cupidus fuit. Is in disciplinam Protagorae sese dedit daturumque
promisit mercedem grandem pecuniam, quantam Protagoras petiverat,
dimidiumque eius dedit iam tunc pepigitque, ut reliquum dimidium daret,
quo primo die causam apud iudices orasset et vicisset. {7} Postea cum
diu auditor Protagorae fuisset, causas tamen non reciperet, tempusque
iam longum transcurreret et facere id videretur, ne relicum mercedis
daret, capit consilium Protagoras, ut tum existimabat, astutum: petere
institit ex pacto mercedem, litem cum Euathlo contestatur. {12}
Cum ad iudices venissent, tum Protagoras sic exorsus est: "Disce,"
inquit "stultissime adulescens, utroque id modo fore, uti reddas quod
peto, sive contra te pronuntiatum erit sive pro te. Nam, si contra te
lis data erit, merces mihi ex sententiâ debebitur, quia ego vicero; sin
vero secundum te iudicatum erit, merces mihi ex pacto debebitur, quia tu
viceris." {20}
Ad ea respondit Euathlus: "Disce igitur tu quoque, magister
sapientissime, utroque modo fore, uti non reddam quod petis, sive contra
me pronuntiatum fuerit sive pro me. Nam, si iudices pro causâ meâ
senserint, nihil tibi ex sententiâ debebitur, quia ego vicero; sin
contra me pronuntiaverint, nihil tibi ex pacto debebo, quia non vicero."
{27}
Tum iudices hoc inexplicabile esse rati, causam in diem longissimam
distulerunt. Sic ab adulescente discipulo magister doctissimus suo ipse
argumento confutatus est. {31}
XL. ROMAN RESPECT FOR AN OATH; THE STORY OF THE TEN CAPTIVES.
_Hannibal after the battle of Cannae sent ten captives to Rome to
propose an exchange of prisoners, but bound the ten by an oath to
return, if the Senate did not accept his offer. The Senate
rejected it, and eight out of the ten returned, but two, yielding
to the entreaties of their friends, and alleging that they had by
a trick freed themselves from the obligation of the oath, remained
behind. These two were treated with such scorn that they found
life unbearable and committed suicide._
Post proelium Cannense Hannibal ex captivis nostris electos decem Romam
misit, mandavitque eis pactusque est, ut, si populo Romano videretur,
permutatio fieret captivorum et pro his, quos alteri plures acciperent,
darent argenti pondo libram et selibram. Hoc, priusquam
proficiscerentur, iusiurandum eos adegit, redituros esse in castra
Poenica, si Romani captivos non permutarent. {8}
Veniunt Romam decem captivi. Mandatum Poeni imperatoris in senatu
exponunt. Permutatio senatui non placet. Parentes, cognati adfinesque
captivorum amplexi eos postliminio in patriam redisse dicebant,
statumque eorum integrum incolumemque esse, ac, ne ad hostes redire
vellent, orabant. {14} Tum octo ex his postliminium iustum non esse sibi
responderunt, quoniam iure iurando vincti forent, statimque, uti iurati
erant, ad Hannibalem profecti sunt. {17} Duo reliqui Romae manserunt
solutosque se esse ac liberatos religione dicebant, quoniam, cum egressi
castra hostium fuissent, commenticio consilio, tamquam ob aliquam
fortuitam causam, eodem regressi sunt, atque ita rursum iniurati
abissent. {22} Haec eorum fraudulenta calliditas tam esse turpis
existimata est, ut contempti vulgo sint censoresque eos postea omnibus
ignominiae notis adfecerint. {25}
Multis autem in senatu placuit, ut datis custodibus ad Hannibalem
deducerentur, sed ea sententia numero plurium, quibus id non videretur,
superata. Usque adeo tamen invisi erant, ut taedio vitae necem sibi
conscivissent. {30}
NOTES.
I.
1. +P. Vergilius Maro+, the greatest of Roman epic poets, was born 70
B.C. near Mantua, in the N. of Italy, and died 19 B.C. at Brundusium, in
the S.E. of Italy. His chief works were the _B[-u]c[)o]l[)i]c[)a]_
(#bou-koleô#, I tend cattle), or _Ecl[)o]gae_ ('Selections,' from
#ek-legô#, I choose out), a series of short poems, chiefly pastoral; the
_G[)e]org[)i]c[)a]_ (#gê ergon#), a poetical treatise on agriculture;
and the _Aen[-e]ïs_, or story of Aen[-e]as, a poem in twelve books,
relating the adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy.
2. +se parere versus+, 'that he produced his verses like a bear,' lit.
'in a bear-like manner.'
+p[)a]r[)e]re+, from _p[)a]rio_. Distinguish three words, (1) _p[)a]ro,
-avi, -atum, -are_, 'I prepare,' (2) _p[-a]reo, -ui, -itum, -[-e]re_,
'I obey,' gov. dat. case, (3) _p[)a]rio, p[)e]p[)e]ri, partum_, or
_par[)i]tum, -[)e]re_, 'I bring forth.'
3. +lambendo+, abl. of the gerund, 'by licking it'; so +tractando
corrigendoque+, 'by polishing and correcting them.'
5. +partus+, nom. pl., best translated by the English sing., 'the
offspring of...'
6. +reddo+, compound of +re+ and +do+. _R[)e]d_ is used for _re_ in
_red[)a]mo_, _redarguo_, _reddo_, _redeo_, _redhibeo_, _redigo_,
_redimo_, _redoleo_, _redundo_. In composition the _re_ is short except
in ... +r[-e]ligio+ (often spelt _relligio_), +r[-e]liquiae+ (often
spelt _relliquiae_), and the perfects of _r[)e]pello_, _r[)e]perio_,
and _r[)e]fero_, viz., +r[-e]puli+ (or _reppuli_), +r[-e]peri+ (or
_repperi_), and +r[-e]tuli+ (or _rettuli_). +R[-e]fert+, the impersonal
verb, 'it concerns,' is a compound of _res-fert_: _r[)e]fero_, makes 3rd
sing, _r[)e]fert_. +Re+ or _red_ in composition has two principal
meanings, (1) 'back' or 'backward,' as _redeo_, 'I go back,'
(2) 'again,' as _reficio_, 'I make again, repair.' It also frequently
denotes (3) 'duty' or 'obligation,' so _reddo_ here means 'I give as is
due,' 'render.'
II.
1. +Menander+ (342-291 B.C.), an Athenian comic poet, famous as the
model of Roman dramatists, especially Terence.
+Philemon+, also an Athenian comic poet, the contemporary and rival of
Menander.
2. +in certaminibus comoediarum+. In Athens dramas were represented at
the great festivals in honour of Dionysus, at which "every citizen was
present, as a matter of course, from daybreak to sunset" (Donaldson).
Judges were appointed by lot to decide upon the merits of the rival
plays. The successful poet was crowned with ivy, and his name was
proclaimed before the audience.
+ambitus+, 'bribery,' from _ambio_; properly a 'going round' to canvass
for votes, etc., especially by bribery. _Ambitio_, from the same verb,
is used both in this sense and also as 'a desire for power,' etc., our
'ambition.'
4. +quaeso+, used parenthetically like our 'pray!'
+bonâ veniâ+, 'apologizing for the question'; lit. 'with your good
leave...' _i.e._ 'pardon me, but...'
5. +nonne+ introduces a question expecting the answer 'Yes,' e.g. _nonne
erubescis_, 'do you not blush?' +Num+ introduces a question expecting
the answer 'No,' e.g. _num erubescis_, 'you do not blush, do you?' +-ne+
is used when the answer is doubtful, e.g. _erubescisne_, 'do you blush?'
+erubesco+. The termination _-sco_ shows that the verb is inceptive or
inchoative, _i.e._ denotes the beginning (_inceptum_) of an action or
state. Such verbs are always of the 3rd conjugation, and form their
perfects and supines (if they have supines, but in most inceptives the
supine is wanting) from the simple verb or stem from which they spring,
e.g. _pallesco_ (from _palleo_), _pallui_, (no supine), _pallescere_,
I begin to grow pale; _v[)e]t[)e]rasco_ (from old form _v[)e]ter_,
classical _v[)e]tus_, _-[)e]ris_), _-ravi_, no sup., _veterasc[)e]re_,
'I grow old.'
III.
1. +Aristoteles+, the Greek philosopher, was born at Stag[-i]ra, in
Macedonia, 384 B.C. He lived for twenty years at Athens, where he was a
pupil of Plato; afterwards he returned to Macedonia, and became the
tutor of Alexander. When Alexander succeeded to the throne, Aristotle
again went to Athens and taught philosophy for 13 years in the Lyceum,
a gymnasium sacred to Apollo Lyceus. He died in 322 B.C. at Chalcis in
Euboea. Many of his writings upon logic, moral and political philosophy,
natural history, etc., have reached us.
+Plutarchus+ was born at Chaeronea in Boeotia about 50 A.D. He came to
Rome at an early age, and spent many years there and in other parts of
Italy. In his old age he returned to Chaeronea, where he died at an
unknown date. His works were written in Greek: the most famous of them
is the _Parallel Lives_ of forty-six Greeks and Romans, arranged in
pairs, a Greek and a Roman together (_e.g._ Alexander and Caesar,
Demosthenes and Cicero), the life of each pair being followed by a short
discussion of their comparative merits.
+hercle+ is a nominative form; the similar exclamations _mehercules_,
_mehercule_, _mehercle_, _hercules_, _hercule_, and _hercle_ are all
abbreviations for '_me Hercules juvet!_' 'may Hercules help me!' Cf. the
interjectional phrase, '_medius fidius_,' for '_me deus Fidius juvet_',
'so help me the God of Faith!'
2. +si super ...+, the order is '_si imponis magna pondera super lignum
palmae arboris_.'
3. +non deorsum+, the wood does not yield and bend inwards beneath the
weight, but rises up against it and bends outwards.
6. +urgentibus opprimentibusque+, dat. after cedit, 'it does not
yield to....'
IV.
1. +Socrates+ was born at Athens 469 B.C. His father was a statuary, and
in early life Socrates followed the same profession, but he soon
abandoned it and devoted himself entirely to philosophy. He did not
follow the usual custom of giving public lectures or opening a school,
but went about in the city talking to men wherever he met them, and
endeavouring to awake in them a love of true knowledge. By his attacks
upon the popular theories and his free discussion of religious questions
he roused a strong antagonism; at last he was impeached on the three
charges of corrupting the Athenian youth, despising the gods of the
State, and introducing new deities, and was executed by a draught of
hemlock poison, 399 B.C. He left no written works, so that our knowledge
of him is derived from the writings of his pupils and contemporaries,
chiefly Plato and Xenophon.
3. +iris ... scatebat+, lit. 'bubbled over with,' 'overflowed with ...'
Cf. Hor. _Od._ iii. 27, 26, '_scatentem beluis pontum_,' 'the ocean
teeming with monsters'; and Aulus Gellius, _N. A._ l. 15, uses '_scatere
verbis_.'
+quam rem ... demiratus+, 'having expressed his astonishment at this
fact to her husband Socrates.'
4. +Alcibiades+, 450-404 B.C., was a brilliant but unprincipled Athenian
statesman, who became famous during the Peloponnesian war. He enjoyed
the friendship of Socrates, was saved by Socrates at the battle of
Potidaea, 432 B.C., and saved the life of Socrates at the battle of
Delium, 424 B.C.
5. +[)a]cerbum+, _[)a]cer-bus_ from _[-a]cer_, as _s[)u]per-bus_ from
_s[)u]per_. Usually words retain the quantity of the word from which
they are derived, but there are many exceptions, e.g. _h[)o]mo_ and
_h[-u]manus_, _n[-o]tus_ and _cog-n[)i]tus_, so _rex_, gen. _r[-e]gis_,
but _r[)e]go_, _dux_, gen. _d[)u]cis_, but _d[-u]co_.
7. +insuesco+. Cf. note on _erubesco_, ii. 5.
+exerceor+, in a middle sense, 'I exercise myself.' Cf. _faciunt idem,
cum exercentur, athletae_ (Cic. _Tusc._ ii. 23, 56), 'athletes do the
same when they exercise themselves.' Many Latin passives have thus a
'middle' force; cf. _vertor_, I turn myself; _lavor_, I wash myself; and
the deponents _glorior_, I boast myself; _vescor_, I feed myself, etc.
8. +ut ... feram+, 'so that I bear more easily.' _Ut_ used in a
consecutive sense, _i.e._ denoting the consequence or result.
V.
1. +corporis firmandi causâ+, '(undergone) for the sake of strengthening
his body'--the gerundive attraction. Cf. note xiii. 1.
3. +ad solem alterum orientem+, 'till the next sunrise.' _Sol oriens_ is
used for sunrise, _i.e._ the rising of the sun, as '_summus mons_' for
'the top of the mountain,' _Caesar mortuus_ for 'the death of Caesar,'
etc.
5. +tanquam ... facto+, lit. a certain withdrawal, as it were, of mind
and feeling from the body having taken place, _i.e._ 'mind and feeling
having, as it were, left his body.' He stood in seeming unconsciousness.
_Animus_, when contrasted with _mens_, is the mind as the seat of the
passions, etc.; _mens_ the higher reasoning faculty, the intellect.
9. +valitudine integra+, the abl. absolute, 'in unimpaired health.'
_Ablative Absolute_, 'absolute' (_absolutus_, fr. _ab·solvo_,
'I release') here means 'released' from government by any word in the
principal sentence.
The construction is one of many varieties of the adverbial ablative;
_e.g._ the abl. of time, the abl. of place where, the abl. of manner,
etc.; but it differs from these ablatives--
(1) In being equivalent to a complete clause, e.g. _Caesar hoc dixit,
convocatis militibus_ is equivalent to _cum milites convocati essent_.
(2) Or, to express the same fact in another way, it consists of two
words each in the ablative, one of which stands to the other in the
relation of predicate to subject; the 'subject' being a substantive or
pronoun, the 'predicate' a participle, adjective, substantive, or, more
rarely, a pronoun.
_Exceptions:_ But (_a_) sometimes the subject is not expressed, and a
participle is used impersonally by itself in the abl. absol.--the
participle here being equivalent to a clause containing an impersonal
verb, e.g. _mihi_, _errato_, _nulla venia_, 'there is no pardon for me,
if I blunder' (_errato = si erratum erit a me_).
(_b_) Sometimes a whole clause is substituted for the abl. of the
'subject': e.g. _excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus_, 'happy in
all respects, except the fact that you were not with me' (lit. 'the fact
that you were not with me being excepted').
_Examples:_ (1) Subst. and participle, _Tullio regnante vixerunt_, 'they
lived whilst Tullius was king.' (2) Subst. and adj., _Hannibale vivo
Romani semper Poenos timuerunt_, 'the Romans always feared the
Carthaginians whilst Hannibal lived.' (3) Subst. and subst., _Nil
desperandum Teucro duce_, 'there is no cause for despair whilst Teucer
is our leader.' (4) Subst. and pron., _quid hoc populo obtineri potest_,
'what can be maintained with such a people as this?' (5) Pron. and
participle, _eis occisis ceteri domum redierunt_, 'when those men had
been slain the rest returned home.' (6) Pron. and adj., _me invito id
fecit_, 'he did it contrary to my wishes.' (7) Pron. and subst., _eo
rege tuti erant_, 'they were safe whilst he was king.'
_Note._--(1) The abl. absolute sometimes expresses merely time (_e.g._
_inita aestate_, 'at the beginning of summer'), but more often attendant
circumstances, or cause.
(2) The abl. absol. cannot be used when the 'subject' of the clause is
the same as the subject or object of the principal clause. This rule is
sometimes, but rarely, violated.
(3) In Greek the genitive is the absolute case: in most modern languages
the nom. is thus used: but the acc. is sometimes used absolutely in
German, and in Old English the accusative (representing the dative of
Anglo-Saxon) was used absolutely. Milton uses both nom. and acc.: cf.
"Us dispossessed," _Par. L._, vii. 140; "I extinct," id. ix. 994.
10. +pestilentia+, the famous plague of Athens, which raged during the
second and third years of the +Peloponnesian war+. This was a war
between Athens with her allies and Sparta with her allies, which lasted
for 28 years, from 431 to 404 B.C., and ended in the defeat of Athens
and the loss of her maritime supremacy.
VI.
1. +Alexander III+. (356-323 B.C.), surnamed the Great, ascended the
throne of Macedonia on the death of his father Philip, 336 B.C. In the
13 years of his reign he conquered the greater part of Eastern Europe
and Asia Minor, and marched even into Northern India and Egypt. The
incident here mentioned happened in his Indian campaign. In 327 he
crossed the Indus, entered the Punjaub, defeated and captured the Indian
king Porus in a great battle on the banks of the Hydaspes, and founded
there two towns--Bucephalon and Nicaea. He continued his progress as far
as the banks of the Hyphasis, but here his wearied troops mutinied and
refused to advance any further.
+B[-u]c[)e]ph[)a]l[-a]s+ (#boukephalas#, #bous kephalê#), 'ox-head,' so
called from the breadth of its forehead.
2. +emptum+, 'Chares has stated that it was bought for 13 talents.'
_talentis_, abl. of price.
+Chares+ was an officer at Alexander's court, who wrote a series of
anecdotes about the life and exploits of the king.
3. +hoc autem+, the order _is hoc est nostri aeris summa trecenta
duodecim sestertia_, 'this is in (lit. of) our money the sum (of) 312
sestertia.' Sestertium = 1,000 sestertii, about £8 at this time.
Therefore 312 sestertia = £312 x 8 = £2,496. For _sestertium_ cf.
xxxiii. 2.
6. +haud unquam+, etc., 'it never allowed itself to be mounted by any
one except the king.'
8. +faceret+, subj. after _cum_.
_Cum_ (= when), like other temporal conjunctions, takes as a rule the
indic. mood; but the subj. is required when the time of the _cum_ clause
is regarded as depending on the time of the principal clause. This is
usually the case in past time, hence the rule is that _cum_ in past time
requires the imperf. or plup. subj., unless (1) it is used in a
frequentative sense, _e.g._ 'as often as' (but later writers, _e.g._
Livy, often use the subj. even in this sense), e.g. _cum palam ejus
anuli ad palmam converterat, a nullo videbatur_ (Cic. _Off._), 'as often
as he turned the bezel of that ring to his palm, he was seen by no one,'
cf. xiv. 7, _id cum dixerat_, 'as often as he had said that'; (2) it is
simply equivalent to _et tum_, e.g. _castra ibi posita, cum subito
advenere Samnitium legiones_ (Livy), 'the camp had been pitched there,
when the Samnite legions suddenly arrived'; (3) the two clauses mark
strictly contemporaneous events, _tum_ being often added in the
principal clause to mark this fact, e.g. _vos tum paruistis cum paruit
nemo_ (Cic. _p. Lig._ 7), 'you were obedient at a time when no one
(else) was obedient.'
9. +non satis sibi providens+, 'without sufficient forethought.'
+inmisit+ used absolutely, _i.e._ without an object; this, if expressed,
would be '_equum_,' 'spurred it forward against.'
11. +moribundus+. The termination _bundus_, or _cundus_, denotes
fulness, e.g. _vagabundus_, 'wandering'; _iracundus_, 'wrathful.' Cf.
_L. Primer_, p. 58, § 70 E.
12. +e mediis hostibus+, 'from the midst of the enemy.' In many phrases
the adj. is used in Latin where in English we use a subst. with another
subst. depending on it, and _vice versa_: e.g. _summus mons_, 'the top
of the mountain'; but _animi dolor_, 'mental pain'; cf. v. 3, _sol
oriens_.
14. +domini iam superstitis securus+, 'relieved from anxiety for its
master, now safe.' For the genitive _domini_ after _securus_, cf.
_s[-e]c[-u]r[)a] f[)u]t[-u]ri_, Ovid; _s[-e]c[-u]rus p[)e]l[)a]gi atque
mei_, Verg.
VII.
1. +Alcibiades+. Cf. iv. 4. note.
+Pericles+ was a great Athenian statesman. He was born about 490 B.C.
(the year of the battle of Marathon), and first took part in public
affairs in 469, when Athens was beginning to develop rapidly after the
Persian wars. From this time till his death in 429 he was the recognised
leader of the democratic party. Under his guidance Athens became the
most powerful state and the most beautiful city in Greece.
+[)a]vunc[)u]lus+ (deminutive of _[)a]vus_, a grandfather) is an uncle
on the mother's side--a mother's brother; _p[)a]truus_ (_p[)-a]ter_), an
uncle on the father's side--a father's brother.
3. +puerum docendum curavit+, 'had the boy educated.' This use of the
gerundive in a final sense, as '+an oblique predicate+' with the direct
object of certain transitive verbs, e.g. _curo_, _do_, _suscipio_, etc.,
is common in Latin writers, especially Caesar. Cf. _pontem faciendum
curavit_, 'he had a bridge made'; _agros eis habitandos dedit_, 'he gave
them lands to dwell in'; _me dandum ad bestias curavit_ (xxx.), 'he had
me given to the wild beasts.' Cf. Note xiii. 1. iv., on the Gerundive.
4. +canere tibiis+, 'to play on the pipes.' Both Greeks and Romans
usually played on a double pipe, composed of two instruments not unlike
flageolets, joined at the mouth-piece, and spreading out in the form of
a V; hence the plural _tibiae_. _Tibia_ means originally the shin bone,
and then a musical instrument, pipes or flutes being at first made of
bone.
VIII.
1. +C. Fabricius+ Lusc[-i]nus was one of the most popular heroes in
Roman history. He was regarded as the type of the old-fashioned honest
warrior, who was proof against the luxury and corruption of the rising
generation. In his first consulship, 282 B.C., he defeated the
Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites; in 280-278 B.C. he served with
distinction against Pyrrus (cf. xxvii.).
The +Samnites+ were a powerful people living to the east of Rome. The
Romans first came into contact with them in 343 B.C.; for 50 years there
was war between the two nations; at last the Samnites were conquered,
but they still maintained their love of freedom, and once more proved
formidable opponents to Rome in the Social War, 90 B.C.
2. +memoratis ... rebus+, abl. absolute, 'after mentioning the many
great services which he had rendered (_rebus quae bene fecisset_) to the
Samnites after the restoration of peace....'
3. +post redditam pacem+. _Pax reddita_, 'the restoration of peace.' Cf.
_sol oriens_, 'the rising of the sun,' v. 3. note.
4. +dono+, as a gift, the predicative dative, or dative of purpose used
as a complement. Cf. Hor. _exitio est avidum mare nautis_, 'the greedy
sea is [as] a destruction to sailors.'
11. +quâ+, abl. after _usus_, 'for which I have no use.'
IX.
1. +Hannibal+, the famous general of the Carthaginians in the second
Punic war, was born in 247 B.C. In 218 he began his march from Spain
into Italy, crossed the Alps, and defeated the Romans in N. Italy on the
Ticinus and the Trebia; then followed the great victories at Lake
Trasimenus, 217, and Cannae, 216. In 203 Hannibal was compelled to
return to Africa to oppose Scipio, who had defeated the Carthaginian
troops and their ally Syphax. A decisive battle was fought at Zama,
October 19th, 202, in which Scipio gained a great victory over Hannibal.
In the following year peace was made. Hannibal now set to work to
prepare Carthage for a fresh struggle, but his political enemies
denounced his designs to the Romans, and he was compelled in 193 B.C. to
take refuge at the court of +Antiochus+ the Great, King of Syria, who
was on the eve of war with Rome. On the defeat of Antiochus the
surrender of Hannibal was made one of the conditions of peace; but he
fled to Prusias, King of Bithynia, 188 B.C. The Romans still pursued
him, and sent messengers to Prusias demanding his surrender. Fearing
that Prusias would be unable to resist this demand, and not knowing
whither to flee to escape the vengeance of his enemies, he took poison,
183 B.C.
2. +ingentis+. The acc. pl. of _-i_ nouns of the 3rd decl. varies in the
mss. between _-[-i]s_, _-eis_, and _[-e]s_. All three forms seem to have
been used till the Augustan age, after which period the form in _-es_
prevailed. A nom. pl. also in _-is_ and _-eis_ is found sometimes in the
mss. of Plautus and Lucretius and in old inscriptions.
+populo Romano+, dat. of the 'Remoter Object' after _facturus_, the
'nearer object' being _bellum_.
4. +currus cum falcibus+. The wheels of these chariots were armed with
projecting scythes or hooks, which kept the enemy at a distance, or cut
them down, as the charioteers drove at full speed through their ranks.
These war chariots were in use among the Assyrians, Persians, Medes, and
Syrians in Asia, and in Europe among the Gauls and Britons. Some have
supposed that these are the 'chariots of iron' referred to in the books
of Joshua and Judges; but Xenophon (_Cyrop._, vi. i. 30) says that
'scythe chariots' were not introduced into Asia Minor till the time of
Cyrus.
5. +elephantos cum turribus+, small turrets placed on the backs of the
elephants, and carrying a few soldiers.
6. +frenis+. The bits were sometimes made of silver and gold, and the
bridles decorated with jewels, etc.
+ephippiis+. The saddles in use among Eastern nations, the Greeks and
the Romans, consisted sometimes of a mere skin or cloth, sometimes of a
wooden frame, upon which padded cloth, etc., was stretched; from either
side cloths hung down, often dyed with bright colours, and decorated
with fringes, etc.
+monilibus+, necklets used as ornaments for horses, as well as for men
and women.