that, if the City would give him a piece of ground, he would erect an
Exchange at his own expense; and thus relieve the merchants from their
present uncomfortable mode of transacting business in the open air. The
liberal offer being accepted, the building, which was afterwards
destroyed in the Great Fire of London, was speedily constructed, at a
very great expense, and ornamented with a number of statues. Nor did
Gresham's persevering benevolence stop here: though he had so much to
engross his time and attention, he still found leisure to consider the
claims of the destitute and aged, and in his endowment of eight
alms-houses with a comfortable allowance for as many decayed citizens of
London, displayed that excellent grace of charity which was his truest
ornament.
In person Sir Thomas was above the middle height, and handsome when a
young man, but he was rendered lame by a fall from his horse during one
of his journeys in Flanders. Sir Thomas Gresham's exemplary life
terminated suddenly on the 21st of November, 1579, after he had just
paid a visit to the noble building which he had so generously founded.
[Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.]
* * * * *
ON THE ATTAINMENT OF KNOWLEDGE.
Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one constant view and design in
life; since there is no time or place, no transactions, occurrences, or
engagements in life, which exclude us from this method of improving the
mind. When we are alone, even in darkness and silence, we may converse
with our own hearts, observe the working of our own spirits, and reflect
upon the inward motions of our own passions in some of the latest
occurrences in life; we may acquaint ourselves with the powers and
properties, the tendencies and inclinations both of body and spirit, and
gain a more intimate knowledge of ourselves. When we are in company, we
may discover something more of human nature, of human passions and
follies, and of human affairs, vices and virtues, by conversing with
mankind, and observing their conduct. Nor is there any thing more
valuable than the knowledge of ourselves and the knowledge of men,
except it be the knowledge of God who made us, and our relation to Him
as our Governor.
When we are in the house or the city, wheresoever we turn our eyes, we
see the works of men; when we are abroad in the country, we behold more
of the works of God. The skies and the ground above and beneath us, and
the animal and vegetable world round about us, may entertain our
observation with ten thousand varieties.
Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the stars, the sun, the moon,
and the revolutions of all the planets. Dig and draw up some valuable
meditations from the depths of the earth, and search them through the
vast oceans of water. Extract some intellectual improvement from the
minerals and metals; from the wonders of nature among the vegetables and
herbs, trees and flowers. Learn some lessons from the birds and the
beasts, and the meanest insect. Read the wisdom of God, and his
admirable contrivance in them all: read his almighty power, his rich and
various goodness, in all the works of his hands.
From the day and the night, the hours and the flying minutes, learn a
wise improvement of time, and be watchful to seize every opportunity to
increase in knowledge.
From the vices and follies of others, observe what is hateful in them;
consider how such a practice looks in another person, and remember that
it looks as ill or worse in yourself. From the virtue of others, learn
something worthy of your imitation.
From the deformity, the distress, or calamity of others, derive lessons
of thankfulness to God, and hymns of grateful praise to your Creator,
Governor, and Benefactor, who has formed you in a better mould, and
guarded you from those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of
contentment in your own estate, and compassion to your neighbour under
his miseries.
From your natural powers, sensations, judgment, memory, hands, feet,
&c., make this inference, that they were not given you for nothing, but
for some useful employment to the honour of your Maker, and for the good
of your fellow-creatures, as well as for your own best interest and
final happiness.
DR. WATTS.
* * * * *
THIBETAN SHEEP.
The enterprising traveller, Moorcroft, during his journey across the
vast chain of the Himalaya Mountains, in India, undertaken with the hope
of finding a passage across those mountains into Tartary, noticed, in
the district of Ladak, the peculiar race of sheep of which we give an
Engraving. Subsequent observations having confirmed his opinion as to
the quality of their flesh and wool, the Honourable East India Company
imported a flock, which were sent for a short time to the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, Regent's Park. They were then distributed among
those landed proprietors whose possessions are best adapted, by soil and
climate, for naturalising in the British Islands this beautiful variety
of the mountain sheep. The wool, the flesh, and the milk of the sheep
appear to have been very early appreciated as valuable products of the
animal: with us, indeed, the milk of the flock has given place to that
of the herd; but the two former still retain their importance. Soon
after the subjugation of Britain by the Romans, a woollen manufactory
was established at Winchester, situated in the midst of a district then,
as now, peculiarly suited to the short-woolled breed of sheep. So
successful was this manufacture, that British cloths were soon preferred
at Rome to those of any other part of the Empire, and were worn by the
most opulent on festive and ceremonial occasions. From that time
forward, the production of wool in this island, and the various
manufactures connected with it, have gone on increasing in importance,
until it has become one of the chief branches of our commerce.
[Illustration: THIBETAN SHEEP.]
* * * * *
NAVAL TACTICS.
[Illustration: Letter O.]
On being told the number and size of the sails which a vessel can carry
(that is to say, can sail with, without danger of being upset), the
uninitiated seldom fail to express much surprise. This is not so
striking in a three-decker, as in smaller vessels, because the hull of
the former stands very high out of the water, for the sake of its triple
rank of guns, and therefore bears a greater proportion to its canvas
than that of a frigate or a smaller vessel. The apparent inequality is
most obvious in the smallest vessels, as cutters: and of those kept for
pleasure, and therefore built for the purpose of sailing as fast as
possible, without reference to freight or load, there are many the hull
of which might be entirely wrapt up in the mainsail. It is of course
very rarely, if ever, that a vessel carries at one time all the sail she
is capable of; the different sails being usually employed according to
the circumstances of direction of wind and course. The sails of a ship,
when complete, are as follows:--
The lowermost sail of the mast, called thence the _mainsail_, or
_foresail_; the _topsail_, carried by the _topsail-yard_; the
_top-gallant-sail_; and above this there is also set a _royal_ sail, and
again above this, but only on emergencies, a sail significantly called a
_sky-sail_. Besides all this, the three lowermost of these are capable
of having their surface to be exposed to the wind increased by means of
_studding_ sails, which are narrow sails set on each side beyond the
regular one, by means of small _booms_ or yards, which can be slid out
so as to extend the lower yards and topsail-yards: the upper parts of
these additional sails hang from small yards suspended from the
principal ones, and the boom of the lower studding-sails is hooked on to
the chains. Thus each of the two principal masts, the fore and main, are
capable of bearing no less than thirteen distinct sails. If a ship could
be imagined as cut through by a plane, at right angles to the keel,
close to the mainmast, the _area_, or surface, of all the sails on this
would be five or six times as great as that of the section or profile of
the hull!
The starboard studding-sails are on the fore-mast, and on both sides of
the main-top-gallant and main-royal; but, in going nearly before a wind,
there is no advantage derived from the stay-sails, which, accordingly,
are not set. The flying-jib is to be set to assist in steadying the
motion.
The mizen-mast, instead of a lower square-sail like the two others, has
a sail like that of a cutter, lying in the plane of the keel, its bottom
stretched on a boom, which extends far over the taffarel, and the upper
edge carried by a _gaff_ or yard sloping upwards, supported by ropes
from the top of the mizen-mast.
All these sails, the sky-sails excepted, have four sides, as have also
the sprit-sails on the bowsprit, jib-boom, &c.; and all, except the sail
last mentioned on the mizen, usually lie across the ship, or in planes
forming considerable angles with the axis or central line of the ship.
There are a number of sails which lie in the same plane with the keel,
being attached to the various _stays_ of the masts; these are triangular
sails, and those are called _stay-sails_ which are between the masts:
those before the fore-mast, and connected with the bowsprit, are the
_fore stay-sail_, the _fore-topmast-stay-sail_, the _jib_, sometimes a
_flying jib_, and another called a _middle jib_, and there are two or
three others used occasionally. Thus it appears that there are no less
than fifty-three different sails, which are used at times, though, we
believe, seldom more than twenty are _set_ at one time, for it is
obviously useless to extend or set a sail, if the wind is prevented from
filling it by another which intercepts the current of air.
The higher the wind, the fewer the sails which a ship can carry; but as
a certain number, or rather quantity, of canvas is necessary in
different parts of the ship to allow of the vessel being steered, the
principal sails, that is, the _courses_ or lower sails, and the
top-sails, admit of being reduced in extent by what is termed _reefing_:
this is done by tying up the upper part of the sail to the yard by means
of rows of strings called _reef-points_ passing through the canvas; this
reduces the depth of the sail, while its width is unaltered on the yard,
which is therefore obliged to be lowered on the mast accordingly.
[Illustration: SHORTENING SAIL IN A STORM.]
[Illustration: PREPARING TO MAKE SAIL.]
[Illustration: LOOSED SAILS.]
Ships are principally distinguished as those called merchantmen, which
belong to individuals or companies, and are engaged in commerce; and
men-of-war, or the national ships, built for the purposes of war. The
latter receive their designation from the number of their decks, or of
the guns which they carry. The largest are termed ships of the line,
from their forming the line of battle when acting together in fleets;
and are divided into first-rates, second-rates, third-rates, &c.
First-rates include all those carrying 100 guns and upwards, with a
company of 850 men and upwards; second-rates mount 90 to 100 guns, and
so on, down to the sixth-rates; but some ships of less than 44 guns are
termed frigates.
[Illustration: TOP-GALLANT-SAILS HOME.]
[Illustration: SAIL ON THE STARBOARD TACK.]
[Illustration: REEFING TOPSAILS.]
[Illustration: DOUBLE-REEFED TOPSAILS.]
There are three principal masts in a complete ship: the first is the
main-mast, which stands in the centre of the ship; at a considerable
distance forward is the fore-mast; and at a less distance behind, the
mizen-mast. These masts, passing through the decks, are fixed firmly in
the keel. There are added to them other masts, which can be taken down
or raised--hoisted, as it is termed at sea--at pleasure: these are
called top-masts, and, according to the mast to which each is
attached--main, fore, or mizen-topmast. When the topmast is carried
still higher by the addition of a third, it receives the name of
top-gallant-mast. The yards are long poles of wood slung across the
masts, or attached to them by one end, and having fixed to them the
upper edge of the principal sails. They are named upon the same plan as
the masts; for example, the main-yard, the fore-top-sail-yard, and so
on. The bowsprit is a strong conical piece of timber, projecting from
the stem of a ship, and serving to support the fore-mast, and as a yard
or boom on which certain sails are moveable.
According as the wind blows from different points, in regard to the
course the ship is sailing, it is necessary that the direction of the
yards should be changed, so as to form different angles with the central
line or with the keel; this is effected by ropes brought from the ends
of the yards to the mast behind that to which these belong, and then,
passing through blocks, they come down to the deck: by pulling one of
these, the other being slackened, the yard is brought round to the
proper degree of inclination; this is termed bracing the yards, the
ropes being termed braces.
* * * * *
THE CHOICE OF HERCULES.
When Hercules was in that part of his youth in which it was natural for
him to consider what course of life he ought to pursue, he one day
retired into a desert, where the silence and solitude of the place very
much favoured his meditations. As he was musing on his present
condition, and very much perplexed in himself on the state of life he
should choose, he saw two women, of a larger stature than ordinary,
approaching towards him. One of them had a very noble air, and graceful
deportment; her beauty was natural and easy, her person clean and
unspotted, her eyes cast towards the ground with an agreeable reserve,
her motion and behaviour full of modesty, and her raiment as white as
snow. The other had a great deal of health and floridness in her
countenance, which she had helped with an artificial white and red; and
she endeavoured to appear more graceful than ordinary in her mien, by a
mixture of affectation in all her gestures. She had a wonderful
confidence and assurance in her looks, and all the variety of colours in
her dress, that she thought were the most proper to shew her complexion
to advantage. She cast her eyes upon herself, then turned them on those
that were present, to see how they liked her, and often looked on the
figure she made in her own shadow. Upon her nearer approach to Hercules,
she stepped before the other lady, who came forward with a regular,
composed carriage, and running up to him, accosted him after the
following manner:--
"My dear Hercules!" says she, "I find you are very much divided in your
thoughts upon the way of life that you ought to choose; be my friend,
and follow me; I will lead you into the possession of pleasure, and out
of the reach of pain, and remove you from all the noise and disquietude
of business. The affairs of either war or peace shall have no power to
disturb you. Your whole employment shall be to make your life easy, and
to entertain every sense with its proper gratifications. Sumptuous
tables, beds of roses, clouds of perfume, concerts of music, crowds of
beauties, are all in readiness to receive you. Come along with me into
this region of delights, this world of pleasure, and bid farewell for
ever to care, to pain, to business." Hercules, hearing the lady talk
after this manner, desired to know her name, to which she answered--"My
friends, and those who are well acquainted with me, call me Happiness;
but my enemies, and those who would injure my reputation, have given me
the name of Pleasure."
By this time the other lady was come up, who addressed herself to the
young hero in a very different manner:--"Hercules," says she, "I offer
myself to you because I know you are descended from the gods, and give
proofs of that descent by your love of virtue and application to the
studies proper for your age. This makes me hope you will gain, both for
yourself and me, an immortal reputation. But before I invite you into my
society and friendship, I will be open and sincere with you, and must
lay this down as an established truth, that there is nothing truly
valuable which can be purchased without pains and labour. The gods have
set a price upon every real and noble pleasure. If you would gain the
favour of the Deity, you must be at the pains of worshipping Him; if the
friendship of good men, you must study to oblige them; if you would be
honoured by your country, you must take care to serve it; in short, if
you would be eminent in war or peace, you must become master of all the
qualifications that can make you so. These are the only terms and
conditions upon which I can propose happiness."
The Goddess of Pleasure here broke in upon her discourse:--"You see,"
said she, "Hercules, by her own confession, the way to her pleasures is
long and difficult; whereas that which I propose is short and easy."
"Alas!" said the other lady, whose visage glowed with passion, made up
of scorn and pity, "what are the pleasures you propose? To eat before
you are hungry; drink before you are athirst; sleep before you are
tired; to gratify appetites before they are raised, and raise such
appetites as Nature never planted. You never heard the most delicious
music, which is the praise of one's-self; nor saw the most beautiful
object, which is the work of one's own hands. Your votaries pass away
their youth in a dream of mistaken pleasures, while they are hoarding up
anguish, torment, and remorse for old age. As for me, I am the friend of
gods and of good men; an agreeable companion to the artizan; an
household guardian to the fathers of families; a patron and protector of
servants; an associate in all true and generous friendships. The
banquets of my votaries are never costly, but always delicious; for none
eat or drink of them who are not invited by hunger or thirst. Their
slumbers are sound, and their wakings cheerful. My young men have the
pleasure of hearing themselves praised by those who are in years; and
those who are in years, of being honoured by those who are young. In a
word, my followers are favoured by the gods, beloved by their
acquaintance, esteemed by their country, and after the close of their
labours honoured by posterity."
We know, by the life of this memorable hero, to which of these two
ladies he gave up his heart; and I believe every one who reads this will
do him the justice to approve his choice.
_Tatler_.
* * * * *
STRATA FLORIDA ABBEY.
[Illustration]
The remains of Strata Florida Abbey, in South Wales, are most
interesting in many points of view, more especially as the relics of a
stately seminary for learning, founded as early as the year 1164. The
community of the Abbey were Cistercian monks, who soon attained great
celebrity, and acquired extensive possessions. A large library was
founded by them, which included the national records from the earliest
periods, the works of the bards and the genealogies of the Princes and
great families in Wales. The monks also compiled a valuable history of
the Principality, down to the death of Llewellyn the Great. When Edward
I. invaded Wales, he burned the Abbey, but it was rebuilt A.D. 1294.
Extensive woods once flourished in the vicinity of Strata Florida, and
its burial-place covered no less than 120 acres. A long list of eminent
persons from all parts of Wales were here buried, and amongst them David
ap Gwillim, the famous bard. The churchyard is now reduced to small
dimensions; but leaden coffins, doubtless belonging to once celebrated
personages, are still found, both there and at a distance from the
cemetery. A few aged box and yew-trees now only remain to tell of the
luxuriant verdure which once grew around the Abbey; and of the venerable
pile itself little is left, except an arch, and the fragment of a fine
old wall, about forty feet high. A small church now stands within the
enclosure, more than commonly interesting from having been built with
the materials of the once celebrated Abbey of Strata Florida.
* * * * *
KAFFIR CHIEFS.
[Illustration]
In the warm summer months a thin kind of petticoat constitutes the sole
bodily attire of the Kaffir Chiefs; but in winter a cloak is used, made
of the skins of wild beasts, admirably curried. The head, even in the
hottest weather, is never protected by any covering, a fillet, into
which a feather of the ostrich is stuck, being generally worn; and they
seldom wear shoes, except on undertaking a long journey, when they
condescend to use a rude substitute for them. The bodies of both sexes
are tattooed; and the young men, like the fops of more civilized
nations, paint their skins and curl their hair. Their arms are the
javelin, a large shield of buffalo-hide, and a short club.
The women exhibit taste in the arrangement of their dress, particularly
for that of the head, which consists of a turban made of skin, and
profusely ornamented with beads, of which adornment both men and women
are very fond. A mantle of skin, variously bedecked with these and other
showy trinkets, is worn; and the only distinction between the dress of
the chieftains' wives and those of a lower rank consists in a greater
profusion of ornaments possessed by the former, but of which all are
alike vain. There is no change of dress, the whole wardrobe of the
female being that which she carries about with her and sleeps in, for
bed-clothes they have none.
The grain which they chiefly cultivate is a kind of millet: a small
quantity of Indian corn and some pumpkins are likewise grown; but a
species of sugar-cane is produced in great abundance, and of this they
are extremely fond. Their diet, however, is chiefly milk in a sour
curdled state. They dislike swine's flesh, keep no poultry, are averse
to fish, but indulge in eating the flesh of their cattle, which they do
in a very disgusting way. Although naturally brave and warlike, they
prefer an indolent pastoral life, hunting being an occasional pastime.
Much light was thrown on the condition and future prospects of this
people in 1835, by some papers relative to the Cape of Good Hope, which
were laid before the English Government. From these it appeared that a
system of oppression and unjustifiable appropriation on the part of the
whites, have from time to time roused the savage energies of the
Kaffirs, and impelled them to make severe reprisals upon their European
spoilers. The longing of the Cape colonists for the well-watered valleys
of the Kaffirs, and of the latter for the colonial cattle, which are
much superior to their own, still are, as they have always been, the
sources of irritation. Constant skirmishes took place, until, at length,
in 1834, the savages poured into the colony in vast numbers, wasted the
farms, drove off the cattle, and murdered not a few of the inhabitants.
An army of 4000 men was marched against the invaders, who were driven
far beyond the boundary-line which formerly separated Kaffirland from
Cape Colony, and not only forced to confine themselves within the new
limits prescribed, but to pay a heavy fine. Treaties have been entered
into, and tracts of country assigned to the Kaffir chiefs of several
families, who acknowledge themselves to be subjects of Great Britain,
and who are to pay a fat ox annually as a quit-rent for the lands which
they occupy.