of their feelings and rights. They viewed the Bear uprising as an
inexcusable outrage--predatory, murderous and cruel, and, since Frémont
was an American army officer, as fully justifying every suspicion and
fear entertained against our government. The exasperation was intense;
the resentment bitter. Who could think his person or property safe
under the law of the rifle enforced by robbers? they asked. To make the
situation worse Frémont, under the pretence that he was getting ready
for the long journey home, obtained munitions and supplies from the
United States vessel of war _Portsmouth_, anchored at San Francisco; and
this fact became publicly known. Larkin was kept entirely in the dark,
but probably not one Californian thought so. In short, the plan of the
government was completely upset. Moreover Frémont's operations tended
to defeat his own aim also, for they enabled Pico to solicit British
protection on a definite and substantial ground.[17.6]
These events, however, were soon eclipsed. June 24, 1845, instructions
for his guidance, in view of our strained relations with Mexico, had
been issued to Commodore Sloat of the Pacific squadron. He was told
that he should be "assiduously careful to avoid any act, which could
be construed as an act of aggression"; yet, should he ascertain "with
certainty"--"beyond a doubt"--that Mexico had "declared war," he
was to occupy San Francisco and occupy or blockade such other ports
as he could. In consequence of this order Sloat, so he reported in
November, proceeded to Mazatlán as the likeliest place to receive
information;[17.7] and on May 17 he learned from United States
Consul Parrott of Mazatlán, then at Guadalajara, of Thornton's
defeat. Upon this he decided to execute his orders immediately; but
on considering the June instructions again, he thought action was not
warranted.[17.8] May 31 came news of Palo Alto and the Resaca, and on
June 5 confirmation of the news. That hostilities had begun he felt
no doubt; but, "sicklied o'er" with something that resembled thought
"as the mist resembles rain," and with an anxiety about his personal
fortunes that obscured national interests, his resolution still wavered.
On the seventh of June, however, he learned from Surgeon Wood, recently
of the squadron but now on his way home with Parrott _via_ Mexico City,
that the Mexican government admitted the battles had occurred, and
learned also that an American fleet was blockading Vera Cruz. The next
day he sailed; and on July 2 he was in Monterey harbor,[17.9] fourteen
hundred miles to the northwest, where for some strange reason he made
the usual call on the authorities.[17.15]
Larkin, with whom the Commodore had been instructed to confer, soon
hastened aboard, and opened Sloat's astonished eyes to the situation.
They agreed--for their instructions agreed--that kindness toward the
people was to characterize all action; but Larkin, who did not believe
war had begun, wanted action postponed, hoping that American rule
would be invited, or at least welcomed, by the Californians,[17.10]
while Sloat--though doubtless he now learned of the government's
plan to acquire the province through immigration and a period of
independence--remembered that he was under orders to occupy or blockade
the ports without unnecessary delay, and perceived that the state of
things called upon him to take immediate possession of the interior
also, regarding which no instructions had been given him.[17.11] News
that an American officer, to whom another officer had recently been sent
from Washington, was apparently conducting hostilities at a distance
from the sea appeared like a clue to the maze;[17.12] and, finally,
after several days of anxious and wavering deliberation, the idea that
Sir George Seymour, admiral of the British Pacific fleet, who had seemed
to be watching his movements,[17.13] might appear at any hour and
raise the British flag, drove him into action.[17.15]
July 7, as the sun rose above the mountains on the east, Monterey
in its amphitheatre of pine-clad hills, with trim-looking white and
balconied houses dotted along its two parallel streets among the trees
and along the waters of the broad cove, which lay rippling at its
very feet, presented a very attractive appearance, but certainly was
insignificant enough. Not so, however, what occurred there. Old Captain
Silva, the commandant, when invited at half-past seven to give up the
town, replied that he and the troops had left the place, and there was
nothing--not even a flag--to surrender; and at about half-past ten
Captain Mervine with some two hundred and fifty sailors and marines
landed from boats.[17.15]
[SLOAT OCCUPIES MONTEREY]
Marching to the little customhouse Mervine read a proclamation drawn
by Sloat and Larkin. The United States and Mexico being now at war, I
take possession of upper California, said the Commodore in effect, but
I do so as her best friend; the territory becomes a part of the United
States, and the people shall be protected in all their present rights;
they may stay here as neutrals, or depart; they may choose their own
officials; products of the United States will come in duty-free, and
other articles pay one quarter of the Mexican rate; civil security,
religious freedom and material prosperity will be the fruits of American
rule.[17.14] The Stars and Stripes were then run up on the customhouse
flagstaff, our men--both afloat and ashore--cheered, the boom of
twenty-one guns from the _Savannah_ filled the amphitheatre of hills,
and the great province of California had a future. By July 14 our colors
were flying at every important point, and the Bear ensign had vanished.
Stringent orders to prevent misbehavior and plundering were issued;
measures were adopted to support the flag and repress the Indians; and
Frémont was earnestly invited to coöperate.[17.15]
Both Sloat and Larkin endeavored to bring Castro in, but he would
not come; and he retorted by demanding an explanation of the Sonoma
affair. Doubtless that episode had thoroughly angered him, and he felt
besides that a man in his official position would not be forgiven by
the people, should he condone it. Alvarado and Pico, both of whom
were cordially addressed, held entirely aloof; and before long the
governor and the comandante general, forced into a reconciliation by
Frémont's operations, united their commands. But as the people of
northern California generally, thankful to escape from the clutches of
the Bear and pleased with Sloat's proclamation, appeared willing to
accept the change of flags, these two leaders withdrew to the vicinity
of Los Angeles, where with about eight hundred men and ten cannon
they supported--or pretended to support--the cause of Mexico; and
the situation was further clarified by Admiral Seymour, who arrived
at Monterey on July 16, and a week later, admitting that he could not
interfere, sailed away.[17.15]
July 23 Sloat, who felt ill and probably felt worried, turned over
the command on shore to Robert F. Stockton, who had arrived in the
_Congress_ about a week before,[17.16] and some days later, giving up
the squadron also, left the coast. The new Commodore seems to have been
a smart, but vain, selfish, lordly and rampant individual, thirsting for
glory; and little glory could be seen in following after his predecessor
under so mild a policy. Besides, another character was now on the stage.
July 19 about one hundred and sixty horsemen entered Monterey from
the north--men with gaunt bodies, frames of steel, shaggy beards, and
an air of indomitable courage and endurance, armed with a long, heavy
rifle on the shoulder and a big knife on the hip, and speaking a lingo
sometimes hard to understand. These were the youngest and hardiest of
the Sacramento men, reinforced with the pick of the immigrants just
arrived. At their head rode a short, slender, active man in buckskin
blouse, leggings and moccasins, a blue shirt open at the neck, and a
cotton handkerchief in lieu of a hat, with plenty of hair, a small,
bearded face, and therein eyes--"such eyes." This was Frémont.[17.20]
He was a counsellor far more to Stockton's taste than Larkin; and,
in addition to believing the Californians dangerous and unreliable,
and entertaining deep resentment on account of the March episode, he
doubtless could see that California, reposing contentedly under the
American flag, would make a poor background for his violent operations.
The outcome was a ridiculous address,[17.17] which ranted at length
against Castro, especially for his treatment of Frémont, explained
Sloat's action as due to this, declared that Stockton's only object was
to protect life and property, and announced that when Castro should
be put down and the duties of government be assumed by responsible
officials, he would remove the American forces.[17.20]
July 23, with a view to the conquest of the whole province, Frémont's
men were taken into the naval service as the California Battalion, with
himself as major and Gillespie as captain; and they sailed promptly for
San Diego to gain Castro's rear. A few days later Stockton followed
in the _Congress_, raised the American flag at Santa Barbara, and
anchored at San Pedro, some eighteen miles from Los Angeles. Larkin,
still most anxious to bring about a peaceful arrangement, came with
him. Believing that war had not been and would not be declared, he
urgently recommended through Stearns of Los Angeles that Pico and the
legislature meet the dubious emergency, prevent the country from falling
a prey to disorder, save the interests of all officials, and ensure
lasting prosperity by declaring California independent under American
protection; and Castro proposed that Stockton halt at San Pedro with a
view to negotiations.[17.20]
Alvarado said later that a satisfactory arrangement could probably have
been made, but the Commodore haughtily insisted that Castro should
begin by accepting independence and the American flag.[17.18] To do
this would have left him nothing to trade upon; and hence, apparently
overestimating Stockton's military strength, lacking money, and finding
round him no popular enthusiasm or even genuine harmony, he retired
hastily on August 10 with a handful of men toward Sonora, leaving behind
him a cloud of eloquence;[17.19] and the governor also left the
country.[17.20]
[CALIFORNIA IN AMERICAN HANDS]
On their disappearance all military opposition vanished. Larkin with
a couple of friends took Los Angeles on the twelfth of August; the
Commodore with his marines and sailors, headed by a brass band, and
Frémont with a part of his battalion arrived the next day; and on the
seventeenth, when positive information that war had begun reached the
town, Stockton issued another proclamation. California now belongs to
the United States, he announced in effect, and is under military law;
all who adhere to the new régime will be protected, but no others may
remain in the country. Some of the Californian leaders were arrested
and a number surrendered, but all of them were given their liberty on
parole. Friends rallied of course to the winning side; the Commodore
became attentive and kindly toward the people; and Larkin soon reported
that matters were settling down.[17.20]
Stockton realized that under the law of nations and the law of humanity
a conqueror had the right and the duty of softening military rule,
and felt that pursuing such a course here would tend to confirm the
victory. Already, with his assistance, the first schoolhouse and the
first newspaper of California had made their appearance; steps were
now taken to establish postal facilities; and this very proclamation
announced, that officials elected by the people might govern according
to the prevailing usages. In September regular municipal elections took
place, and good results were obtained.[17.20]
The reign of justice began to dawn. Chaplain Colton, appointed alcalde
of Monterey, gave general satisfaction. American officers recovered a
large number of horses driven off by the Indians, and astonished the
Californians by returning them to their owners. The Commodore, besides
adjusting disputes in a manner that gratified the people, made and
forwarded to Washington for approval what he called laws; announced
that a legislative council would be created, and called himself
governor. This office, however, it was not his intention to hold long.
The fantastic idea of landing at Acapulco and moving upon the capital
had taken possession of his mind. He therefore sent Frémont north to
enlist men for him on the Sacramento, proposed to set out for Mexico in
October, and promised to inaugurate that officer as governor on leaving
California.[17.20]
But he did not leave so promptly. In arranging for the security of the
country he divided it into three military districts, appointing Frémont
commandant at the north and Gillespie at the south. Gillespie's task
was peculiarly important, because news and troops from Mexico would
arrive first at Los Angeles, and because that section had the largest
percentage of restless people, the smallest percentage of Americans,
and the weakest pro-American sentiment. He seems to have been an
elegant, precise man with a stiff, pointed beard and a temper of the
same description; but at any rate he was a soldier, understood his
responsibility, and knew what military government signified.[17.27]
Larkin urged that a respectable command should be given him, but
Stockton had neither men nor funds for land service, and only about
fifty of the disdainful and intolerant volunteers, perhaps including
some of the detested Sonoma "brigands," could be spared for Los Angeles.
A garrison of that strength, far from support, was almost an insult
and certainly a provocation to the people. Though told by Stockton
to temper military law, Gillespie doubtless felt that his only safety
lay in maintaining strict order; and if, unfamiliar with Californian
character and ways, he extended his discipline too rigidly over the free
and easy natives, as he seems to have done, the mistake was but natural.
Stockton himself had given the cue, declaring in his proclamation
of August 17 that men found in arms outside their houses were to be
banished, ordering that all must be at home from ten o'clock at night
until sunrise, and indulging in a general tone that has been thought
supercilious. Here were causes enough of trouble; and behind them lay
an inevitable clash of races, temperaments and customs, unavoidable
friction resulting from a forcible change of flags, and a restlessness
due to the ambition of would-be leaders.[17.27]
[INSURRECTION]
As the signs of disaffection began to show themselves, Gillespie
naturally arrested suspicious persons, and punished those whom he deemed
conspirators. This precipitated an outburst. In the night of September
22 some turbulent fellows made an attack on the American quarters. In
a military way it was contemptible; but, as such affairs often do, it
crystallized popular sentiment. Within a few days about four hundred
Californians were in arms; and when the surrender of Lieutenant Wilson
with some twenty-five men at the Chino farm to about one hundred
and ten insurgents heightened confidence, the movement spread still
more. Some of the malcontents were persons of standing, who felt that
self-respect called upon them to break a lance against the invader, even
though sure to be defeated; but the great majority appear to have been
irresponsible characters ready for anything except work. Lieutenant
Colonel Flores, the leader, and nearly all of his officers had violated
their paroles, of course; but breaking an oath seemed to them a trivial
matter, for they knew they could make another equally good on a moment's
notice.[17.21] Without fortifications, adequate equipment or supplies,
Gillespie could see no hope of resisting such odds, and September 29 he
capitulated on favorable terms.[17.22] The next day he proceeded to
San Pedro with his men, and they soon embarked there on a merchant ship,
the _Vandalia_.[17.27]
About the first of October Stockton, then at San Francisco, learned of
the insurrection. By his order Mervine sailed promptly for San Pedro in
the _Savannah_, and on October 7 with sailors, marines and Gillespie's
command--all on foot--the captain marched for Los Angeles. Stockton,
however, had provided him with no artillery, while the Californians were
supported by a small field piece. When the Americans charged, this gun
was hurried beyond their reach by mounted men with lariats; but as soon
as the Americans halted from exhaustion, it was drawn back and set at
work. The case appeared hopeless, and after losing about a dozen men,
killed or wounded, Mervine found it necessary to retreat. Naturally the
Californians felt immensely encouraged, and large numbers gathered on
the hills behind San Pedro.[17.27]
Late in October Stockton, after lingering a while at San Francisco
to attend a glorification meeting and stopping at Monterey to land
ordnance and men for the defence of that point, arrived at San Pedro and
undertook to accomplish something; but the attempt proved a failure, and
he sailed for San Diego, at that day a small group of adobe houses about
four miles northeast of the present city.[17.23] Insurgents were now
besieging the place, and neither provisions nor horses could be obtained
in the vicinity; but Stockton procured both from lower California, and
began to make ready for land operations.[17.27]
By this time Flores had been elected provisional governor and comandante
general by the legislature, and martial law had been declared; but the
insurgent leader found himself without adequate resources. Foreigners
aided him with a little money at an exorbitant rate of interest, but on
October 24 he stated that only some forty rounds of cannon ammunition
remained, and a thousand for the muskets of his four hundred men.
Campaigning without supplies or funds and driving stock to the interior
were found extremely irksome by the indolent Californians; a general
discouragement prevailed; and the legislature could not obtain a quorum.
Soon disaffection showed itself; and being a Mexican, Flores dared
not adopt strong measures. Finally, in the night of December 3 he was
imprisoned by malcontents; and although the legislature and people
soon extinguished the revolt, much confusion grew out of it. Moreover,
Stockton's troops outnumbered his; other Americans were gathering in
northern California, he knew; and thousands of immigrants were expected
at New Helvetia, he was informed.[17.27]
[KEARNEY'S ARRIVAL]
None of these forces, however, gave him the first blow. May 26 Polk had
proposed an overland expedition to California, and a week later it was
decided upon. Accordingly Kearny was ordered to advance after securing
New Mexico, should the season permit; and on September 25, as we have
seen, he left Santa Fe for the coast. Soon meeting Stockton's bearer
of despatches, he learned that California had been occupied, sent back
all but about one hundred of his dragoons, and with these and a pair of
mountain howitzers marched on. At the beginning of December he reached
Warner's ranch (_Agua Caliente_), the frontier settlement of California,
and, having learned of the insurrection, wrote on to Stockton for aid
and information. Gillespie was therefore sent forward with a brass
4-pounder and thirty-eight men, met him December 5, and told him among
other news that a party of insurgents lay at San Pascual, about eight
miles distant on the road to San Diego. Probably the force numbered
rather less than one hundred. A capable man, however, Andrés Pico,
brother of the ex-governor, commanded them.[17.24]
[Illustration: Fight at San Pascual]
Kearny sent off a scouting party, which not only saw but was seen, and
reported to him at two o'clock the next morning. An attack upon the
Californians was highly inadvisable. The Americans and the pack-mules
that many of them rode were almost worn out. Some horses recently bought
or captured were accustomed to the terrible Mexican bits, and could
not be controlled by their new riders. Kearny had had no experience in
fighting lancers or California horsemen, and did not know how many were
before him. It was clear that the enemy were aware of his presence.
The dampness of the night made firearms unreliable, and the men were
so chilled they could not use them quickly. Finally, it would not
have been difficult to hold the insurgents off with his three cannon,
and march safely in a compact body to San Diego, now only about forty
miles distant. Kearny decided, however, to attack before daybreak, and
advanced.[17.24]
Pico had not desired nor expected a battle; but, perceiving what kind
of troops were in his front, he did not flinch. Kearny's advance guard
fared very badly, and when his main body came into action, the enemy
adopted the familiar ruse of a pretended flight. In pursuing, the
Americans became separated according to the speed of their mounts;
and then Pico turned furiously upon them. The net result was that
Kearny, Gillespie and thirteen other Americans received ugly wounds,
and eighteen were killed, while the enemy's loss appears to have been
trifling. After ten or fifteen minutes, however, the Californians drew
off, expecting guns and large reinforcements, which Flores had promised.
As one consequence of the revolt against his authority, these did not
arrive. Hence Pico, who had not been prepared for either the fight or
the revolt, made no serious efforts to follow up his advantage; and
Kearny, though he lost his cattle, had to live on mule meat, and was
burdened with his wounded, succeeded, with additional aid sent him by
Stockton, in reaching San Diego on December 12.[17.24]
Stockton's preparations to do something were then resumed. Sailors
felt strongly averse to shore duty, but he overcame their repugnance.
The ships furnished them pikes, carbines and pistols, and shoes were
manufactured out of canvas; and so with Kearny's dragoons, Gillespie's
detachment, some friendly Californians and about four hundred sailors
and marines, drilled somewhat for their new work, the Commodore had a
respectable force.[17.25] It was not, however, his intention to attack
the main body of the insurgents, for he felt afraid the enemy would then
get behind him. His plan was to move up the coast and make a diversion,
expecting Frémont and his riflemen to take the bull by the horns; but
Kearny urged him to march for Los Angeles, about one hundred and forty
miles distant, and at length on December 29, after having brushed away
the Californians operating against San Diego, he set out, greatly
embarrassed by having to drag miserable ox-carts through the deep sand.
Kearny declined the chief command, but finally asked for and was given
the post of lieutenant or executive officer under Stockton.[17.27]
Flores now found himself in a desperate situation. Naturally officers
who knew they had violated their paroles dreaded to give up; but most
of his troops felt half-hearted, people hid to avoid serving, and some
of the Indians were in arms against him. In order to gain time for a
blow at Frémont, he tried to inveigle Stockton into a truce, holding
out as a reason that Mexico and the United States had probably adjusted
their differences; but the Commodore refused to treat with an officer
guilty of breaking his parole. Then, having some four hundred and fifty
badly armed men, though not enough powder for a long fight, he set an
ambuscade where he supposed the Americans would pass; but Stockton
avoided it by turning to the right, and made for the Bartolo ford of the
San Gabriel River, twelve miles from Los Angeles, where the stream was
only knee-deep. The Californians followed suit, and occupied an eminence
fifty feet high, parallel to the stream and about six hundred yards
beyond it.[17.27]