe the death of Moses, the mourning of
the Israelites for the death of their teacher, and his exaltation above
all other prophets, have been added to the Torah by Joshua the son of
Nun, the leader of the Israelites after the death of Moses. Thus, from
that day until the present the Torah, in its integrity, has been in the
hands of the children of Israel. It was guarded as the most valuable
national treasure, and although there have been not a few generations
which were corrupt and idolatrous, Israel has never been entirely
bereaved of pious and faithful worshippers of the true God; and when in
one generation or period the study and the practice of the Torah were
neglected, they were resumed with greater vigour and zeal in the next.
There is a tradition recorded in the Talmud that after the Babylonian
exile Ezra, the Scribe, replaced the ancient Hebrew characters in which
the Torah had originally been written by the square characters still in
use. Nothing, however, was omitted from or added to the contents of the
Torah, when the present forms of the letters were introduced by Ezra.
In the scrolls of the Law the letters were not provided with
vowel-points and accents; the manner in which the words, phrases, and
sentences were to be read was a subject of oral teaching. Also many
explanations and details of the laws were supplemented by oral
teaching; they were handed down by word of mouth from generation to
generation, and only after the destruction of the second Temple were
they committed to writing. The latter are, nevertheless, called Oral
Law (תורה שבעל פה), as distinguished from the Torah or Written Law
(תורה שבכתב), which from the first was committed to writing. Those
oral laws which were revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai are called הלכה
למשה מסיני “Laws given to Moses on Mount Sinai.” There are several
passages in the Bible from which it appears that a certain unwritten
law must have supplemented the written Law; e.g., when a man was found
in the wilderness gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day, the persons who
discovered him brought him to Moses. They must have been taught before,
that the gathering of sticks constituted a מלאכה, labour prohibited
on the Sabbath-day, although this had not been distinctly stated in the
written Sabbath-laws. Had this not been the case the Sabbath-breaker
could not have been put to death, since he would have committed the sin
in ignorance. The same can be said of the man who cursed the name of
God; he must have known that cursing the name of God was a capital
crime; for he would not have been put to death if the Israelites had
not yet been taught that death would be inflicted for such an act. The
question which the prophet Haggai (ii. 11) addressed to the priests,
and the answers which the priests gave, lead to the conclusion that the
details of the laws on uncleanness and cleanness (טומאה וטהרה) must
have been known to the priests and the prophets to a greater extent
than has been explained in the written Law. Besides, there were many
precepts that came at once into force. These must have been fully
explained to the people, who were anxious to obey the word of God.
All these explanations and the detailed rules with regard to the
written Divine precepts of the Pentateuch, together with laws and
institutions established in the course of time by the highest
authorities of the nation in obedience to the dictates of the
Pentateuch, form the contents of the Oral Law.
The Oral Law or the Tradition has been handed down in two different
forms: (a) in the form of a running Commentary on the Pentateuch; such
Commentaries were called Midrashim; (b) arranged according to the
different subjects, and treated independently of the text of the Torah.
This is done in the Talmud (“lesson,” “tradition”).
The principal Midrashim are: Mechilta (lit. “measure”) on Exodus; Sifra
(“book”) on Leviticus; Sifre (“books”) on Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Rabboth on the Pentateuch and the five Megilloth. Yalkut (“collection”)
on all the books of the Bible.
The Talmud—which exists in two different recensions, viz., the
Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud—consists of two elements,
which have to each other the relation of text and commentary, and are
called Mishnah (משנה “learnt by heart”), and Gemara (גמרא lit.
“completion,” “a thing settled”); the former contains the traditional
laws mostly without argumentation; in the latter these laws are further
discussed, examined, and finally settled. Following the example of the
Pentateuch, the Talmud includes two elements: laws and narratives, or
Halachah (הלכה) and Agada (אגדה); the latter, the Agada, contains
history, fables, allegory, meditations, prayers, reflections,
philosophical and religious discussions, and a large number of moral
sayings. The Midrashim likewise include these two elements.
The Mishnah is divided into the following six orders or sections
(סדרים): [15]—
1. זרעים “Seeds.” Laws referring to agriculture; preceded by
laws on Divine Worship.
2. מועד “Seasons.” On Sabbath and Festivals.
3. נשים “Women.” Marriage Laws.
4. נזיקין “Damages.” Civil and criminal legislation; the
Government.
5. קדשים “Holy things.” On Sacrifices.
6. טהרות “Purity.” On the distinction between clean and unclean.
The laws taught in the Talmud are: (i) those which are directly or
indirectly derived from the text of the Pentateuch; they are called
“laws derived from the Torah” (מן התורה or מדאורייתא); (2) those
which trace their origin to the time of Moses, or, in general, to the
remote past; they are called הלכה למשה מסיני “Law given to Moses on
Sinai;” (3) those laws which originated between the period of the
Pentateuch and the close of the Bible; they are called דברי קבלה
(“words of tradition”); (4) those which have been introduced in
post-Biblical times; they are laws מדרבנן “laws introduced by our
teachers.” These are either preventives against breaking any of the
Divine precepts, and are then called מרותגזרות or סיג “a fence,” or
tekanoth (תקנות “institutions” or “regulations”) made in order to
ensure obedience to the Law and improvement of conduct, to remove
abuses and prevent error and misunderstanding; (5) Minhag, “Custom”
(מנהג); religious practices which have not been introduced by any
authority or based on a particular Biblical text, but in consequence of
long usage have become as sacred as a law established by the proper
authority.
These laws, as finally settled, were again codified, in various works,
the most important of which are the following two: (1) Mishneh-torah
(משנה תורה or יד החזקה [16] lit. “Copy of the Law,” or “Strong
Hand”), by Moses Maimonides (twelfth century) in fourteen books; (2)
Shulchan-aruch (שלחן ערוך, lit. “Table-arranged”), by Rabbi Joseph
Caro (sixteenth century).
Ninth Principle.—“I firmly believe that this Law will not be changed,
and that there will not be any other Law given by the Creator, blessed
be His Name.”
In this article we pronounce our belief in the immutability of the Law.
Over and over again the phrase “an everlasting statute” (חקת עולם)
occurs in the Pentateuch. It is true that the Hebrew term עולם is
used in the Bible in the sense of “a very long time,” but in the phrase
חקת עולם the word cannot have that meaning. Some indication would
have been necessary to inform the people when the laws would cease to
be in force. On the contrary, the test of a prophet addressing his
brethren in the name of God, as a Divine messenger, consists in the
harmony of his words with the precepts of the Pentateuch. A prophet
who, speaking in the name of God, abrogates any of the laws of the
Pentateuch is a false prophet. “If there arise in the midst of thee a
prophet or a dreamer of dreams, and he give thee a sign or a wonder,
and the sign or wonder come to pass whereof he spake unto thee, saying,
Let us go after other gods which thou hast not known, and let us serve
them: thou shalt not hearken unto the words of that prophet or unto
that dreamer of dreams.... Ye shall walk after the Lord your God, and
fear him, and keep his commandments, and obey his voice, and ye shall
serve him, and cleave unto him. And that prophet or that dreamer of
dreams shall be put to death; because he hath spoken rebellion against
the Lord your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, ... to
draw thee aside out of the way which the Lord thy God commanded thee to
walk in” (Deut. xiii. 2–6). Moses distinctly says, “The things that are
revealed belong unto us and to our children for ever, that we may do
all the words of this law” (Ibid. xxix. 28).
There is also an express commandment given: “Ye shall not add unto the
word which I command you, neither shall you diminish from it, that ye
may keep the commandments of the Lord your God which I command you”
(Ibid. iv. 2). In two ways this law may appear to have been
disregarded: there are certain sections of the Law which are at present
not in force; and, on the other hand, there are many apparently new
precepts at present in force which have been introduced in the course
of time by the religious authorities of the nation. But these are only
apparent exceptions; in reality they are entirely in harmony with the
Pentateuch.
As to the first class, there are many of the Divine commandments the
fulfilment of which depends on certain conditions; e.g., the existence
of the Tabernacle or of the Temple and its service, the possession of
Palestine by the Israelites, the independence of the Jewish State. In
the absence of these conditions such laws cannot be fulfilled. The laws
of sacrifices belong to this class. We are, in reference to these laws,
in the same condition as a person who is physically prevented from
doing what he is commanded to do, and what he is actually longing to
do. The Law is not altered; our circumstances demand a temporary
suspense of such laws and not their abrogation.
The second class contains all those precepts which are known as מצות
דרבנן “Rabbinical precepts,” תקנות and מנהגים “Institutions” and
“Customs.” But these imply no addition to the Torah; they are merely
byelaws and regulations as regards the method of carrying out the laws
of the Pentateuch, and are designed to facilitate or ensure their
fulfilment, and to prevent ourselves from forgetting or disregarding
them. Our teachers, the Rabbis, made it a matter of conscience to
describe their own regulations as דרבנן non-Pentateuchical, and
throughout the Oral Law and the entire Talmudic literature the
distinction between דרבנן and מן התורה is noted and scrupulously
upheld.
It is useless to investigate whether it would be in harmony with the
immutability of the Divine Being to change the laws or any of them, or
to grant a new revelation. Certainly the words “I, the Lord, have not
changed” (Mal. iii. 6) have great weight; so also, “For God is not a
son of man that he should change his mind” (Num. xxiii. 19). But the
fact that the laws were given by God as “an everlasting statute for all
generations” makes all philosophical speculation on that point
superfluous. Persons who address us in the name of God as His
messengers, and bid us turn away from any of the laws commanded in the
Pentateuch, are in our eyes impostors, who, knowingly or unknowingly,
give forth their own opinions as Divine inspirations.