twenty) were built of brick, and were from about 35 feet to 40 feet
high: the entrance to them was by a low door-way, about seven feet and a
half from the ground; and admission was gained by means of a ladder,
which was afterwards withdrawn into the interior. A high step of two
feet led to the first floor of the tower, a room of about thirteen feet
diameter, and with the walls about five feet thick. Round this room
were loopholes in the walls, at such an elevation, that the men would be
obliged to stand on benches in the event of their being required to
oppose an attack of musketry. Those benches were also used as the
sleeping-places of the garrison. On this floor there was a fire-place,
and from the centre was a trap-door leading downwards to the ammunition
and provision rooms. The second floor was ascended by similar means.
[Illustration: MARTELLO TOWER ON THE KENTISH COAST.]
* * * * *
TURKISH CUSTOMS.
[Illustration: Letter C.]
Characteristically indolent, the fondness for a sedentary life is
stronger, perhaps, with the Turks, than with any other people of whom we
read. It is difficult to describe the gravity and apathy which
constitute the distinguishing features of their character: everything in
their manners tends to foster in them, especially in the higher classes,
an almost invincible love of ease and luxurious leisure. The general
rule which they seem to lay down for their guidance, is that taking the
trouble to do anything themselves which they can possibly get others to
do for them; and the precision with which they observe it in some of the
minutest trifles of domestic life is almost amusing. A Turkish
gentleman, who has once composed his body upon the corner of a sofa,
appears to attach a certain notion of grandeur to the keeping of it
there, and it is only something of the gravest importance that induces
him to disturb his position. If he wishes to procure anything that is
within a few steps of him, he summons his slaves by clapping his hands
(the Eastern mode of "ringing the bell"), and bids them bring it to him:
his feelings of dignity would be hurt by getting up to reach it himself.
Of course, this habit of inaction prevails equally with the female sex:
a Turkish lady would not think of picking up a fallen handkerchief, so
long as she had an attendant to do it for her. As may be supposed, the
number of slaves in a Turkish household of any importance is very great.
[Illustration: TURKISH FEMALE SLAVE.]
The position of women in Eastern countries is so totally unlike that
which they hold in our own happy land, that we must refer expressly to
it, in order that the picture of domestic life presented to us in the
writings of all travellers in the East may be understood. Amongst all
ranks, the wife is not the friend and companion, but the slave of her
husband; and even when treated with kindness and affection, her state is
still far below that of her sisters in Christian lands. Even in the
humblest rank of life, the meal which the wife prepares with her own
hands for her husband, she must not partake of with him. The
hard-working Eastern peasant, and the fine lady who spends most of her
time in eating sweet-meats, or in embroidery, are both alike dark and
ignorant; for it would be accounted a folly, if not a sin, to teach them
even to read.
Numerous carriers, or sellers of water, obtain their living in the East
by supplying the inhabitants with it. They are permitted to fill their
water-bags, made of goat-skins, at the public fountains. This goat-skin
of the carrier has a long brass spout, and from this the water is poured
into a brass cup, for any one who wishes to drink. Many of these are
employed by the charitable, to distribute water in the streets; and they
pray the thirsty to partake of the bounty offered to them in the name of
God, praying that Paradise and pardon may be the lot of him who affords
the refreshing gift.
[Illustrated: TURKISH WATER-CARRIER]
The Dancing Dervises are a religious order of Mohamedans, who affect a
great deal of patience, humility, and charity. Part of their religious
observance consists in dancing or whirling their bodies round with the
greatest rapidity imaginable, to the sound of a flute; and long practice
has enabled them to do this without suffering the least inconvenience
from the strange movement.
In Eastern countries, the bread is generally made in the form of a large
thin cake, which is torn and folded up, almost like a sheet of paper;
it can then be used (as knives and forks are not employed by the
Orientals) for the purpose of rolling together a mouthful of meat, or
supping up gravy and vegetables, at the meals.
[Illustration: DANCING DERVISE.]
* * * * *
ON STUDY.
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. The chief use
for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in
discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of
business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars
one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots, and marshalling of
affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time
in studies, is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation;
to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humour of a scholar. They
perfect nature, and are perfected by experience; for natural abilities
are like natural plants, that need pruning by duty; and studies
themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be
bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire
them, and wise men use them: for they teach not their own use, but that
is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not
to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted; not to
find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be
tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested:
that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but
not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and
attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of
them by others; but that should be only in the less important arguments,
and the meaner sorts of books; else distilled books are like common
distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a
ready man; and writing an exact man. And, therefore, if a man write
little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had
need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much
cunning, to seem to know that he doth not.
BACON.
* * * * *
THE SHORES OF GREECE.
He who hath bent him o'er the dead
Ere the first day of death is fled;
The first dark day of nothingness.
The last of danger and distress:
Before Decay's effacing fingers,
Have swept the lines where beauty lingers,
And mark'd the mild, angelic air,
The rapture of repose that's there;
The fix'd, yet tender traits that streak
The languor of the placid cheek.
And, but for that sad shrouded eye,
That fires not--wins not--weeps not--now;
And, but for that chill, changeless brow,
Whose touch thrills with mortality,
And curdles to the gazer's heart,
As if to him it could impart
The doom he dreads, yet dwells upon:
Yes, but for these, and these alone
Some moments--ay, one treacherous hour--
He still might doubt the tyrant's power;
So fair, so calm, so softly seal'd,
The first, last look by death reveal'd.
Such is the aspect of this shore;
'Tis Greece, but living Greece no more!
So coldly sweet--so deadly fair--
We start, for soul is wanting there:
Hers is the loveliness in death
That parts not quite with parting breath;
But beauty, with that fearful bloom,
That hue which haunts it to the tomb:
Expression's last receding ray,
A gilded halo hovering round decay,
The farewell beam of feeling past away!
Spark of that flame--perchance of Heavenly birth,
Which gleams, but warms no more its cherish'd earth!
BYRON.
[Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN CHAPEL, GREECE.]
* * * * *
THE FORT OF ATTOCK.
[Illustration: Letter A.]
Attock is a fort and small town in the Punjaub, on the left or east bank
of the Indus, 942 miles from the sea, and close below the place where it
receives the water of the Khabool river, and first becomes navigable.
The name, signifying _obstacle_, is supposed to have been given to it
under the presumption that no scrupulous Hindoo would proceed westward
of it; but this strict principle, like many others of similar nature, is
little acted on. Some state that the name was given by the Emperor
Akbar, because he here found much difficulty in crossing the river. The
river itself is at this place frequently by the natives called Attock.
Here is a bridge, formed usually of from twenty to thirty boats, across
the stream, at a spot where it is 537 feet wide. In summer, when the
melting of the snows in the lofty mountains to the north raises the
stream so that the bridge becomes endangered, it is withdrawn, and the
communication is then effected by means of a ferry.
The banks of the river are very high, so that the enormous accession
which the volume of water receives during inundation scarcely affects
the breadth, but merely increases the depth. The rock forming the banks
is of a dark-coloured slate, polished by the force of the stream, so as
to shine like black marble. Between these, "one clear blue stream shot
past." The depth of the Indus here is thirty feet in the lowest state,
and between sixty and seventy in the highest, and runs at the rate of
six miles an hour. There is a ford at some distance above the confluence
of the river of Khabool; but the extreme coldness and rapidity of the
water render it at all times very dangerous, and on the slightest
inundation quite impracticable. The bridge is supported by an
association of boatmen, who receive the revenue of a village allotted
for this purpose by the Emperor Akbar, and a small daily pay as long as
the bridge stands, and also levy a toll on all passengers.
On the right bank, opposite Attock, is Khyrabad--a fort built, according
to some, by the Emperor Akbar, according to others by Nadir Shah. This
locality is, in a military and commercial point of view, of much
importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the great route which,
proceeding from Khabool eastward through the Khyber Pass into the
Punjaub, forms the main line of communication between Affghanistan and
Northern India. The river was here repeatedly crossed by the British
armies, during the late military operations in Affghanistan; and here,
according to the general opinion, Alexander, subsequently Timur, the
Tartar conqueror, and, still later, Nadir Shah, crossed; but there is
much uncertainty on these points.
[Illustration: THE FORT OF ATTOCK.]
The fortress was erected by the Emperor Akbar, in 1581 to command the
passage; but, though strongly built of stone on the high and steep bank
of the river, it could offer no effectual resistance to a regular
attack, being commanded by the neighbouring heights. Its form is that of
a parallelogram: it is 800 yards long and 400 wide. The population of
the town, which is inclosed within the walls of the fort, is estimated
at 2000.
* * * * *
THE ORDER OF NATURE.
[Illustration: Letter S.]
See through this air, this ocean, and this earth,
All matter quick, and bursting into birth.
Above, how high progressive life may go!
Around, how wide! how deep extend below!
Vast chain of Being! which from God began,
Natures ethereal, human, angel, man,
Beast, bird, fish, insect, what no eye can see
No glass can reach; from Infinity to thee
From thee to Nothing.--On superior pow'rs
Were we to press, inferior might on ours;
Or in the full creation leave a void,
Where one step broken the great scale's destroyed
From Nature's chain whatever link you strike,
Tenth or ten-thousandth, breaks the chain alike.
And, if each system in gradation roll
Alike essential to th' amazing whole,
The least confusion but in one, not all
That system only, but the whole must fall.
Let earth unbalanc'd from her orbit fly,
Planets and suns run lawless through the sky;
Let ruling angels from their spheres be hurl'd,
Being on being wreck'd, and world on world,
Heav'n's whole foundations to the centre nod,
And Nature trembles to the throne of God:
All this dread Order break--for whom? for thee?
Vile worm!--Oh, madness! pride! impiety!
What if the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread,
Or hand to toil, aspired to be the head?
What if the head, the eye, or ear, repined
To serve--mere engines to the ruling Mind?
Just as absurd for any part to claim
To be another, in this general frame:
Just as absurd to mourn the tasks or pains,
The great directing Mind of All ordains.
All are but parts of one stupendous whole
Whose body Nature is, and God the Soul:
That changed through all, and yet in all the same,
Great is in earth as in th' ethereal frame,
Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze,
Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees,
Lives through all life, extends through all extent,
Spreads undivided, operates unspent;
Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part,
As full, as perfect, in a hair as heart;
As full, as perfect, in vile man that mourns,
As the rapt seraph that adores and burns:
To him no high, no low, no great, no small;
He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all.
Cease then, nor Order Imperfection name:
Our proper bliss depends on what we blame.
Know thy own point: This kind, this due degree
Of blindness, weakness, Heav'n bestows on thee.
Submit--in this, or any other sphere,
Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear:
Safe in the hand of one disposing Pow'r
Or in the natal, or the mortal hour.
All Nature is but Art, unknown to thee;
All Chance, Direction which thou canst not see;
All Discord, Harmony not understood;
All partial Evil, universal Good:
And, spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite,
One truth is clear, WHATEVER is, is RIGHT.
POPE.
* * * * *
LORD CLARENDON.
[Illustration: Letter T.]
This celebrated statesman, who flourished in the reigns of Charles I.
and II., took a prominent part in the eventful times in which he lived.
He was not of noble birth, but the descendant of a family called Hyde,
which resided from a remote period at Norbury, in Cheshire. He was
originally intended for the church, but eventually became a lawyer,
applying himself to the study of his profession with a diligence far
surpassing that of the associates with whom he lived. In 1635, he
attracted the notice of Archbishop Laud, which may be regarded as the
most fortunate circumstance of his life, as it led to his introduction
to Charles I. In consequence of the ability displayed by him in the
responsible duties he was called to perform, that Monarch offered him
the office of Solicitor-General. But this Hyde declined, preferring, as
he said, to serve the King in an unofficial capacity. After the battle
of Naseby, Hyde was appointed one of the council formed to attend, watch
over, and direct the Prince of Wales. After hopelessly witnessing for
many months a course of disastrous and ill-conducted warfare in the
West, the council fled with the Prince, first to the Scilly Islands,
near Cornwall, and thence to Jersey. From this place, against the wishes
of Hyde, the Prince, in 1640, repaired to his mother, Henrietta, at
Paris, leaving Hyde at Jersey, where he remained for two years, engaged
in the composition of his celebrated "History of the Rebellion." In May,
1648, Hyde was summoned to attend the Prince at the Hague; and here they
received the news of the death of Charles I., which is said to have
greatly appalled them. After faithfully following the new King in all
his vicissitudes of fortune, suffering at times extreme poverty, he
attained at the Restoration the period of his greatest power. In 1660,
his daughter Anne was secretly married to the Duke of York; but when,
after a year, it was openly acknowledged, the new Lord Chancellor
received the news with violent demonstrations of indignation and grief.
Hyde, in fact, never showed any avidity for emoluments or distinction;
but when this marriage was declared, it became desirable that some mark
of the King's favour should be shown, and he was created Earl of
Clarendon. He subsequently, from political broils, was compelled to
exile himself from the Court, and took up his residence at Montpellier,
where, resuming his literary labours, he completed his celebrated
History, and the memoir of his life. After fruitlessly petitioning King
Charles II. for permission to end his days in England, the illustrious
exile died at Rouen, in 1674, in the sixty-fifth year of his age.
[Illustration: STATUE OF LORD CLARENDON.]
* * * * *
OWLS.
[Illustration: Letter I.]
It is now generally known that the Owl renders the farmer important
service, by ridding him of vermin, which might otherwise consume the
produce of his field; but in almost every age and country it has been
regarded as a bird of ill omen, and sometimes even as the herald of
death. In France, the cry or hoot is considered as a certain forerunner
of misfortune to the hearer. In Tartary, the owl is looked upon in
another light, though not valued as it ought to be for its useful
destruction of moles, rats, and mice. The natives pay it great respect,
because they attribute to this bird the preservation of the founder of
their empire, Genghis Khan. That Prince, with his army, happened to be
surprised and put to flight by his enemies, and was forced to conceal
himself in a little coppice. An owl settled on the bush under which he
was hid, and his pursuers did not search there, as they thought it
impossible the bird would perch on a place where any man was concealed.
Thenceforth his countrymen held the owl to be a sacred bird, and every
one wore a plume of its feathers on his head.
One of the smallest of the owl tribe utters but one melancholy note now
and then. The Indians in North America whistle whenever they chance to
hear the solitary note; and if the bird does not very soon repeat his
harmless cry, the speedy death of the superstitious hearer is foreboded.
It is hence called the death bird. The voices of all carnivorous birds
and beasts are harsh, and at times hideous; and probably, like that of
the owl, which, from the width and capacity of its throat, is in some
varieties very powerful, may be intended as an alarm and warning to the
birds and animals on which they prey, to secure themselves from the
approach of their stealthy foe.
Owls are divided into two groups or families--one having two tufts of
feathers on the head, which have been called ears or horns, and are
moveable at pleasure, the others having smooth round heads without
tufts. The bills are hooked in both. There are upwards of sixty species
of owls widely spread over almost every part of the known world; of
these we may count not fewer than eight as more or less frequenting this
country. One of the largest of the tribe is the eagle hawk, or great
horned owl, the great thickness of whose plumage makes it appear nearly
as large as the eagle. Some fine preserved specimens of this
noble-looking bird may be seen in the British Museum. It is a most
powerful bird; and a specimen was captured, with great difficulty, in
1837, when it alighted upon the mast-head of a vessel off
Flamborough-head.
The amiable naturalist, Mr. Waterton, who took especial interest in the
habits of the owl, writes thus on the barn owl:--"This pretty aerial
wanderer of the night often comes into my room, and, after flitting to
and fro, on wing so soft and silent that he is scarcely heard, takes his
departure from the same window at which he had entered. I own I have a
great liking for the bird; and I have offered it hospitality and
protection on account of its persecutions, and for its many services to
me; I wish that any little thing I could write or say might cause it to
stand better with the world than it has hitherto done."
[Illustration: OWLS IN A CASTLE KEEP.]
* * * * *
CHATTERTON.
[Illustration]
This gifted young poet was the son of a schoolmaster at Bristol, where
he was born, in 1752. On the 24th of August, 1770, he was found dead,
near a table covered with the scraps of writings he had destroyed, in a
miserable room in Brook-street, Holborn. In Redcliffe churchyard,
Bristol, a beautiful monument has been erected to the memory of the
unfortunate poet.
O God! whose thunders shake the sky,
Whose eye this atom globe surveys,
To Thee, my only rock, I fly--
Thy mercy in thy justice praise.
Oh, teach me in the trying hour,
When anguish swells the dewy tear,
To still my sorrows, own Thy power,
Thy goodness love, Thy justice fear.
Ah! why, my soul, dost thou complain,
Why, drooping, seek the dark recess?
Shake off the melancholy chain,
For God created all to bless.
But, ah! my breast is human still:
The rising sigh, the falling tear,
My languid vitals' feeble rill,
The sickness of my soul declare.
CHATTERTON.
* * * * *
SMYRNA.
[Illustration: Letter T.]
This city and sea-port of Natolia, in Asia, is situate towards the
northern part of a peninsula, upon a long and winding gulf of the same
name, which is capable of containing the largest navy in the world. The
city is about four miles round, presenting a front of a mile long to the
water; and when approached by sea, it resembles a capacious amphitheatre
with the ruins of an ancient castle crowning its summit. The interior of
the city, however, disappoints the expectations thus raised, for the
streets are narrow, dirty, and ill-paved, and there is now scarcely a
trace of those once splendid edifices which rendered Smyrna one of the
finest cities in Asia Minor. The shops are arched over, and have a
handsome appearance: in spite of the gloom which the houses wear, those
along the shore have beautiful gardens attached to them, at the foot of
which are summer-houses overhanging the sea. The city is subject to
earthquakes and the plague, which latter, in 1814, carried off above
50,000 of the inhabitants.
About midnight, in July, 1841, a fire broke out at Smyrna, which, from
the crowded state of the wooden houses, the want of water, and the
violence of the wind, was terribly destructive. About 12,000 houses were
destroyed, including two-thirds of the Turkish quarter, most of the
French and the whole of the Jewish quarters, with many bazaars and
several mosques, synagogues, and other public buildings. It was
calculated that 20,000 persons were deprived of shelter and food, and
the damage was estimated at two millions sterling.
[Illustration: SMYRNA.]
The fine port of Smyrna is frequented by ships from all nations,
freighted with valuable cargoes, both outward and inward. The greater
part of the trading transactions is managed by Jews, who act as brokers,
the principals meeting afterwards to conclude the bargains.
In 1402 Smyrna was taken by Tamerlane, and suffered very severely. The
conqueror erected within its walls a tower constructed of stones and the
heads of his enemies. Soon after, it came under the dominion of the
Turks, and has been subsequently the most flourishing city in the
Levant, exporting and importing valuable commodities to and from all
parts of the world.
* * * * *
GENTLENESS.
[Illustration: Letter I.]