Everything among the Spartans conduced to plant in their hearts
the most heroic courage, by the remembrance of their ancestors,
whose principles and sentiments were the spur to the noblest
actions. The lowest Spartans were exalted to a level with their
greatest chiefs by a glorious death; their memory was renewed
by the most solemn offering to the latest posterity, and their
images were placed next to those of the gods.--_Adapted from_
BONNY.
THE FAMOUS STORY AS TOLD BY HERODOTUS
[Sidenote: [480 B.C.]]
Xerxes encamped in Trachinia at Melis; the Greeks, in the straits.
These straits the Greeks in general call Thermopylæ; the people of the
country Pylæ only. Here then were the two armies stationed, Xerxes
occupying all the northern region as far as Trachinia, the Greeks that
of the south. The Grecian army, which here waited the approach of the
Persian, was composed of three hundred Spartans in complete armour; five
hundred Tegeatæ, and as many Mantineans; one hundred and twenty men from
Orchomenos of Arcadia, a thousand men from the rest of Arcadia, four
hundred Corinthians, two hundred from Phlius, and eighty from Mycenæ. The
above came from the Peloponnesus: from Bœotia there were seven hundred
Thespians and four hundred Thebans.
In addition to the above, the aid of all the Opuntian Locrians had been
solicited, together with a thousand Phocians. To obtain the assistance of
these the Greeks had previously sent emissaries among them, saying, that
they were the forerunners only of another and more numerous body, whose
arrival was every day expected. They added, that the defence of the sea
was confided to the people of Athens and Ægina, in conjunction with the
rest of the fleet; that there was no occasion for alarm, as the invader
of Greece was not a god, but a mere human being; that there never was nor
could be any mortal superior to the vicissitudes of fortune; that the
most exalted characters were exposed to the greatest evils; he therefore,
a mortal, now advancing to attack them, would suffer for his temerity.
These arguments proved effectual, and they accordingly marched to Trachis
to join their allies.
_Leonidas and His Allies_
These troops were commanded by different officers of their respective
countries: but the man most regarded, and entrusted with the chief
command, was Leonidas of Sparta. His ancestors were traced back to
Hercules. An accident had placed him on the throne of Sparta; for,
as he had two brothers older than himself, Cleomenes and Dorieus, he
had entertained no thoughts of the government; but Cleomenes dying
without male issue, and Dorieus not surviving (for he ended his days in
Sicily) the crown came to Leonidas, who was older than Cleombrotus, the
youngest of the sons of Anaxandrides, and who had married the daughter
of Cleomenes. On the present occasion he took with him to Thermopylæ a
body of three hundred chosen men, all of whom had children. To these
he added the Theban troops who were conducted by Leontiades, son of
Eurymachus.[26] Leonidas had selected the Thebans to accompany him,
because a suspicion generally prevailed that they were secretly attached
to the Medes. These therefore he summoned to attend him, to ascertain
whether they would actually contribute their aid, or openly withdraw
themselves from the Grecian league. With hostile sentiments they
nevertheless sent the assistance required.[27]
The march of this body under Leonidas was accelerated by the Spartans,
that their example might stimulate their allies to action, and that they
might not make their delay a pretence for going over to the Medes. The
celebration of the Carnean festival[28] protracted the march of their
main body; but it was their intention to follow with all imaginable
expedition, leaving only a small detachment for the defence of Sparta.
The rest of the allies were actuated by similar motives, for the Olympic
games happened to recur at this period; and as they did not expect an
engagement would immediately take place at Thermopylæ, they sent only a
detachment before them.
Such were the motives of the confederate body. The Greeks who were
already assembled at Thermopylæ were seized with so much terror on the
approach of the Persians that they consulted about a retreat. Those of
the Peloponnesus were in general of opinion that they should return and
guard the isthmus; but as the Phocians and Locrians were exceedingly
averse to this measure, Leonidas prevailed on them to continue on their
post. He resolved however to send messengers round to all the states,
requiring supplies, stating that their number was much too small to
oppose the Medes with any effect.
Whilst they thus deliberated, Xerxes sent a horseman to examine their
number and their motions. He had before heard, in Thessaly, that a small
band was collected at this passage, that they were led by Lacedæmonians,
and by Leonidas of the race of Hercules. The person employed performed
his duty: all those who were without the entrenchment he was able to
reconnoitre; those who were within for the purpose of defending it,
eluded his observation. The Lacedæmonians were at that period stationed
without; of these some were performing gymnastic exercises, whilst others
were employed in combing their hair. He was greatly astonished, but he
leisurely surveyed their number and employments, and returned without
molestation, for they despised him too much to pursue him. He related to
Xerxes all that he had seen.
Xerxes, on hearing the above, was little aware of what was really the
case, that this people were preparing themselves either to conquer or to
die. The thing appeared to him so ridiculous, that he sent for Demaratus
the son of Ariston, who was then with the army. On his appearing, the
king questioned him on this behaviour of the Spartans, expressing his
desire to know what it might intimate. “I have before, Sir,” said
Demaratus, “spoken to you of this people, at the commencement of this
expedition; and as I remember, when I related to you what I knew you
would have occasion to observe, you treated me with contempt. I am
conscious of the danger of declaring the truth, in opposition to your
prejudices; but I will nevertheless do so. It is the determination of
these men to dispute this pass with us, and they are preparing themselves
accordingly. It is their custom before any enterprise of danger to adorn
their hair. Of this you may be assured, that if you vanquish these, and
their countrymen in Sparta, no other nation will presume to take up arms
against you: you are now advancing to attack a people whose realms and
city are the fairest, and whose troops are the bravest of Greece.” These
words seemed to Xerxes preposterous enough; but he demanded a second
time, how so small a number could contend with his army. “Sir,” said
Demaratus, “I will submit to suffer the punishment of falsehood, if what
I say does not happen.”
_Xerxes Assails the Pass_
Xerxes was still incredulous; he accordingly kept his position without
any movement for four days, in expectation of seeing them retreat. On
the fifth day, observing that they continued on their post, merely as he
supposed from the most impudent rashness, he became much exasperated,
and sent against them a detachment of Medes and Cissians, with a command
to bring them alive to his presence. The Medes in consequence attacked
them, and lost a considerable number. A reinforcement arrived; but though
the onset was severe, no impression was made. It now became universally
conspicuous, and no less so to the king himself, that he had many troops,
but few men.[29] The above engagement continued all day.
The Medes, after being very roughly treated, retired, and were succeeded
by the band of Persians called by the king “the Immortal,” and commanded
by Hydarnes. These it was supposed would succeed without the smallest
difficulty. They commenced the attack, but made no greater impression
than the Medes: their superior numbers were of no advantage, on account
of the narrowness of the place; and their spears also were shorter than
those of the Greeks. The Lacedæmonians fought in a manner which deserves
to be recorded; their own excellent discipline, and the unskilfulness
of their adversaries, were in many instances remarkable, and not the
least so when in close ranks they affected to retreat. The barbarians
seeing them retire, pursued them with a great and clamorous shout; but
on their near approach the Greeks faced about to receive them. The loss
of the Persians was prodigious, and a few also of the Spartans fell. The
Persians, after successive efforts made with great bodies of their troops
to gain the pass, were unable to accomplish it and obliged to retire.
It is said of Xerxes himself that, being a spectator of the contest, he
was so greatly alarmed for the safety of his men, that he leaped thrice
from his throne. On the following day, the barbarians succeeded no better
than before. They went to the onset as against a contemptible number,
whose wounds they supposed would hardly permit them to renew the combat:
but the Greeks, drawn up in regular divisions, fought each nation on its
respective post, except the Phocians, who were stationed on the summit of
the mountain to defend the pass. The Persians, experiencing a repetition
of the same treatment, a second time retired.
_The Treachery of Ephialtes_
Whilst the king was exceedingly perplexed what conduct to pursue in the
present emergence, Ephialtes, the son of Eurydemus, a Malian, demanded
an audience: he expected to receive some great recompense for showing
him the path which led over the mountain to Thermopylæ: and he indeed
it was who thus rendered ineffectual the valour of those Greeks who
perished on this station. This man, through fear of the Lacedæmonians,
fled afterwards into Thessaly; but the Pylagoræ, calling a council of the
Amphictyons at Pylæ for this express purpose, set a price upon his head,
and he was afterwards slain by Athenades, a Trachinian, at Anticyra, to
which place he had returned.
The intelligence of Ephialtes gave the king infinite satisfaction, and
he instantly detached Hydarnes, with the forces under his command, to
avail himself of it. They left the camp at the first approach of evening;
the Malians, the natives of the country, discovered this path, and by it
conducted the Thessalians against the Phocians, who had defended it by an
entrenchment, and deemed themselves secure. It had never, however, proved
of any advantage to the Malians.
The path of which we are speaking commences at the river Asopus. This
stream flows through an aperture of the mountain called Anopæa, which is
also the name of the path. This is continued through the whole length
of the mountain, and terminates near the town of Alpenus. Following the
track which has been described, the Persians passed the Asopus, and
marched all night, keeping the Œtean Mountains on the right, and the
Trachinian on the left. At the dawn of morning they found themselves at
the summit, where a band of a thousand Phocians in arms was stationed,
both to defend their own country and this pass.
[Illustration: THE PASS OF THERMOPYLÆ]
The approach of the Persians was discovered to the Phocians in this
manner: whilst they were ascending the mountain they were totally
concealed by the thick groves of oak; but from the stillness of the air
they were discovered by the noise they made by trampling on the leaves,
a thing which might naturally happen. The Phocians ran to arms, and in a
moment the barbarians appeared, who, seeing a number of men precipitately
arming themselves, were at first struck with astonishment. They did not
expect an adversary; and they had fallen in among armed troops. Hydarnes,
apprehending that the Phocians might prove to be Lacedæmonians, inquired
of Ephialtes who they were. When he was informed, he drew up the Persians
in order of battle. The Phocians, not able to sustain the heavy flight
of arrows, retreated up the mountain, imagining themselves the objects
of this attack, and expecting certain destruction: but the troops with
Hydarnes and Ephialtes did not think it worth their while to pursue them,
and descended rapidly down the opposite side of the mountain.
[Illustration: LEONIDAS (BY DAVID)]
To those Greeks stationed in the straits of Thermopylæ, Megistias the
soothsayer had previously, from inspection of the entrails, predicted
that death awaited them in the morning. Some deserters had also informed
them of the circuit the Persians had taken; and this intelligence was
in the course of the night circulated through the camp. All this was
confirmed by their sentinels, who early in the morning fled down the
sides of the mountain. In this predicament, the Greeks called a council,
who were greatly divided in their opinions: some were for remaining on
their station, others advised a retreat. In consequence of their not
agreeing, many of them dispersed to their respective cities; a part
resolved to continue with Leonidas.
It is said, that those who retired only did so in compliance with the
wishes of Leonidas, who was desirous to preserve them: but he thought
that he himself, with his Spartans, could not without the greatest
ignominy forsake the post they had come to defend. Obedient to the
direction of their leader, the confederates retired. The Thespians
and Thebans[30] alone remained with the Spartans, the Thebans indeed
very reluctantly, but they were detained by Leonidas as hostages. The
Thespians were very zealous in the cause, and refusing to abandon their
friends, perished with them. The leader of the Thespians was Demophilus,
son of Diadromas.
_The Final Assault_
Xerxes early in the morning offered a solemn libation, then waiting
till the hour of full forum, he advanced from his camp: to the above
measure he had been advised by Ephialtes. The descent from the mountain
is much shorter than the circuitous ascent. The barbarians with Xerxes
approached; Leonidas and his Greeks proceeded, as to inevitable death, a
much greater space from the defile than they had yet done. Till now they
had defended themselves behind their entrenchment, fighting in the most
contracted part of the passage; but on this day they engaged on a wider
space, and a multitude of their opponents fell. Behind each troop of
Persians, officers were stationed with whips in their hands, compelling
with blows their men to advance. Many of them fell into the sea, where
they perished; many were trodden under foot by their own troops, without
exciting the smallest pity or regard. The Greeks, conscious that their
destruction was at hand from those who had taken the circuit of the
mountain, exerted themselves with the most desperate valour against their
barbarian assailants.
Their spears being broken in pieces, they had recourse to their swords.
Leonidas fell in the engagement, having greatly signalised himself; and
with him, many Spartans of distinction, as well as others of inferior
note. Many illustrious Persians also were slain, among whom were
Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, sons of Darius.
These two brothers of Xerxes fell as they were contending for the body
of Leonidas: here the conflict was the most severe, till at length the
Greeks by their superior valour four times repelled the Persians, and
drew aside the body of their prince. In this situation they continued
till Ephialtes and his party approached. As soon as the Greeks perceived
them at hand, the scene was changed, and they retreated to the narrowest
part of the pass. Having repassed their entrenchment, they posted
themselves, all except the Thebans, in a compact body, upon a hill, which
is at the entrance of the straits, and where a lion of stone has been
erected in honour of Leonidas. In this situation, they who had swords
left, used them against the enemy, the rest exerted themselves with their
hands and their teeth. The barbarians rushing upon them, some in front,
after overturning their wall, others surrounding and pressing them in all
directions, finally overpowered them.
Such was the conduct of the Lacedæmonians and Thespians; but none of
them distinguished themselves so much as Dieneces the Spartan. A speech
of his is recorded, which he made before they came to any engagement. A
certain Trachinian having observed that the barbarians would send forth
such a shower of arrows that their multitude would obscure the sun;
he replied, like a man ignorant of fear, and despising the numbers of
the Medes, “our Trachinian friend promises us great advantages; if the
Medes obscure the sun’s light, we shall fight them in the shade, and
be protected from the heat.” Many other sayings have been handed down
as monuments of this man’s fame. Next to him, the most distinguished
of the Spartans were, Alpheus and Maron, two brothers, the sons of
Orisiphantus; of the Thespians, the most conspicuous was Dithyrambus,
son of Harmatidas. All these were interred in the place where they
fell, together with such of the confederates as were slain before
the separation of the forces by Leonidas. Upon their tomb was this
inscription:
“Here once, from Pelops’ seagirt region brought,
Four thousand men three hostile millions fought.”
This was applied to them all collectively. The Spartans were thus
distinguished:
“Go, stranger, and to list’ning Spartans tell,
That here, obedient to their laws, we fell.”
There was one also appropriated to the prophet Megistias:
“By Medes cut off beside Sperchius’ wave,
The seer Megistias fills this glorious grave:
Who stood the fate he well foresaw to meet,
And, link’d with Sparta’s leaders, scorn’d retreat.”
All these ornaments and inscriptions, that of Megistias alone excepted,
were here placed by the Amphictyons.
Of these three hundred, there were two named Eurytus and Aristodemus;
both of them, consistently with the discipline of their country,
might have secured themselves by retiring to Sparta, for Leonidas had
permitted them to leave the camp; but they continued at Alpenus, being
both afflicted by a violent disorder of the eyes: or, if they had not
thought proper to return home, they had the alternative of meeting
death in the field with their fellow-soldiers. In this situation, they
differed in opinion what conduct to pursue. Eurytus having heard of the
circuit made by the Persians, called for his arms, and putting them
on, commanded his helot to conduct him to the battle. The slave did
so, and immediately fled, whilst his master died fighting valiantly.
Aristodemus pusillanimously stayed where he was. If either Aristodemus,
being individually diseased, had retired home, or if they had returned
together, we cannot think that the Spartans could have shown any
resentment against them; but as one of them died in the field, which the
other, who was precisely in the same circumstances, refused to do, it was
impossible not to be greatly incensed against Aristodemus.
Aristodemus, on his return, was branded with disgrace and infamy; no
one would speak with him; no one would supply him with fire; and the
opprobrious term of trembler was annexed to his name; but he afterwards,
at the battle of Platæa, effectually atoned for his former conduct. It
is also said that another of the three hundred survived; his name was
Pantites, and he had been sent on some business to Thessaly. Returning to
Sparta, he felt himself in disgrace, and put an end to his life.
The Thebans, under the command of Leontiades, hitherto constrained by
force, had fought with the Greeks against the Persians; but as soon
as they saw that the Persians were victorious, when Leonidas and his
party retired to the hill, they separated themselves from the Greeks.
In the attitude of suppliants they approached the barbarians, assuring
them, what was really the truth, that they were attached to the Medes;
that they had been among the first to render earth and water; that they
had only come to Thermopylæ on compulsion, and could not be considered
as accessory to the slaughter of the king’s troops. The Thessalians
confirming the truth of what they had asserted, their lives were
preserved. Some of them however were slain; for as they approached,
the barbarians put several to the sword; but the greater part, by the
order of Xerxes, had the royal marks impressed upon them, beginning
with Leontiades himself. Eurymachus his son was afterwards slain at the
head of four hundred Thebans, by the people of Platæa, whilst he was
making an attempt upon their city. In this manner the Greeks fought at
Thermopylæ.[b]
DISCREPANT ACCOUNTS OF THE DEATH OF LEONIDAS
Such is the story of this memorable contest as Herodotus tells it. He
is our most important source by far, and his simple words give a more
realistic picture than is conveyed by any modern paraphrase. It is well
to recall, however, that there are discrepant accounts of the death
of Leonidas. None of these is so plausible as the description just
given, but two of them are worth citing, to illustrate the historical
uncertainties that attach to the subject.[a] Plutarch, in his parallels
between the Romans and Greeks, thus describes the death of Leonidas:
“Whilst they were at dinner, the barbarians fell upon them: upon which
Leonidas desired them to eat heartily, for they were to sup with Pluto.
Leonidas charged at the head of his troops, and after receiving a
multitude of wounds, got up to Xerxes himself, and snatched the crown
from his head. He lost his life in the attempt; and Xerxes, causing his
body to be opened, found his heart hairy. So says Aristides, in his first
book of his Persian History.” This fiction seems to have been taken from
the λασιόν κῆρ of Homer.
Diodorus Siculus tells us that Leonidas, when he knew that he was
circumvented, made a bold attempt by night to penetrate to the tent of
Xerxes; but this the Persian king had forsaken on the first alarm. The
Greeks however proceeded in search of him from one side to the other,
and slew a prodigious multitude. When morning approached, the Persians
perceiving the Greeks so few in number, held them in contempt; but they
still did not dare to attack them in front; encompassing them on both
sides, and behind, they slew them all with their spears. Such was the end
of Leonidas and his party.[c]
AFTER THERMOPYLÆ
Where the Spartans fell, they were afterwards buried: their tomb, as
Simonides sang, was an altar; a sanctuary, in which Greece revered the
memory of her second founders.
The inscription of the monument raised over the slain, who died from
first to last in defence of the pass, recorded that four thousand men
from the Peloponnesus had fought at Thermopylæ with three hundred
myriads. We ought not to expect accuracy in these numbers: the list in
Herodotus, if the Locrian force is only supposed equal to the Phocian,
exceeds six thousand men: the Phocians, it must be remembered, were
not engaged. But it is not easy to reconcile either account with the
historian’s statement, that the Grecian dead amounted to four thousand,
unless we suppose that the helots, though not numbered, formed a large
part of the army of Leonidas. The lustre of his achievement is not
diminished by their presence. He himself and his Spartans no doubt
considered their persevering stand in the post entrusted to them, not as
an act of high and heroic devotion, but of simple and indispensable duty.
Their spirit spoke in the lines inscribed upon their monument, which bade
the passenger tell their countrymen, that they had fallen in obedience to
their laws.
The Persians are said to have lost twenty thousand men: among them were
several of royal blood. To console himself for this loss, and to reap the
utmost advantage from his victory, Xerxes sent over to the fleet, which,
having heard of the departure of the Greeks, was now stationed on the
north coast of Eubœa, and by public notice invited all who were curious,
to see the chastisement he had inflicted on the men who had dared to defy
his power. That he had previously buried the greater part of his own dead
seems natural enough, and such an artifice, so slightly differing from
the universal practice of both ancient and modern belligerents, scarcely
deserved the name of a stratagem. He is said also to have mutilated the
body of Leonidas, and as this was one of the foremost he found on a field
which had cost him so dear, we are not at liberty to reject the tradition
on the ground that such ferocity was not consistent with the respect
usually paid by the Persians to a gallant enemy.
At Thermopylæ Xerxes learnt a lesson which he had refused to receive from
the warnings of Demaratus; and he inquired, with altered spirit, whether
he had to expect many such obstacles in the conquest of Greece. The
Spartan told him that there were eight thousand of his countrymen, who
would all be ready to do what Leonidas had done, and that at the isthmus
he would meet with a resistance more powerful and obstinate than at
Thermopylæ. But if, instead of attacking the Peloponnesus on this side,
where he would find its whole force collected to withstand him, he sent a
detachment of his fleet to seize the island of Cythera, and to infest the
coast of Laconia, the confederacy would be distracted, and its members,
deprived of their head and perhaps disunited, would successively yield to
his arms. The plan, whether Demaratus or Herodotus was the author, found
no supporters in the Persian council.
He had now the key of northern Greece in his hands, and it only remained
to determine towards which side he should first turn his arms. The
Thessalians, who ever since his arrival in their country had been zealous
in his service, now resolved to make use of their influence, and to
direct the course of the storm to their own advantage. These Thessalians,
who are mentioned on this occasion by Herodotus without any more precise
description, were probably the same nobles who, against the wishes of
their nation, had invited and forwarded the invasion. They had now an
opportunity of gratifying either their cupidity or their revenge; and
they sent to the Phocians to demand a bribe of fifty talents, as the
price at which they would consent to avert the destruction which was
impending over Phocis. The Phocians however either did not trust their
faith, or would not buy their safety of a hated rival. The Thessalians
then persuaded Xerxes to cross that part of the Œtean chain which
separates the vale of the Sperchius from the little valley of Doris.
The Dorians were spared, as friends. Those of the Phocians who had the
means of escaping took refuge on the high plains that lie under the
topmost peaks of Parnassus, or at Amphissa. But on all that remained in
their homes, on the fields, the cities, the temples of the devoted land,
the fury of the invader, directed and stimulated by the malice of the
Thessalians, poured undistinguishing ruin. Fire and sword, the cruelty
and the lust of irritated spoilers, ravaged the vale of the Cephisus
down to the borders of Bœotia. The rich sanctuary of Apollo at Abæ was
sacked and burnt, and fourteen towns shared its fate. At Panopeus, Xerxes
divided his forces; or rather detached a small body round the foot of
Parnassus to Delphi, with orders to strip the temple of its treasures,
and lay them at his feet. He had learnt their value from the best
authority at Sardis. The great army turned off toward the lower vale of
the Cephisus, to pursue its march through Bœotia to Athens.[h]
FOOTNOTES
[26] Beneath is the number of Greeks who appeared on this occasion,
according to the different representations of Herodotus, Pausanias, and
Diodorus Siculus:
HERODOTUS. PAUSANIAS. DIODORUS.
Spartans 300 300 300
Tegeatæ 500 500 Lacedæmonians 700
Mantineans 500 500 The other
Orchomenians 120 120 nations of the
Arcadians 1,000 1,000 Peloponnesus 3,000
Corinthians 400 400
Phliasians 200 200
Mycenæans 80 80
----- ----- -----
Totals 3,100 3,100 4,000
The above came from the Peloponnesus; those who came from the other parts
of Greece were, according to the authors above mentioned:
Thespians 700 700 Milesians 1,000
Thebans 400 400 400
Phocians 1,000 1,000 1,000
Opuntian Locrians 6,000 7,400
----- ------ -----
Totals 5,200 11,200 7,400[c]
[27] [Plutarch upbraids Herodotus for thus slandering the Thebans; and
Diodorus says, that Thebes was divided into two parties, one of which
sent four hundred men to Thermopylæ.[c]] [Bury[d] thinks it is certain
that this tale was invented in the light of Thebes’ later Median policy.]
[28] [This was continued for seven days at Sparta. Various reasons
are assigned for its institution; Theocritus says it commemorated the
cessation of a pestilence.[c]]
[29] [According to Plutarch, Leonidas being asked how he dared to
encounter so prodigious a multitude with so few men, replied: “If you
reckon by number, all Greece is not able to oppose a small part of that
army; but if by courage, the number I have with me is sufficient.”]
[30] [Diodorus Siculus speaks only of the Thespians. Pausanias says that
the people of Mycenæ sent eighty men to Thermopylæ, who had part in this
glorious day; and in another place he says that all the allies retired
before the battle, except the Thespians and people of Mycenæ.[e]]
[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE TOMB OF LEONIDAS OF SPARTA]
[Illustration: ELEUSIS, PART OF THE ISLAND OF SALAMIS]