and talent, and succeeded his father, Gaika, who had been possessed of
much greater power and wider territories than the son, but had found
himself compelled to yield up a large portion of his lands to the
colonists. Macomo received no education; all the culture which his mind
ever obtained being derived from occasional intercourse with
missionaries, after he had grown to manhood. From 1819, the period of
Gaika's concessions, up to the year 1829, he with his tribe dwelt upon
the Kat river, following their pastoral life in peace, and cultivating
their corn-fields. Suddenly they were ejected from their lands by the
Kat river, on the plea that Gaika had ceded these lands to the colony.
Macomo retired, almost without a murmur, to a district farther inland,
leaving the very grain growing upon his fields. He took up a new
position on the banks of the river Chunice, and here he and his tribe
dwelt until 1833, when they were again driven out to seek a new home,
almost without pretence. On this occasion Macomo did make a
remonstrance, in a document addressed to an influential person of the
colony. "In the whole of this savage Kaffir's letter, there is," says
Dr. Philip, "a beautiful simplicity, a touching pathos, a confiding
magnanimity, a dignified remonstrance, which shows its author to be no
common man. It was dictated to an interpreter."
[Illustration]
"As I and my people," writes Macomo, "have been driven back over the
Chunice, without being informed why, I should be glad to know from the
Government what evil we have done. I was only told that we _must_ retire
over the Chunice, but for what reason I was not informed. It was agreed
that I and my people should live west of the Chunice, as well as east of
it. When shall I and my people be able to get rest?"
* * * * *
RAILWAY TUNNELS.
[Illustration: Letter O.]
Of the difficulties which occasionally baffle the man of science, in his
endeavours to contend with the hidden secrets of the crust of the earth
which we inhabit, the Kilsby Tunnel of the London and North-western
Railway presents a striking example. The proposed tunnel was to be
driven about 160 feet below the surface. It was to be, as indeed it is,
2399 yards in length, with two shafts of the extraordinary size of sixty
feet in diameter, not only to give air and ventilation, but to admit
light enough to enable the engine-driver, in passing through it with a
train, to see the rails from end to end. In order correctly to
ascertain, and honestly to make known to the contractors the nature of
the ground through which this great work was to pass, the
engineer-in-chief sank the usual number of what are called "trial
shafts;" and, from the result, the usual advertisements for tenders were
issued, and the shafts, &c. having been minutely examined by the
competing contractors, the work was let to one of them for the sum of
£99,000. In order to drive the tunnel, it was deemed necessary to
construct eighteen working shafts, by which, like the heavings of a
mole, the contents of the subterranean gallery were to be brought to the
surface. This interesting work was in busy progress, when, all of a
sudden, it was ascertained, that, at about 200 yards from the south end
of the tunnel, there existed, overlaid by a bed of clay, forty feet
thick, a hidden quicksand, which extended 400 yards into the proposed
tunnel, and which the trial shafts on each side of it had almost
miraculously just passed without touching. Overwhelmed at the discovery,
the contractor instantly took to his bed; and though he was justly
relieved by the company from his engagement, the reprieve came too late,
for he actually died.
The general opinion of the several eminent engineers who were consulted
was against proceeding; but Mr. R. Stephenson offered to undertake the
responsibility of the work. His first operation was to lower the water
with which he had to contend, and it was soon ascertained that the
quicksand in question covered several square miles. The tunnel, thirty
feet high by thirty feet broad, was formed of bricks, laid in cement,
and the bricklayers were progressing in lengths averaging twelve feet,
when those who were nearest the quicksand, on driving into the roof,
were suddenly almost overwhelmed by a deluge of water, which burst in
upon them. As it was evident that no time was to be lost, a gang of
workmen, protected by the extreme power of the engines, were, with their
materials, placed on a raft; and while, with the utmost celerity, they
were completing the walls of that short length, the water, in spite of
every effort to keep it down, rose with such rapidity, that, at the
conclusion of the work, the men were so near being jammed against the
roof, that the assistant-engineer jumped overboard, and then swimming,
with a rope in his mouth, he towed the raft to the nearest working
shaft, through which he and his men were safely lifted to daylight, or,
as it is termed by miners, "to grass."
The water now rose in the shaft, and, as it is called, "drowned the
works" but, by the main strength of 1250 men, 200 horses, and thirteen
steam-engines, not only was the work gradually completed, but, during
day and night for eight months, the almost incredible quantity of 1800
gallons of water per minute was raised, and conducted away. The time
occupied from the laying of the first brick to the completion was thirty
months.
[Illustration: DEEP CUTTING NEAR THE TUNNEL.]
* * * * *
SUN FISH.
While lying in Little Killery Bay, on the coast of Connemara, in her
Majesty's surveying ketch _Sylvia_, we were attracted by a large fin
above the surface, moving with an oscillatory motion, somewhat
resembling the action of a man sculling at the stern of a boat; and
knowing it to be an unusual visitor, we immediately got up the harpoon
and went in chase. In the meantime, a country boat came up with the poor
animal, and its crew inflicted upon it sundry blows with whatever they
could lay their hands on--oars, grappling, stones, &c.--but were
unsuccessful in taking it; and it disappeared for some few minutes, when
it again exhibited its fin on the other side of the Bay. The dull and
stupid animal permitted us to place our boat immediately over it, and
made no effort to escape. The harpoon never having been sharpened,
glanced off without effect; but another sailor succeeded in securing it
by the tail with a boat-hook, and passing the bight of a rope behind its
fins, we hauled it on shore, under Salrock House, the residence of
General Thompson, who, with his family, came down to inspect this
strange-looking inhabitant of the sea. We were well soused by the
splashing of its fins, ere a dozen hands succeeded in transporting this
heavy creature from its native abode to the shore, where it passively
died, giving only an occasional movement with its fins, or uttering a
kind of grunt.
[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SUN FISH.]
[Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF SUN FISH.]
This animal, I believe, is a specimen of the Sun-fish (_Orthagoriscus_).
It has no bony skeleton; nor did we, in our rather hasty dissection,
discover any osseous structure whatever, except (as we were informed by
one who afterwards inspected it) that there was one which stretched
between the large fins. Its jaws also had bony terminations, unbroken
into teeth, and parrot-like, which, when not in use, are hidden by the
envelopement of the gums. The form of the animal is preserved by an
entire cartilaginous case, of about three inches in thickness, covered
by a kind of shagreen skin, so amalgamated with the cartilage as not to
be separated from it. This case is easily penetrable with a knife, and
is of pearly whiteness, more resembling cocoa-nut in appearance and
texture than anything else I can compare it with. The interior cavity,
containing the vital parts, terminates a little behind the large fins,
where the cartilage was solid, to its tapered extremity, which is
without a caudal fin. Within, and around the back part, lay the flesh,
of a coarse fibrous texture, slightly salmon-coloured. The liver was
such as to fill a common pail, and there was a large quantity of red
blood. The nostril, top of the eye, and top of the gill-orifice are in
line, as represented in the Engraving. The dimensions are as under:--
Eye round, and like that of an ox, 2-1/4 inches diameter. Gill-orifice,
4 inches by 2-1/4 inches. Dorsal and anal fins equal, 2 ft. 2 in. long,
by 1 ft. 3 in. wide. Pectoral fins, 10 in. high by 8 broad. Length of
fish, 6 ft. Depth, from the extremities of the large fins, 7 ft. 4 in.
Extreme breadth at the swelling under the eye, only 20 in. Weight, 6
cwt. 42 lb.
CAPTAIN BEDFORD, R.N.
* * * * *
BATTLE OF THE BALTIC.
[Illustration: Letter O.]
Of Nelson and the North
Sing the glorious day's renown,
When to battle fierce came forth
All the might of Denmark's crown,
And her arms along the deep proudly shone;
By each gun the lighted brand,
In a bold determined hand--
And the Prince of all the land
Led them on.
Like Leviathans afloat
Lay their bulwarks on the brine;
While the sign of battle flew
On the lofty British line;
It was ten of April morn, by the chime,
As they drifted on their path:
There was silence deep as death,
And the boldest held his breath
For a time.
But the might of England flush'd
To anticipate the scene;
And her van the fleeter rush'd
O'er the deadly space between.
"Hearts of Oak!" our Captains cried; when each gun
From its adamantine lips
Spread a death-shade round the ships,
Like the hurricane eclipse
Of the sun.
Again! again! again!
And the havoc did not slack,
Till a feeble cheer the Dane
To our cheering sent us back--
Their shots along the deep slowly boom:
Then ceased, and all is wail
As they strike the shatter'd sail,
Or, in conflagration pale,
Light the gloom.
Out spoke the victor then,
As he hail'd them o'er the wave,
"Ye are brothers! ye are men!
And we conquer but to save;
So peace instead of death let us bring.
But yield, proud foe, thy fleet,
With their crews, at England's feet,
And make submission meet
To our King."
Then Denmark bless'd our chief,
That he gave her wounds repose;
And the sounds of joy and grief
From her people wildly rose,
As Death withdrew his shades from the day,
While the sun look'd smiling bright
O'er a wide and woeful sight,
Where the fires of funeral light
Died away.
Now joy, old England, raise!
For the tidings of thy might,
By the festal cities' blaze,
Whilst the wine-cup shines in light;
And yet, amidst that joy and uproar,
Let us think of them that sleep,
Full many a fathom deep,
By thy wild and stormy steep--
Ellsinore!
Brave hearts! to Britain's pride,
Once so faithful and so true,
On the deck of fame that died
With the gallant, good Riou--
Soft sigh the winds of Heaven o'er their grave:
While the billow mournful rolls,
And the mermaid's song condoles,
Singing glory to the souls
Of the brave.
CAMPBELL.
* * * * *
ARTILLERY TACTICS.
[Illustration: Letter C.]
Cannon took their name from the French word _Canne_, a reed. Before
their invention, machines were used for throwing enormous stones. These
were imitated from the Arabs, and called _ingenia_, whence engineer. The
first cannon were made of wood, wrapped up in numerous folds of linen,
and well secured by iron hoops. The true epoch of the use of metallic
cannon cannot be ascertained; it is certain, however, that they were in
use about the middle of the 14th century. The Engraving beneath
represents a field-battery gun taking up its position in a canter. The
piece of ordnance is attached, or "limbered up" to an ammunition
carriage, capable of carrying two gunners, or privates, whilst the
drivers are also drilled so as to be able to serve at the gun in action,
in case of casualties.
[Illustration: TAKING UP POSITION.]
Having reached its destination, and been detached or "unlimbered" from
the front carriage, we next see the action of loading; the ramrod having
at its other extremity a sheep-skin mop, larger than the bore of the
piece, and called "a sponge." This instrument, before loading, is
invariably used, whilst the touch-hole or "vent" is covered by the thumb
of the gunner especially numbered off for this important duty; and the
air being thus excluded, the fire, which often remains within the bore,
attached to either portions of cartridge-case or wadding, is
extinguished. Serious accidents have been known to occur from a neglect
of this important preliminary to loading; as a melancholy instance, a
poor fellow may be seen about the Woolwich barracks, _both_ of whose
arms were blown off above the elbow joint, whilst ramming home a
cartridge before the sponge had been properly applied.
[Illustration: LOADING.]
[Illustration: FIRING IN RETREAT.]
If it is deemed essential to keep up a fire upon the enemy during a
temporary retreat, or in order to avoid an overwhelming body of cavalry
directed against guns unsupported by infantry, in that case the limber
remains as close as possible to the field-piece, as shown in the
Engraving above.
Skilful provisions are made against the various contingencies likely to
occur in action. A wheel may he shattered by the enemy's shot, and the
gun thereby disabled for the moment: this accident is met by supporting
the piece upon a handspike, firmly grasped by one or two men on each
side, according to the weight of the gun, whilst a spare wheel, usually
suspended at the back of "the tumbril," or ammunition waggon, is
obtained, and in a few moments made to remedy the loss, as represented
above.
[Illustration: DISABLED WHEEL.]
[Illustration: DISMANTLING A GUN.]
The extraordinary rapidity with which a gun can be dislodged from its
carriage, and every portion of its complicated machinery scattered upon
the ground, is hardly to be believed unless witnessed; but the wonder
is increased tenfold, on seeing with what magical celerity the
death-dealing weapon can be put together again. These operations will be
readily understood by an examination of the Illustrations. In that at
the foot of page 175 the cannon is lying useless upon the earth; one
wheel already forms the rude resting-place of a gunner, whilst the other
is in the act of being displaced. By the application of a rope round the
termination of the breech, and the lifting of the trail of the carriage,
care being previously taken that the trunnions are in their respective
sockets, a very slight exertion of manual labour is required to put the
gun into fighting trim. That we may be understood, we will add that the
trunnions are the short round pieces of iron, or brass, projecting from
the sides of the cannon, and their relative position can be easily
ascertained by a glance at the gun occupying the foreground of the
Illustration where the dismantling is depicted. To perform the labour
thus required in managing cannon, is called to serve the guns.
[Illustration: MOUNTING A GUN.]
Cannon are cast in a solid mass of metal, either of iron or brass; they
are then bored by being placed upon a machine which causes the whole
mass to turn round very rapidly. The boring tool being pressed against
the cannon thus revolving, a deep hole is made in it, called the bore.
* * * * *
THE TREE KANGAROO AND BLACK LEOPARD.
The ordinary mode in which the Kangaroos make their way on the ground,
as well as by flight from enemies, is by a series of bounds, often of
prodigious extent. They spring from their hind limbs alone, using
neither the tail nor the fore limbs. In feeding, they assume a
crouching, hare-like position, resting on the fore paws as well as on
the hinder extremities, while they browse on the herbage. In this
attitude they hop gently along, the tail being pressed to the ground. On
the least alarm they rise on the hind limbs, and bound to a distance
with great rapidity. Sometimes, when excited, the old male of the great
kangaroo stands on tiptoe and on his tail, and is then of prodigious
height. It readily takes to the water, and swims well, often resorting
to this mode of escape from its enemies, among which is the dingo, or
wild dog of Australia.
[Illustration: TREE KANGAROO, AND BLACK LEOPARD.]
Man is, however, the most unrelenting foe of this inoffensive animal. It
is a native of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, and was first
discovered by the celebrated navigator Captain Cook, in 1770, while
stationed on the coast of New South Wales. In Van Diemen's Land the
great kangaroo is regularly hunted with fox-hounds, as the deer or fox
in England.
The Tree Kangaroo, in general appearance, much resembles the common
kangaroo, having many of that animal's peculiarities. It seems to have
the power of moving very quickly on a tree; sometimes holding tight with
its fore feet, and bringing its hind feet up together with a jump; at
other times climbing ordinarily.
* * * * *
In the island of Java a black variety of the Leopard is not uncommon,
and such are occasionally seen in our menageries; they are deeper than
the general tint, and the spots show in certain lights only. Nothing can
exceed the grace and agility of the leopards; they bound with
astonishing ease, climb trees, and swim, and the flexibility of the body
enables them to creep along the ground with the cautious silence of a
snake on their unsuspecting prey.
In India the leopard is called by the natives the "tree-tiger," from its
generally taking refuge in a tree when pursued, and also from being
often seen among the branches: so quick and active is the animal in this
situation, that it is not easy to take a fair aim at him. Antelopes,
deer, small quadrupeds, and monkeys are its prey. It seldom attacks a
man voluntarily, but, if provoked, becomes a formidable assailant. It is
sometimes taken in pitfalls and traps. In some old writers there are
accounts of the leopard being taken in trap, by means of a mirror,
which, when the animal jump against it, brings a door down upon him.
* * * * *
CHARITY.
[Illustration: Letter D.]
Did sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue,
Than ever man pronounced or angel sung;
Had I all knowledge, human and divine
That thought can reach, or science can define;
And had I power to give that knowledge birth,
In all the speeches of the babbling earth,
Did Shadrach's zeal my glowing breast inspire,
To weary tortures, and rejoice in fire;
Or had I faith like that which Israel saw,
When Moses gave them miracles and law:
Yet, gracious Charity, indulgent guest,
Were not thy power exerted in my breast,
Those speeches would send up unheeded pray'r;
That scorn of life would be but wild despair;
A cymbal's sound were better than my voice;
My faith were form, my eloquence were noise.
[Illustration]
Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind,
Softens the high, and rears the abject mind;
Knows with just reins, and gentle hand, to guide
Betwixt vile shame and arbitrary pride.
Not soon provoked, she easily forgives;
And much she suffers, as she much believes.
Soft peace she brings wherever she arrives;
She builds our quiet, as she forms our lives;
Lays the rough paths of peevish nature even,
And opens in each heart a little heaven.
Each other gift, which God on man bestows,
Its proper bounds, and due restriction knows;
To one fix'd purpose dedicates its power;
And finishing its act, exists no more.
Thus, in obedience to what Heaven decrees,
Knowledge shall fail, and prophecy shall cease;
But lasting Charity's more ample sway,
Nor bound by time, nor subject to decay,
In happy triumph shall for ever live,
And endless good diffuse, and endless praise receive.
As through the artist's intervening glass,
Our eye observes the distant planets pass,
A little we discover, but allow
That more remains unseen than art can show;
So whilst our mind its knowledge would improve,
Its feeble eye intent on things above,
High as we may we lift our reason up,
By faith directed, and confirm'd by hope;
Yet are we able only to survey
Dawnings of beams and promises of day;
Heav'n's fuller effluence mocks our dazzled sight--
Too great its swiftness, and too strong its light.
But soon the mediate clouds shall be dispell'd;
The Son shall soon be face to face beheld,
In all his robes, with all his glory on,
Seated sublime on his meridian throne.
Then constant Faith, and holy Hope shall vie,
One lost in certainty, and one in joy:
Whilst thou, more happy pow'r, fair Charity,
Triumphant sister, greatest of the three,
Thy office, and thy nature still the same,
Lasting thy lamp, and unconsumed thy flame,
Shall still survive--
Shall stand before the host of heav'n confest,
For ever blessing, and for ever blest.
PRIOR.
* * * * *
SARDIS.
[Illustration: Letter S.]
Sardis, the ancient capital of the kingdom of Lydia, is situated on the
river Pactolus, in the fertile plain below Mount Tmolus. Wealth, pomp,
and luxury characterised this city from very ancient times. The story of
Croesus, its last King, is frequently alluded to by historians, as
affording a remarkable example of the instability of human greatness.
This Monarch considered himself the happiest of human beings, but being
checked by the philosopher Solon for his arrogance, he was offended, and
dismissed the sage from his Court with disgrace. Not long afterwards,
led away by the ambiguous answers of the oracles, he conducted a large
army into the field against Cyrus, the future conqueror of Babylon, but
was defeated, and obliged to return to his capital, where he shut
himself up. Hither he was soon followed and besieged by Cyrus, with a
far inferior force; but, at the expiration of fourteen days, the
citadel, which had been deemed impregnable, was taken by a stratagem,
and Croesus was condemned to the flames. When the sentence was about to
be executed, he was heard to invoke the name of Solon, and the curiosity
of Cyrus being excited, he asked the cause; and, having heard his
narrative, ordered him to be set free, and subsequently received him
into his confidence.
[Illustration: SARDIS.]
Under the Romans, Sardis declined in importance, and, being destroyed by
an earthquake, for some time lay desolate, until it was rebuilt by the
Roman Emperor Tiberius.
The situation of Sardis is very beautiful, but the country over which it
looks is almost deserted, and the valley is become a swamp. The hill of
the citadel, when seen from the opposite bank of the Hermus, appears of
a triangular form; and at the back of it rise ridge after ridge of
mountains, the highest covered with snow, and many of them bearing
evident marks of having been jagged and distorted by earthquakes. The
citadel is exceedingly difficult of ascent; but the magnificent view
which it commands of the plain of the Hermus, and other objects of
interest, amply repays the risk and fatigue. The village, small as it
is, boasts of containing one of the most remarkable remains of
antiquity in Asia; namely, the vast Ionic temple of the heathen goddess
Cybele, or the earth, on the banks of the Pactolus. In 1750, six columns
of this temple were standing, but four of them have since been thrown
down by the Turks, for the sake of the gold which they expected to find
in the joints.
Two or three mills and a few mud huts, inhabited by Turkish herdsmen,
contain all the present population of Sardis.
* * * * *
MARTELLO TOWERS.
[Illustration: Letter A.]
At a time when there appeared to be good reason for believing that the
invasion of England was contemplated, the Government turned their
attention to the defence of such portions of the coast as seemed to
present the greatest facility for the landing of a hostile force. As the
Kentish coast, from East Were Bay to Dymchurch, seemed more especially
exposed, a line of Martello Towers was erected between these two points,
at a distance from each other of from one-quarter to three-quarters of a
mile. Other towers of the same kind were erected on various parts of the
coast where the shore was low, in other parts of England, but more
particularly in the counties of Sussex and Suffolk. Towers of this
construction appear to have been adopted, owing to the resistance that
was made by the Tower of Martella, in the Island of Corsica, to the
British forces under Lord Hood and General Dundas, in 1794. This tower
which was built in the form of an obtruncated cone--like the body of a
windmill--was situated in Martella, or Martle Bay. As it rendered the
landing of the troops difficult, Commodore Linzee anchored in the bay to
the westward, and there landed the troops on the evening of the 7th of
February, taking possession of a height that commanded the tower. As the
tower impeded the advance of the troops, it was the next day attacked
from the bay by the vessels _Fortitude_ and _Juno_; but after a
cannonade of two hours and a half, the ships were obliged to haul off,
the _Fortitude_ having sustained considerable damage from red-hot shot
discharged from the tower. The tower, after having been cannonaded from
the height for two days, surrendered; rather, it would appear, from the
alarm of the garrison, than from any great injury that the tower had
sustained. The English, on taking possession of the fort, found that the
garrison had originally consisted of thirty-three men, of whom two only
were wounded, though mortally. The walls were of great thickness, and
bomb-proof; and the parapet consisted of an interior lining of rush
matting, filled up to the exterior of the parapet with sand. The only
guns they had were two 18-pounders.