horses and the armour of men. They were sometimes hung as pendants to
the horse's saddle, and jangled loudly as it charged forward against the
enemy. For these military ornaments cf. the well-known passage in
Verg.,_ Aen._ vii. 276--
_Omnibus extemplo Teucris jubet ordine duci_
_Instratos ostro alipedes pictisque tapetis;_
_Aurea pectoribus demissa monilia pendent;_
_Tecti auro, fulvum mandunt sub dentibus aurum._
7. +putasne+. Cf. ii. 5. note.
8. +Poenus+ (_Poen[)i]cus_ or _P[-u]n[)i]cus_), properly Phoenician, but
applied by Roman writers especially to the inhabitants of Carthage,
which was founded about 850 B.C. by Phoenician colonists, who came
probably from Tyre.
X.
1. +Milo+ was the most famous wrestler in Greece; he was six times
victor in wrestling at the Olympic games and seven times at the Pythian
games. Many stories are told about his great strength: he is said to
have carried a heifer four years old on his shoulders through the
stadium (or race course, a distance of about 40 yards), to have then
killed it with a blow of his fist, and eaten the whole of it the same
day. He was a pupil of the great philosopher Pythagoras, at Crotona. One
day the pillar on which the roof of the school rested suddenly gave way,
but Milo supported the whole weight of the building, and gave the
philosopher and his disciples time to escape.
+Crotona+ was a Greek city on the S.E. coast of Italy, founded 740 B.C.
by the Achaeans. It became the most important city in S. Italy, owing to
its trade with the E. Mediterranean. It attained its greatest power in
510 by the defeat of its neighbour and rival Sybaris: on this occasion
Milo commanded the army of Crotona.
+Crotoniensis+. Note the use of the adj. where we employ a subst. and
prep., 'Milo of Crotona'; so _pugna Cannensis_ (xl. 1.), 'the Battle of
Cannae,' etc.
3. +artem athleticam desisset+, 'had given up athletics.' The acc. after
_desino_ is rare, and chiefly poetical; but Cicero (_Fam._ vii. 1. 4)
uses _artem desinere_.
5. +rimis in parte mediâ hiantem+, lit. 'gaping open with cracks in the
middle.'
6. +an ullae ... adessent+. _Adessent_ is the subj. after the dependent
interrogative word _an_; the construction is called the Indirect or
Dependent Question, _Interrogatio Obliqua_. Thus 'who are you?' is
'_quis es?_' but 'I ask you who you are' is '_interrogo quis sis_.'
+ullae+. _Quisquam_ (pronoun) and _ullus_ (adjective) are used for 'any'
in comparative and negative sentences, in questions expecting the answer
No, and in hypothetical sentences.
11. +rediit in naturam+, 'returned to its natural (_i.e._ former)
position.'
12. +feris+, dat. after _praebuit_, 'gave the man to the beasts to tear
to pieces.' For this use of the gerundive cf. xiii. 1. note.
XI.
1. +Romae+, 'at Rome,' the locative case. This case, which had almost
died out in classical Latin, originally ended in _-i_ for the singular
and _-s_ for the plural. In some forms it still survived, viz., (1) in
such words as _militiae_ (earlier _militiai_), _belli_, 'in the field,'
'at the war'; _domi_, at home; _humi_, 'on the ground'; _vesperi_ (or
_-e_), 'in the evening'; _ruri_, 'in the country'; _luci_, 'in the
light'; and the adverbs _ubi_, 'in which place'; _ibi_, 'in that place,'
etc.; (2) in the names of towns--_Romae_ (earlier _Romai_), 'at Rome';
_Tarenti_, 'at Tarentum'; _Carthagini_ (or _Carthagine_), 'at Carthage,'
etc.; (3) in such phrases as _animi angor_, 'I am vexed in mind';
_maturus aevi_, 'advanced in age,' etc.
+Curiam+. The word Curia is connected with C[)u]res, the chief town of
the Sabines, and Qu[)i]r[-i]tes (or C[)u]r[-i]tes), the inhabitants of
C[)u]res. It originally denoted one of the 30 divisions into which the
Romans and Sabines were divided when they united in one community. The
word was then applied to the building used for the religious service of
a Curia, and afterwards especially to the building in which the Senate
met.
2. +praetextatis+, _i.e._ wearing the _toga praetexta_, a white toga
with a broad purple border, worn under the Republic by the higher
magistrates, by persons engaged in paying vows, and by free-born
children. It is said to have been adopted from the Etruscans, and made
the royal robe by Tullus Hostilius; and to have been worn with the
_bulla_ by boys after the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, whose son at the
age of fourteen slew an enemy with his own hand in the Sabine war, and
was allowed as a reward to wear the royal robe.
+maior+, more important than usual.
4. +placuitque ut eam rem ne quis...+. 'It was resolved that no one
should mention the matter until a decision had been arrived at' (lit.
until it had been decreed).
+ut ... ne quis+, or _ne quis_, 'that no one,' is always used in a final
sentence instead of _ut nemo_; so _ne quid_, _ne ullus_, and _ne
unquam_, instead of _ut nihil_, _ut nullus_, _ut nunquam_. The
indefinite pronoun _quis_ is, as a rule, used for 'any' or 'some' in
relative sentences, and after _si_, _nisi_, _num_, _ne_, and _cum_; but
_aliquis_ is sometimes found after _si_, more rarely after _ne_.
5. +decreta esset+. The subj. is required, because this is a dependent
sentence forming part of the _Oratio Obliqua_ after _placuit_.
7. +egissent+, subj. after the dependent interrogative _quidnam_. Cf.
x. 6. note. For the same reason _videretur_, line 11, is in subj.
9. +lepidi mendacii consilium capit+, 'bethought himself of an amusing
falsehood.'
10. +utrum ... unusne ... an...+. The _-ne_ is 'pleonastic,' _i.e._ more
than is required, for the sentence would be complete without it--_utrum
videretur utilius ut unus ... an (videretur utilius) ut una...._ This
idiom is chiefly ante-classical (found often in Plautus), but Cicero
uses it, '_est etiam illa distinctio, utrum illudne non videatur aegre
ferendum ... an ..._' (Cic. _Tusc._ iv. 27, 59). Translate 'He said the
Senate had discussed whether it seemed more useful and advantageous to
the State that one man should have two wives, or that one woman should
be married to two men.'
XII.
3. +matrum familias+, gen. plur. of _mater familias_. When _familia_ is
compounded with _pater_, _mater_, _filius_, and _filia_, the old gen.
sing. _famili_+as+ is usually found, but _familiae_ also is frequently
used by Cicero and other writers, by Livy always. In Sallust and later
writers even _patres familiarum_ is found.
4. +una potius ... duae+. The order is _ut una (uxor) nupta fieret
duobus viris potius quam ut duae (uxores nuptae fierent) uni (viro)_.
6. +esset, vellet+, subj. after the dept. interrogatives _quae_ and
_quid_; so +institisset+ and +dixisset+. Cf. x. 6. note.
+quid sibi postulatio istaec vellet+, 'what that demand of theirs
meant.' _Quid sibi res vult_, 'what does the thing mean?' lit. 'what
does it wish for itself?' 'what is its object or drift?' so _quid tibi
vis_, 'what do you mean, or want?' and, more rarely, _quid mihi volo_,
'what do I mean, or want?'
XIII.
1. +Sertorius+ was a Roman general, who first distinguished himself in
Gaul. On the outbreak of civil war in 88 B.C. between Marius and Sulla
he joined the former. At first the Sullan party were victorious, but
when their leader went to the East to fight against Mitridates they were
defeated, and from 87-82 the Marian party were supreme. In 83 (or,
according to another writer, 82) Sertorius was sent to Spain as governor
in the Marian interest. Finding himself unable to hold his ground
against the Sullan generals, he crossed to Africa, and gained various
successes there. The Lusitani, who inhabited the western part of the
Spanish peninsula, then invited him to become their leader against the
Romans. He returned with a small force of 2,600 men, one third of whom
were Libyans, and then by his extraordinary influence over the natives,
and his great powers of organisation, succeeded in forming an army which
for years set at defiance every effort made by the generals of the
Sullan party, which was now in the ascendant. In 76 Pompeius was sent to
Spain with a large army to reinforce the Sullan generals, but for five
years more Sertorius held his ground. At last, in 72 B.C., he was
assassinated by Perperna and other of his own Roman officers, who were
jealous of his power.
+et utendi et regendi exercitus+, the gerundial attraction. When an
object is expressed after a gerund, the construction called the
gerundial, or +gerundival attraction+ is preferred. In this construction
the object is attracted (if it differs) into the case of the gerund, and
the gerund, taking adjectival inflections (and then called the
gerundive), is made to agree adjectivally with the object in number and
gender.
Examples:--
_a._ The Acc., _praemisit milites ad Gallos insequendos_, 'he sent
the soldiers forward to pursue the Gauls.'
_b._ The Gen., _causâ urbis delendae_, 'for the sake of destroying
the city.'
_c._ The Dat., _bello gerendo me praefecistis_, 'you placed me in
command of the management of the war.'
_d._ The Abl., _in vestigiis persequendis operam consumpsi_,
'I spent labour in following their tracks.'
The Gerundival Attraction is of course only used with transitive verbs
which govern a direct object in the acc. case. The words _fungor_,
_fruor_, _utor_, _vescor_, _potior_ are exceptions; they are used both
in this construction and in the constructions explained in ii. and iii.
below, because they were originally transitive, and governed an acc.
The +gerunds+ and +gerundives+ are the substantival and adjectival forms
respectively of a participle in _-ndus_. Under the gerund are included
the substantival forms in _-ndum, -ndi, -ndo_; under the gerundive the
full adjectival declension in _-ndus, a, um_, etc.
+The uses of the gerund and gerundive+ may be divided under four
headings.
i. By its oblique cases the gerund (and the gerundive in the
construction mentioned above--the 'gerundival attraction') completes the
active infinite verb noun, which is only used in the nom. and acc., e.g.
_haec ad iudicandum sunt facillima_, 'these matters are very easy to
decide'; _amor agendi, canendi_, etc., 'love of acting, singing,' etc.;
_causâ agendi_, 'for the sake of acting'; _aqua utilis bibendo_, 'water
useful for drinking'; _mens alitur discendo_, 'the mind is nourished by
learning.'
ii. The nom. (and in _oratio obliqua_ the acc.) of the gerund is used
intransitively with parts of the verb _sum_ (_est_, _erat_, _fuit_,
_esse_, etc.), as an impersonal verb to denote necessity, duty, or
suitability, e.g. _nunc est bibendum_, 'now it is right to drink',
_eundum est_, 'there is a necessity to go'; _parendum est legibus_, 'it
is necessary to be obedient to the laws.' The person on whom the duty
falls is expressed by the dat. case, the 'Dative of the Agent,' except
after verbs which govern a dative; after these, to avoid ambiguity, the
agent is expressed by _a_ or _ab_ with the abl., e.g. _eundum est mihi_,
'I must go,' but _parendum est ei a te_, 'you must obey him'.
iii. The gerundive is used (1) personally as a verb, usually with a
passive signification, e.g. _aqua bibenda est_, 'water ought to be
drunk'; (2) as a mere epithet, e.g. _ridenda poemata_, 'poems to be
laughed at.'
iv. The acc. of the gerundive is used in a final sense as an oblique
predicate, or complement, agreeing with the direct object of certain
transitive verbs--_curo_, _do_, _suscipio_, _habeo_, etc., e.g. _Caesar
pontem faciendum curavit_, 'Caesar had a bridge made'; _agros eis
habitandos dedit_, 'he gave them the lands to dwell in.' Cf. vii. 3.
note.
8. +usui+, predicative dative or dat. of purpose. Cf. _dono_, viii. 4.
note.
+memoria+, etc. The order is _memoria prodita est neminem ex his
nationibus, quae cum S. faciebant_ ('who served with Sertorius'), _cum
multis proeliis superatus esset_ ('although he had been defeated in many
battles'), _unquam ab eo descivisse_.
9. _neminem._ The gen. of this word, _neminis_, is only found in writers
before Cicero, the abl. _nemine_ in late writers (_e.g._ Tacitus and
Suetonius), and once in Plautus; the plural is not used. Hence we have
Nom., _nemo_, _nulli_, etc.
Acc., _neminem_, _nullos_, etc.
Gen., _nullius_, _nullorum_, etc.
Dat., _nemini_, _nullis_.
Abl., _nullo_ or _nullâ_, _nullis_.
XIV.
1. +alba+. _Albus_ is a dull white as opposed to _ater_, dull black;
_candidus_, shining white, opposed to _niger_, shining black.
+eximiae pulchritudinis et celeritatis+, genitives of quality.
2. +dono+, predicative dat., or dat. of purpose. Cf. _dono_, viii. 4.
note.
5. +factu+, the supine in _-u_, used as an abl. of respect. Cf. _foedum
dictu est_, 'it is horrible to state' (lit. 'in the saying'), and
xxiv. 2, _utilia monitu suasuque_.
+quid+, the indef. pron.; so _cui_, line 13. For its use after _si_ cf.
xi. 4. note.
7. +dixerat+, indic. after _cum_ in a frequentative sense, 'whenever he
had said that.' Cf. vi. 8. note.
10. +in fugam se proripuit+, 'took to hasty flight.'
18. +consuerat+, indic., because it is not part of what Sertorius said,
but a statement made by the author.
+quod opus esset facto+, 'what had to be done.' _Facto_ is the abl. of
the perf. part. pass.; for this use cf. _maturato, properato opus est_,
'there is need of haste'; and the similar construction with the abl. of
the supine, _dictu opus est_ (Terence), 'it is necessary to speak';
_quod scitu opus est_ (Cicero), 'what has to be known.'
XV.
+Tarquinius Superbus+, according to tradition, was the seventh and last
of the Roman kings (535-510 B.C.), the others being Romulus, Numa
Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius
Tullius.
1. +Libris Sibyllinis+. Little is known about the famous Sibylline
books. They were probably derived from Cumae in Campania, the seat of a
celebrated oracle. At Rome they were kept in a stone chest (_sacrarium_)
beneath the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, under the charge of certain
officers (_quindecimviri_), and consulted only by the special command of
the Senate. In 82 B.C. this temple was burnt and the books destroyed.
A fresh collection of oracles was made by ambassadors sent to the chief
cities of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. When the temple was rebuilt
these were deposited in the same place, but many spurious prophetic
books, purporting to be Sibylline oracles, seem to have got into
circulation at Rome, and several revisions of the books were ordered
from time to time. Christian writers frequently appeal to the Sibylline
oracles as containing prophecies of the Messiah.
2. +hospita+, feminine form of _hospes_. Cf. _antistes_ and _sacerdos_,
priest, _antistita_ and _sacerdota_ (in inscriptions), priestess,
_sospes_ and _sospita_, saviour, etc.
4. +eos velle vendere+, '(she said) that she wished to sell them.'
6. +nimium atque inmensum+, 300 pieces of gold, according to one form of
the legend.
+quasi ... desiperet+. _Quasi_, 'as if,' introducing a statement which
is not a fact, naturally governs the subj., 'as if she were mad' (but
she was not). In sentences of comparison introduced by such conjunctions
as _tanquam_, _ceu_, _quasi_, _velut_, etc., the subj. is usually found,
because the statement is usually not true; but when the statement is a
fact the indic. is employed, e.g. _Fuit olim, quasi nunc ego sum, senex_
(Plautus). Frequently _quasi_, etc., are used, not as conjunctions
introducing the sentence, but adverbially with a single word; in such
cases they do not affect the mood, e.g. _servis respublica et quasi
civitas domus est_ (_Pl. Ep._ viii. 16), 'to slaves their home is a
state, and, as it were, a city.' Cf. xviii. 5, _quasi consultans cum
Jove_.
7. +foculum+. _F[)o]c[)u]lus_, deminutiveof _f[)o]cus_ (a hearth). Cf.
_r[)i]v[)u]lus_, a rivulet, and _rivus_, a river.
9. +vellet+, subj. after the dependent interrogative _ecquid_. Cf. x. 6.
note.
10. +sed enim+, 'but indeed.' Cf. the use of #allà gàr# in Greek.
14. +ore ... fit+, 'now becomes serious and more attentive' (lit. 'of a
serious countenance and more attentive mind'). _Ore_ and _animo_ are
ablatives of quality.
19. +nusquam loci+, 'nowhere in the world.' The genitives _loci_,
_locorum_, _gentium_ and _terrarum_ are frequently used with adverbs of
place--_ubi_, _quo_, _unde_, _usquam_, _nusquam_, etc., e.g. _ubi
terrarum sumus_ (Cic.), 'where on earth are we?'
XVI.
1. +Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior+ was born in 234 B.C. He is
first mentioned in 218 B.C. at the battle of the Ticinus (cf. ix. 1.
note), in which he is said to have saved the life of his father P.
Scipio. He fought at Cannae, 216, and was chosen with App. Claudius to
command the remains of the Roman army after that great disaster. In 212
he was unanimously elected aedile. When the tribunes objected to the
election, because he was under the legal age, he replied, 'If all the
Quirites wish to make me aedile, I am old enough.' In 210, at the age of
twenty-four, he was appointed to command the army in Spain, having come
forward as a candidate for the post which all the old generals feared to
accept. By 207 he had conquered almost the whole of that country from
the Carthaginians. In 205 he was elected consul. He was anxious to cross
over to Africa and end the war by a blow at Carthage itself, but the
Senate, partly from jealousy, partly from timidity, opposed his plans
and would only grant him the province of Sicily, with power to cross
over to Africa if he thought it in the interests of the State; but this
permission they endeavoured to render useless by refusing him an army.
Volunteers however flocked from every part of Italy to his standard, and
in 204 he was able to land in Africa with a large force. In 203 he
defeated Hasdrubal and his ally Syphax, and in 202 brought the second
Punic war to an end by a great victory at Zama over Hannibal, who had
been recalled from Italy. In 201 peace was made, and Scipio, returning
to Rome, received the agnomen Africanus, and was overwhelmed with every
mark of honour. In 190 he served as legate under his brother, +Lucius
Scipio Asiaticus+, in the war against Antiochus (cf. ix. and xvii.) On
their return the accusations mentioned in xvi. and xvii. were made
against the brothers. In 185 Scipio retired into private life, and died
soon afterwards, probably in 183.
1. +tribunus plebis+. The tribuni plebis were appointed in 494, after
the secession to Mons Sacer, to protect the plebeians against the
patrician magistrates. At first they were two in number, afterwards they
were increased to ten.
3. +ut condicionibus+, etc., 'that peace might be made with him (_i.e._
Antiochus) on favourable conditions in the name of the Roman people.'
7. +diem esse hodiernum+, 'that this is the day on which ...' (lit.
'that it is to-day on which ...').
9. +proelio+. The battle of Zama, Oct. 19th, 202 B.C.
11. +simus+, 'let us not be ungrateful therefore to the gods....'
12. +censeo+, used parenthetically, 'I propose.' Cf. _quaeso_, ii. 4.
13. +gratulatum+, the supine in _-um_, used to express purpose after the
verb of motion, _eamus_.
17. +aedes+, in sing., a 'temple' (a single room), in the plur., a
'house' (a collection of rooms). As distinguished from _templum_,
_aedes_ is a simple building without division into rooms; _templum_ is a
large edifice consisting of many rooms, consecrated by the augurs, and
belonging often to several deities.
18. +sollemni+. _Sollemnis_, from _sollus_ (cf. #holos#, _salvus_),
whole; prop. taking place every year, 'established,' especially of
festivals; then, with the religious force predominating, 'religious,'
'festive,' 'solemn.'
XVII.
2. +M. Porcius Cato+, known as the Censor (234-149), first distinguished
himself in the second Punic war; in 204-3 he served as Quaestor to
Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa. From this time forward he became
the declared enemy of the Scipios and their friends, who were
introducing, he said, into Rome the luxury and refinement of degenerate
Greece and ruining the simple and honest Roman character. He served with
distinction in Spain, 195-4, and against Antiochus, 191. In 184 he was
censor, and applied himself strenuously, but in vain, to stem the tide
of Greek luxury. He was one of the ambassadors sent to Africa to
arbitrate between Masinissa and the Carthaginians, and was so struck by
the flourishing condition of Carthage, that on his return he insisted
that, whilst that city existed, Rome would never be safe. Whenever he
was called upon for his vote in the Senate, whatever the subject before
the house was, he always concluded his remarks by 'And I further am of
opinion that Carthage must be destroyed (_delendam esse Carthaginem_).'
The third Punic war, which broke out soon after his death, was largely
due to his influence.
5. +L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus+ served under his brother Africanus in
Spain, and in 190 defeated Antiochus at Mount Sipylus. Cf. xvi. 1.
3. +comparati in eum+. _Comparare hominem in aliquem_ is the regular
phrase for procuring a man to attack another. 'Having been set upon
him....'
4. +pecuniae ... rationem redderet+, 'to give an account of the money
paid by Antiochus, and the spoil....'
9. +allatum+, i.e. _dixit librum allatum esse_, 'he said that it had
been brought.'
10. +aerarium+, the public treasury at Rome, in which, besides the State
treasure, the standards of the legions and copies of all decrees of the
Senate were kept. After the expulsion of the kings the Temple of Saturn,
at the head of the Forum, was used for this purpose.
10. +sed enim+, 'but indeed.' Cf. xv. 10.
11. +nec me ipse afficiam contumeliâ+, 'nor will I insult myself with my
own lips (_ipse_).'
12. +coram+, 'before their eyes.'
13. +quod cui+. The order is _quod ab eo ratio praedae posceretur, cui
salus ... deberet_, 'indignant that an account of the booty was demanded
from a man, to whom the safety of the State and constitution ought to be
ascribed.'
_Acceptum aliquid referre alicui_, lit. 'to put down a thing as received
to a man's account,' 'to credit him with it'; a metaphor from banking.
XVIII.
2. +Scipio Africanus+ "was unquestionably one of the greatest men of
Rome, and he acquired at an early age the confidence and admiration of
his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe that he was a
special favourite of the gods; and he never engaged in any public or
private business without first going to the Capitol, where he sat some
time alone, enjoying communication from the gods. For all he proposed or
executed he alleged the divine approval; and the Roman people gave
credit to his assertions, and regarded him as a being almost superior to
the common race of men. There can be no doubt that Scipio believed
himself in the divine revelations, which he asserted to have been
vouchsafed to him, and the extraordinary success which attended all his
enterprises must have deepened this belief."--Smith's _Classical
Dictionary_.
3. +noctis extremo+, 'at the end of night.' The neuter _extremum_ is
used as a substantive, meaning 'the end.' Cf. _extremo anni_, Livy,
xxxv. 11. 1; _sub extremum noctis_, Sil. 4. 88.
4. +ventitare+. _Ventito_ is the frequentative form of _venio_.
Frequentative or iterative verbs denote repeated action: they are of the
first conjugation, and formed by adding _-to_, _-so_, _-ito_, or _-itor_
to the supine stem, or, more rarely, to the clipt stem, as _can-to_,
'I sing often'; _cur-so_, 'I run often'; _rog-ito_, 'I ask often';
_min-itor_, 'I threaten often'; _haes-ito_, 'I stick fast.' Sometimes
one frequentative verb is formed from another, as _cant-ito_ from
_canto_.
+ac iubere ... Iovis+, 'and to order the temple of Jupiter to be
opened.'
5. +quasi consultans+. Cf. xv. 6. note.