YEAR | IMPORTS | EXPORTS
------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------
| Amount | | Amount |
| in | Value in | in | Value in
| pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars
| | | |
1851 | 603,398 | ---- | 10,361,189 | ----
1852 | 514,337 | ---- | 6,650,420 | ----
1853 | 874,949 | ---- | 3,763,932 | ----
1854 | 969,417 | ---- | 7,003,974 | ----
1855 | 1,526,942 | ---- | 4,846,568 | ----
1856 | 1,384,272 | ---- | 8,737,029 | ----
1857 | 1,400,252 | ---- | 6,453,072 | ----
1858 | 1,589,066 | ---- | 8,098,527 | ----
1859 | 1,409,420 | ---- | 7,103,323 | ----
1860 | 1,401,161 | ---- | 15,515,799 | ----
1861 | 1,090,835 | ---- | 32,361,428 | ----
1862 | 594,822 | ---- | 34,052,678 | ----
1863 | 545,966 | ---- | 42,045,054 | ----
1864 | 836,127 | ---- | 47,751,329 | ----
1865 | 985,362 | ---- | 53,154,318 | ----
1866 | ---- | ---- | 36,411,985 | ----
1867 | 1,738,657 | ---- | 52,352,127 | ----
1868 | 2,997,994 | ---- | 51,097,203 | ----
1869 | ---- | ---- | 39,960,367 | ----
1870 | ---- | ---- | 57,296,327 | ----
1871 | ---- | ---- | 63,698,867 | ----
1872 | ---- | ---- | 66,204,025 | ----
1873 | ---- | ---- | 80,366,540 | ----
1874 | ---- | ---- | 90,611,077 | ----
1875 | ---- | ---- | 101,010,853 | ----
1876 | ---- | ---- | 97,676,264 | ----
1877 | ---- | ---- | 107,364,666 | ----
1878 | ---- | ---- | 123,783,736 | ----
1879 | ---- | ---- | 141,654,474 | ----
1880 | ---- | ---- | 127,553,907 | ----
1881 | ---- | ---- | 147,995,614 | ----
1882 | ---- | ---- | 127,989,782 | ----
1883 | ---- | ---- | 99,220,467 | ----
1884 | 6,243,014 | ---- | 112,869,575 | ----
1885 | 6,247,560 | ---- | 111,992,990 | ----
1886 | 6,309,124 | ---- | 91,877,235 |
1887 | 6,592,192 | ---- | 81,255,994 |
1888 | 8,750,185 | ---- | 88,008,458 |
1889 | 8,207,026 | ---- | 84,999,828 |
1890 | 9,263,573 | ---- | 95,376,053 |
1891 | 8,863,640 | ---- | 82,133,876 |
1892 | 8,305,288 | ---- | 82,100,221 |
1893 |10,195,924 | ---- | 81,350,923 |
1894 | 8,742,851 | ---- | 73,852,134 |
1895 |10,276,293 | ---- | 60,448,421 |
1896 |10,728,397 | ---- | 36,777,291 |
1897 |12,319,122 | ---- | 50,944,617 |
1898 |10,012,188 | ---- | 53,167,280 |
1899 |11,826,175 | ---- | 38,198,753 |
1900 |13,455,990 | ---- | 48,419,353 |
1901 |15,329,099 | ---- | 39,813,517 |
1902 |17,067,714 |$2,551,366| 27,203,184 |$2,745,597
1903 |20,671,384 | 3,183,224| 18,987,178 | 2,250,229
1904 |22,707,103 | 3,284,811| 23,335,172 | 2,452,239
1905 |23,095,705 | 3,379,600| 10,134,424 | 1,084,044
1906 |27,286,866 | 4,303,830| 16,562,451 | 1,940,620
1907 |33,848,766 | 5,704,012| 17,285,230 | 2,012,626
1908 |32,530,830 | 5,586,706| 8,439,031 | 1,092,053
1909 |35,548,143 | 5,866,154| 6,822,842 | 857,091
1910 |40,817,524 | 7,053,570| 2,846,709 | 441,017
1911 |45,568,797 | 7,920,244| 10,366,605 | 1,288,279
1912 |46,542,007 | 8,807,249| 6,337,559 | 898,035
1913 |49,387,944 | 9,185,184| 2,599,058 | 441,186
1914 |63,784,313 |11,010,693| 2,427,577 | 414,124
1915 |50,138,520 | 9,370,048| 55,362,917 | 8,463,174
1916 |30,087,999 | 7,058,420| 44,394,301 | 7,430,089
------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------
The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and
imports of cheese into the United States.
+305. Average yearly price of cheese.+--The following table shows the
average yearly price of Cheddar cheese in the United States:
TABLE XXIII
SHOWING THE AVERAGE YEARLY PRICE OF CHEESE, 1892-1916
YEAR CENTS
1892 9.4
1893 9.4
1894 9.7
1895 9.1
1896 8.4
1897 9.1
1898 8.6
1899 8.6
1900 10.2
1901 9.9
1902 10.1
1903 11.9
1904 10.5
1905 10.7
1906 11.7
1907 11.6
1908 12.9
1909 12.6
1910 15.5
1911 12.4
1912 14.2
1913 17.0
1914 17.1
1915 15.3
1916 16.7
The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased
from 9.4 cents a pound to 16.7 cents.
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Average yearly price of cheese.]
+306. Canadian cheese statistics.+--The following statistics show the
development of the industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show
the number of cheese factories, the amount of milk received and the
total production in Canada.
Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased
but that the production has increased. Because of the scarcity of
figures, conclusions would not be accurate.
The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the
exports gradually decreased and the imports increased. If the production
has increased, as shown in Table XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by
the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably seen in the year 1916,
when the imports are decreased and the exports increased.
TABLE XXIV
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF CHEESE FACTORIES, AMOUNT OF
MILK RECEIVED AND THE FACTORY PRODUCTION OF
CHEESE
-------+------------+---------------+---------------
| NUMBER OF | POUNDS OF | FACTORY
YEAR | CHEESE | MILK | PRODUCTION
| FACTORIES | DELIVERED | OF CHEESE
-------+------------+---------------+---------------
1900 | ---- | ---- | 220,833,269
| | |
1907 | ---- | ---- | 204,788,583
| | |
1910 | 2291 | ---- | 199,904,205
| | |
1915 | 1871 | 1,501,946,221 | 183,887,837
| | |
1916 | 1813 | 1,503,997,215 | 192,968,597
-------+------------+---------------+---------------
TABLE XXV
SHOWING THE AMOUNT AND VALUE OF CANADIAN EXPORTS AND
IMPORTS OF CHEESE
------+--------------------------+----------------------
Year | Exports | Imports
------+-------------+------------+-----------+----------
| Amount in | Value in | Amount in | Value in
| pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars
------+-------------+------------+-----------+----------
1880 | 40,368,000 | $3,893,000 | |
| | | |
1890 | 94,260,000 | 9,372,212 | |
| | | |
1900 | 185,984,000 | 19,856,324 | |
| | | |
1910 | 180,859,000 | 21,607,692 | 683,778 | ----
| | | |
1911 | 181,895,000 | 20,739,507 | 866,653 | ----
| | | |
1912 | 163,450,000 | 20,888,818 | 919,189 | ----
| | | |
1913 | 155,216,000 | 20,697,000 | 1,495,758 | ----
| | | |
1914 | 144,478,000 | 18,866,000 | 1,512,108 | ----
| | | |
1915 | 137,601,000 | 19,213,000 | 1,162,456 | ----
| | | |
1916 | 168,961,000 | ---- | 971,821 | ----
------+-------------+------------+-----------+----------
If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million
and the difference between the exports and imports found and added to
the total production, it shows that the average person must consume
about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year.
In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the
foreign cheeses, such as Camembert and Roquefort.
+307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.+--The manufacture
of Cheddar cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany
Mountains, in Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in
the western states. There has also sprung up a considerable demand for
the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchâtel and Cottage, so
that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the
total production will probably increase. In the proper locations or
sections, the cheese industry has a very bright future. The development
of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly be given considerable
attention in the next few years.
REFERENCES
N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State.
N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery.
Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666.
Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411.
Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482.
Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149.
U. S. Census.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books.
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
Statistical abstract of the U. S.
Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage
commissioner.
Dominion of Canada, Census and Statistics office, Rept. 1915.
CHAPTER XIX
_TESTING_
In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the
products should be practiced, to determine exactly the results and
grades of products. This includes the testing of the whole milk, whey
and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for moisture. In
factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary
to test each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in
the state, it is necessary to test for moisture. The whey should be
tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing process and to
ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum.
+308. The fat test.+--The test commonly used to determine the fat in
milk is known as the Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows:
Fat exists in the form of very small globules. Because the fat globules
are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the influence of the
force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the
other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock
found that by adding to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and
temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and the albumin are decomposed
and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does not
decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the
mixture. Under centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the
surface. By using a known quantity of milk and having a scale graduated
in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of fat can be
determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for
fat and total solids.]
There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a
very large neck which is used when testing materials high in fat-content
such as cream, butter and cheese. This is generally called a cream-test
bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 50 per cent. When testing materials
with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a
test bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat
and the other neck with a larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It
is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is a third bottle
between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk
bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware
should comply with the laws.
+309. Sampling the milk.+--One of the most important parts of testing is
to obtain a fair sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a
vat or in a farmer's can or a composite sample jar. If the milk is
bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not tested daily, but a
small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a
jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to
number the patrons and have a sample bottle for each patron with his
number on it. Some substance must be added to preserve the milk and to
keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a fair
sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk
samples. This must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when
milk is added to the composite sample, the bottles should be shaken to
prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are tested at least twice a
month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in the
vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be
avoided as this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the
cream is removed from the sides of the sample bottle and that it is
evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of milk is now measured
out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk, and
holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of
the right hand with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk
by suction with the lips until it is filled well above the graduation.
Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right angles to the
pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk
to run down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To
obtain an accurate reading, the pipette should be on a level with the
eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test bottle in a slanting
position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an
inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side
of the neck of the bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the
escaping air. When all has run out of the pipette, blow out the drop
which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample in the same
way, as the test should be made in duplicate.
+310. Adding the acid.+--The sulfuric acid should have a specific
gravity between 1.82 and 1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered
bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air,
which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the
fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact
with the flesh or the clothing. In such case, it should be removed by
washing with plenty of water. An alkaline substance such as ammonia or
bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid not washed
away.
The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the
graduation. Then this acid should be added to the test bottle. The
bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated so that the acid
will rinse down any milk remaining in the neck of the bottle.
Immediately mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in
a circle five or six inches in diameter. The mixture should not be
allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while mixing. Continue shaking
for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One should avoid
pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing
operation. The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat
and generates much heat.
+311. Centrifuging.+--There are two machines in common use for
centrifuging, one that runs by mechanical power and the other smaller
and runs by hand. If the machine and atmosphere are very cold, the
apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is not
necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of
samples to test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine
there are pockets or cups in which to set the test bottles. The machine
or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in opposite pockets. These
pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an
upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a
horizontal position. The machine should then be covered and started
running. It should be run at the speed indicated. After five minutes,
stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to the neck.
This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A
pipette or slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl
the bottles two minutes, then add more boiling water to bring the fat
column into the graduated part of the neck of the bottle. Then whirl one
minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a
temperature of 130° to 140° F. until ready to read.
+312. Reading the test.+--To read the test, subtract the reading at the
bottom of the fat column from that at the highest point. The curved
meniscus which always forms at the top of the fat column should be
included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary more than O.2
of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always
be used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all
glassware and mark it to make certain that it conforms to the
requirements of the state law. In New York, glassware found to be
correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states a
person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on
the fat test. Such a person must pass an examination to show that he
understands the test before a license, will be granted. The license may
be revoked if the work is not honestly performed.
+313. Testing whey for fat.+--Because of the small amount of fat in
whey, it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The best way,
if the entire amount cannot be placed in a vat and stirred, is to catch
a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat. The
sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk
and placed in the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to
test whey as to test milk but because there are not so many solids to
destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is used with whey as with
milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the
test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except
the fat, or enough to turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown.
This usually requires filling the acid measure one-quarter of an inch
under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same as for whole
milk.
+314. Testing cheese for fat.+--The sample of cheese to test for fat is
obtained by removing the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is
called a "plug." Different plugs from the same cheese will test various
percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a representative
sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center,
another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs
should be put into glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of
moisture. These plugs are then chopped up very fine. It is of course
impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and whey, but it is
weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a
spatula until well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of
the test bottle. After being weighed, it can be dissolved in a little
sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different amounts may be
used, commonly 4½ or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is
placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat
than can be read in a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in
the test bottle, about two-thirds of an acid-measure of warm water is
added to assist in dissolving the cheese.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.]
The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles
are not destroyed, and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid
will complete the solution. Centrifuging is performed as with the milk.
+315. Reading the test.+--In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much
wider that there is a much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an
accurate result, the meniscus should be removed. This is done by
carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral oil
colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to
the fat column. This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be
placed in a hot water bath 135° to 140° F. for four minutes before
reading. The temperature at reading should be 135° to 140° F. The
reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the line
between this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams of
material, but as only a part of 18 grams of cheese was used for the
test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of 18 grams used. For
example, suppose 6 grams of cheese were used and the test read 12 per
cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3
times 12, or 36 per cent.
+316. The Hart[134] casein test+ was devised to determine the percentage
of casein in milk. A special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary.
The method of making the test is as follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform
in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per cent solution of
acetic acid at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. This solution of acetic
acid is made by diluting 10 c.c. of glacial acetic acid with 100 c.c. of
water, then dilute 25 c.c. of this solution to 1000 c.c. with water; 5
c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. is then run into the
bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and inverted and the
mixture shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. It is then
centrifuged within twenty minutes at a speed of 2000 revolutions a
minute. The bottle should stand ten minutes before reading the
percentage of casein. There are other tests for casein but they are very
complicated.
+317. Solids in the milk.+--Because not only the fat but all the solids
are utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the
solids in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific
gravity of the milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can
then be calculated.
+318. The lactometer.+--The specific gravity of liquids is measured by
an instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that
when a solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid
equal in weight to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that
the specific gravity can be read at the point where the scale is even
with the upper surface of the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially
adapted to milk is called a lactometer. There are two lactometers in
common use, the Quevenne and the Board of Health.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--A Quevenne lactometer.]
_The Quevenne lactometer._--This is a long slender hollow piece of glass
weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright
position (Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale.
This scale is graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each
reading on the scale corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on
a hydrometer, except that the figures are not complete. For example, 15
on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of
30 on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on.
The Quevenne lactometer is graduated to give correct results at a
temperature of 60° F. The milk should be at this temperature. If the
temperature is below or above this, a correction must be made to the
reading. The temperature should not be more than 10 degrees above or
below 60° F. The correction for each degree in variation of temperature
can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the lactometer
reading, as the case may be. If the temperature is above 60° F., the
correction is added to the lactometer and if it is below 60° F., the
correction is subtracted from the lactometer reading. The reading should
be taken when the lactometer is floating free in the milk. The scale is
read exactly at the surface of the milk. The better lactometers have a
thermometer with the scale just above or opposite the lactometer scale.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A Board of Health lactometer.]
_The Board of Health lactometer._--This is very similar to the Quevenne
lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72).
The point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in
water is represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of
1.029. On the Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions
from 0 to 100 equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one
division on the Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the
Quevenne. To convert Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by
0.29 and to convert Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The
correction for temperatures above or below 60° F. is made the same as
with the Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading
instead of 0.1 as with the Quevenne.
+319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.+--When the lactometer
reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several
formulas for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas,
L equals Quevenne lactometer reading at 60° F., and F equals the
percentage of fat in the milk:
L + 0.7 F
--------- = S.N.F
3.8
L + F
----- = S.N.F.
4
L
- + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F.
4
+320. Testing cheese for moisture.+[135]--There are two methods of
testing cheese for moisture. The following is a simple test devised by
H. C. Troy:
The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a
flame, cannot be used for determining the percentage of water in cheese
because the high temperature developed in operating that test drives
from he cheese other substances with the water. Also, particles are lost
by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity in
the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the
new method here described has been developed for the purpose of
determining the percentage of moisture in cheese. The apparatus consists
of:
1 double-walled copper drying cup
1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200°
1 alcohol lamp
1 tripod
1 special flask
1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram
1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams
The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the
parts is a jacket that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a
flat bottom 4½ inches in diameter, and the perpendicular wall is
4½ inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat
bottom 2¾ inches in diameter and a side wall 3¾ inches high. A
flange attached to the upper rim of the inner part extends out at right
angles to the cup wall and forms a cover for the space between the walls
when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent down around its
outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket.
It thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about ¾
inch wide for oil between the walls and bottoms, and permits the
apparatus to be taken apart readily. A circular opening about ½ inch
in diameter is made through the flange to permit the insertion of a
thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat
which is used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best
for use in this space; a readily inflammable oil should not be employed.
The thermometer may be permanently held in place by passing it snugly
through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted into the
hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when
making a test. This cover has a hole through the center just large
enough to permit the neck of the drying flask to extend up through it.
The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a constant
temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The
thermometer should register changes in temperature between zero and 200°
C. The alcohol lamp should yield a flame about ¼ inch in diameter and
¾ inch high. The tripod should be about 6 inches high and of proper
diameter at the top to support the oil bath.
An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to
fit neatly into the oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during
the drying operation; but a special glass flask serves better. It is
made with a flat bottom 2½ inches in diameter, which will fit into
the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be
perpendicular for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in
toward the base of the neck, which should be located about 2 inches
above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch in diameter,
with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total
height of 4¾ inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for
the first time, the melted fat or oil may be placed in the outer jacket
and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or the parts may be
put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the
cup walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The
oil should fill the space to within an inch of the top. The cork
through which the thermometer has been passed is then fitted into the
opening. The thermometer bulb should be placed in the oil about half an
inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed
on the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame ½ inch in diameter and
¾ inch high will give sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper
temperature. The temperature may be regulated by raising or lowering the
lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting the wick.
Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or
changing the oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The
other parts may be ordered through any dairy or chemical supply company.
[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for
moisture.]
In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the
oil bath may be warming while the test sample is under preparation. A
representative sample of the cheese, which may be taken with a
cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into
particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from
the jar. This may be accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has
had the end squared and sharpened. The clean dry flask is then
accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is placed in the
opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put
into the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care
should be taken to avoid loss of moisture from the cheese in the
preparation of the sample.
With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140° and 145°
C. (or between 284° and 293° F.), the flask is placed in the cup of the
oil bath and the flat disk-shaped cover is adjusted over the apparatus.
The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes, the temperature
being kept between 140° and 145° C. all the time. The flask is then
removed, covered and allowed to cool to room temperature in a dry place.
It is then weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing the loss in
weight by the original weight, multiplied by 100, gives the percentage
of water in the cheese. The following shows the method of computation:
Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it
was evaporated. The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What
percentage of water did the cheese contain?
Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85
1.85 ÷ 5 = 0.37
0.37 × 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese)
A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for
weighing out the 5 grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount
of moisture in 10 grams of butter by percentage graduations on its beam
or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to multiply by 2 the
percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5
grams of cheese is used.
The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese
and drying it in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens
have been devised.
New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may
be incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per
cent and Wisconsin at 40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above
this, the cheese must be branded adulterated.
CHAPTER XX
_MARKETING_
Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the
raw material, the milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product,
the cheese.
+321. Buying milk.+--The method of paying for the milk differs in the
various cheese sections and factories. At some factories a stated price
is paid for the milk or the fat. This is usually in terms of 100 pounds
of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with concerns
possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and
after each sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are
deducted and the remainder of the money divided among the patrons. This
money is divided either on the basis of the number of pounds of milk or
of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better method
to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money
received from a sale of cheese.
+322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.+--Let us suppose that at a
cheese factory there were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk
testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat;
(C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100 pounds of milk
testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per
cent fat. Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese
containing 37 per cent moisture which 100 pounds of milk containing
different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese sold net for 20
cents a pound.
TABLE XXVI
SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON THE ACTUAL YIELD
OF CHEESE
=====================================================================
PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | YIELD OF CHEESE | PRICE A | AMOUNT
| OF MILK | OF FAT IN | CONTAINING | POUND | DUE EACH
| DELIVERED | MILK | 37% MOISTURE | | PATRON
-------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+---------
A | 100 | 3.0 | 8.30 | $.20 | $1.66
B | 100 | 3.5 | 9.45 | .20 | 1.89
C | 100 | 4.0 | 10.60 | .20 | 2.12
D | 100 | 4.5 | 11.74 | .20 | 2.348
E | 100 | 5.0 | 12.90 | .20 | 2.58
-------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+---------
Total | 500 | 20 | 52.99 | .20 | 10.598
=====================================================================
This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the
money were divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese.
+323. Fat basis for payment of milk.+--Let us suppose that the same five
patrons delivered the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages
of fat and that the cheese sold for the same price. A total of 20 pounds
of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598; by dividing this
amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound
of fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron
delivered by the price a pound would give the amount of money due each
patron.
TABLE XXVII
SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON FAT-CONTENT OF
MILK
===================================================================
| POUNDS | PER CENT | POUNDS OF | VALUE OF |
PATRON | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | FAT | POUND OF | AMOUNT DUE
| DELIVERED | MILK | DELIVERED | FAT | EACH PATRON
-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+------------
A | 100 | 3.0 | 3.0 | $.5299 | $1.58
B | 100 | 3.5 | 3.5 | .5299 | 1.85
C | 100 | 4.0 | 4.0 | .5299 | 2.12
D | 100 | 4.5 | 4.5 | .5299 | 2.38
E | 100 | 5.0 | 5.0 | .5299 | 2.65
===================================================================
+324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.+--By this
system, each patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk.
If the same supposition is taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of
milk delivered and the cheese sold for $10.59; each 100 pounds of milk
would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal weight of milk,
each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12.
+325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.+--Some workers have
thought that by adding two to the fat test, the division of money would
be more nearly the true cheese-producing value of the milk. The amount
due each patron is figured as in the fat basis, except that two is added
to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same
suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount
shown in Table XXVIII.
+326. Comparison of methods.+--The best way to judge the different
methods of paying for milk is to compare them with the true value based
on the actual cheese yield as shown in Table XXIX.
TABLE XXVIII
SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BY FAT-PLUS-TWO METHODS
===========================================================================
PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | FAT PLUS | POUNDS | VALUE OF | AMOUNT
| OF MILK | OF FAT IN | TWO | OF FAT | POUND OF | DUE EACH
| DELIVERED | MILK | | DELIVERED | FAT | PATRON
-------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+---------
A | 100 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | $.353 | $1.76
B | 100 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | .353 | 1.94
C | 100 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | .353 | 2.12
D | 100 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | .353 | 2.29
E | 100 | 5.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | .353 | 2.47
===========================================================================
TABLE XXIX
SHOWING THE COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS
OF PAYING FOR MILK AT CHEESE FACTORIES
================================================================
| | ERROR IN PAYMENT PER 100 POUNDS OF MILK BY
PATRON | PERCENTAGE +----------------+-----------+--------------
| OF FAT IN | POOLING SYSTEM | FAT BASIS | FAT-PLUS-TWO
| MILK | | | METHOD
-------+------------+----------------+-----------+--------------
A | 3.0 | +$0.46 | -$0.08 | +$0.10
B | 3.5 | +0.23 | -0.04 | +0.05
C | 4.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00
D | 4.5 | -0.23 | +0.04 | -0.05
E | 5.0 | -0.46 | +0.08 | -0.10
================================================================
A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in
favor of the dairy-man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors
the dairy-man with the rich milk. This is due, of course, to the fact
that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in proportion to the
fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is
taken of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to
recognize the casein, but considers the percentage of casein in all milk
to be the same. This method is in favor of the dairy-man with milk low
in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter system
considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It
favors the dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment
recognizes only the fat and is an advantage to the dairy-man with the
high-testing milk but not to the extent that the pooling system is in
favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2 per
cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing
milk. Other methods[136] of paying for milk have been devised. Because
the actual yield of cheese from the milk of different herds cannot be
easily determined at the cheese factory, this method of payment cannot
be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same
breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage,
the fat basis is usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay
for the milk.
+327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.+--Many states have
laws regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be
produced. These laws relate principally to the condition of the stables,
the health of the cow, the food given the cow, and the care of the milk.
The following law[137] of Wisconsin is a good example:
"Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all
prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other
section of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or
supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated
milk or adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall
mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk
fat, or milk containing less than eight and one-half per
centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows
within eight days before or four days after parturition,
or milk from which any part of the cream has been
removed, or milk which has been diluted with water or any
other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which
has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or
preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any
foreign substance whatsoever, or milk drawn from cows kept
in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any
sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running
sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or
milk in any stage of putrefaction, or milk contaminated by
being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals.
The term adulterated cream shall mean cream containing
less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken
from milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four
days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has
been added or introduced any coloring matter or chemical
or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any
foreign substance whatsoever, or cream from milk drawn
from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or
cream from milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow
having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk
drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or cream
contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or
other animals, or cream to which has been added or into
which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical
or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any
foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of
putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be
construed to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or
cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added
solely for the purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the
same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the
purchaser of its true character; and providing that
nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the
sale of milk commonly known as 'skimmed milk,' when the
same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from
cows within eight days before or four days after
parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which
has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or
preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk
drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean condition, or
milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having
ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows
fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept
in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream
from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction
are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or
unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be."
Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any
one selling milk which does not meet this standard is liable to be
fined. The laws of most states prohibit the taking of anything from the
milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the skimming and
watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such.
+328. Marketing of cheese.+--There are many different methods[138] of
selling cheese. Each is adapted to certain conditions and each has its
advantages and disadvantages. In cheese sections, the customary method
of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of the
cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a
certain day and hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are
different ways in which a board of trade may be operated. In some cases
there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In the first column,
the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of
cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names
of the different cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at
a stated time and asks that all cheese be placed on the blackboard. When
this is done he states that they are ready to receive bids on the
cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay
opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names.
After all the bids have been received and placed on the board, the
presiding officer states that a certain length of time, usually fifteen
minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese if he does
not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the
salesman stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and
number of boxes. At the close of the stated time, the presiding officer
declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the highest bidder. The
purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping.
Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the
factory salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members
elect a third and these three constitute the price committee. This
committee meets each week and determines what the price shall be. This
is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-buyers then try
to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons
concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a
price above the ruling is paid.
At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with
government assistance. On paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may
join. All the factories belonging to the organization ship their cheese
to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined and graded by a
government inspector. A cheese from each vat is tried. These cheeses are
separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality.
When the total number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold
at auction. The purchaser must accept the cheese as graded. The better
grades of cheese bring about the same price as on the market, but the
advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the
purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are
undergrade. The success of this plan depends on the accuracy of the
person grading the cheese. This method seems to be growing in
popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of
cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about
one-twelfth of a cent a pound, is charged for handling the cheese.
Similar organizations are in operation in Wisconsin. The boards of trade
and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar cheese.
+329. Mercantile exchanges.+--In the larger cities are exchanges where
cheese is bought and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The
prices paid these jobbers tend to fix the daily price of cheese. These
prices are published daily, for example, in New York Price Current. Some
factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are
the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4,
1915:
CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE
Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive
Committee in each year, the President shall appoint,
subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a
Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the
Exchange, who are known as members of the cheese trade, to
hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall
be the duty of the Cheese Committee to formulate such
rules and regulations as may be necessary for the
government of transactions between members of the
Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may
require. Such rules and revisions shall be subject to the
approval of the Executive Committee.
Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the
Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but
nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any
way, with the rights of members to make such special
contracts or conditions as they may desire.
Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to
arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward
the transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as
the seller previously held as regards its removal from the
place of delivery within the time granted by such lines
for that purpose. Transactions between members of this
Exchange shall be governed as follows: Any member
negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another
member, the price having been agreed upon, shall examine
such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after
such negotiation takes place. Failure to examine within
said time releases the seller from any obligations to make
delivery thereafter, if he so wishes.
Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese
purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready
and designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall
have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese
inspected, and weight tested, and shall not be liable for
the storage and insurance, if removed within two days.
Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or
dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six
business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer.
Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4
P.M. If buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons
for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair,
the seller shall at once notify the buyer that he declines
to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee,
which shall be composed of three members of the cheese
trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the
third selected from the cheese trade by these two, or,
they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the
Chairman of the Committee on Cheese. The Examining
Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in
dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per cent of each
mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their
decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing
to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned
by the other party before the Complaint Committee under
Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination
shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party
adjudged to be in fault.
Rule 6. The weight of all cheese shall be tested by a
regularly appointed official weigher, and his certificates
shall accompany the document conveying the title of the
property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the
Committee on Cheese, subject to the approval of the
Executive Committee.
Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents
per factory except where the owner requires more than ten
(10) boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty
(50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller.
Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight
of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten
(10) per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said
test shall be considered good for three (3) business days,
including day test is made.
Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights
shall be taken into the average on each particular
factory. Single Daisies shall be tested on half pounds,
Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds.
Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular
in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the
entire lot to be reweighed. The charge for same shall be
three (3) cents per box.
Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at
variance from original weights shall not enter into the
average, but their weight shall be separately ascertained
and certified to by the weigher.
Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged
or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall
be optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of
the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the
remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall
revert to the seller.
Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to
the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese
Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall
be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to
inspect the quality and condition of such lots of cheese
as may be required and to render a certificate of such
inspection. Where the cheese in the lots are reasonably
uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the
lot shall be considered sufficient, but this shall not
prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the
lot, when he deems it necessary. The fee for inspection
shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty
(50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50) boxes shall
be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the
member ordering the inspection.
Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made
to read as follows:
NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE
_Cheese Inspector's Certificate_
Inspection No.__________
This is to certify that I have this day inspected for M___________
the following cheese, now located at_____________________
Factory and identification marks_________________________
Quantity in lot__________________________________________boxes
Quantity inspected_______________________________________boxes
and find as follows:
Flavor_______________________________________________________________
Body and Texture_____________________________________________________
Color________________________________________________________________
Condition____________________________________________________________
Boxes________________________________________________________________
Grade________________________________________________________________
Inspection charges________________
_____________________________________Inspector_
The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at
the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of
Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that
the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the
requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand
one impression on both boxes and cheese.
NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE
OFFICIAL INSPECTION
Number_______________ Date___________________________
____________________________Inspector_
Rule 16. The Weigher's Certificate shall be made to read
as follows:
This is to certify that the following is the actual test of ______
boxes, out of shipment of ______ boxes
Factory Mark___________________________________________
Marked Weights_________________________________________
Actual Weights_________________________________________
Loss___________________________________________________
Average loss_______________lbs. on________________boxes
New York_____________________________19______
______________________ _Weigher_
and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed
on the back thereof.
Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call
shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color,
texture (open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how
boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims
and the average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the
Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or
otherwise, based on the description given at the sale.
Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless
otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate
shipment.
Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with
Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by
such Certificate and be accepted by the buyer
unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according
to Rule 13.
Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without
Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the
cheese a good delivery, according to description by
seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is
unwilling to make another delivery, the buyer may call
upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery
shall stand. If the Inspector decides it is a good
delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the
Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the
seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make
a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24)
hours, fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall
notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall
collect a penalty of three per cent of the amount of the
transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent
of this sum, and seventy-five per cent shall be paid to
the buyer.
Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash
unless otherwise agreed.
Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be
reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and
announced at next regular session of the Exchange.
+330. Marketing perishable varieties.+--Soft cheeses, such as Cream,
Neufchâtel, Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail
stores. They have a very short commercial life, hence cannot be held
long before delivery to the consumer. From the jobber, cheese usually
goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally
the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold
cheese without injury to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese
marketed in any locality depends on the tastes of the residents. For
example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking
this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands
a soft pasty quick-curing cheese, thinking that softness is a sign of
more fat and richness; England wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly
flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been standardized as far
as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period
keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery.
This has led to the sale of much of the cheese almost or entirely
unripe. So much of the product has reached the consumer without
characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the
habit of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A cheese cold storage room.]
The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on
the variety. Some are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses
with sour-milk flavor only. Others have to be cured in the factory from
six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should be neatly
wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be
neat, clean and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind
to hold them in shape. The boxes should be clean and the weight of
cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of Cheddar cheese, it may
be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the
cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure
or ripen while being handled by the various dealers.
+331. Distribution of price.+--The final selling price of cheese is a
composite of all the changes that have gone before; or conversely, the
farmer, the maker, the carrier and the distributors (wholesale, jobbing
and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of the
product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard,
and Hobson.[139] The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have
fairly wide application to the manufacture and sale of cheese.
Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for
the sale of the product. Where the output is small, a personal market
can be created and maintained. This eliminates all profits intervening
between the maker and the retailer. If the business reaches a volume
beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling
organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and
the selling machinery is well organized, the cheese factory becomes a
producer of a commodity which is turned over to existing selling
agencies. This condition is well established for Cheddar, Swiss, Brick
and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have thus
far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has
developed an expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig.
65) shows how the cheese industry is localized in particular sections of
certain states. Individual factories have maintained themselves in
widely separated places. This localization is due to the geographical
conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying,
modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many
regions, however, well adapted to cheese production in which there is no
development of the industry at present. New developments are now taking
place in the mountain areas of the South, notably North Carolina and
adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain states.
Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form.
The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the
Wisconsin investigators to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of
making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, 1/8 cent a pound a month, or
3/8 to ½ cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points,
$.20 to $2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local
dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5) the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the
jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about 1/8 to ¼ cent; and
the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time
this investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail
price of the cheese. The producer of milk received the other half of
that price.
+332. Standards.+--Legal standards in the United States are thus far
largely based on the specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as
they are applied to other products, they operate merely to prevent or
reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits proposed in the
discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of
composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical
quality. Efforts are now being made to establish definitions and
standards of composition which will limit the use of cheese names to
products conforming to the requirements for such varieties. Practically
the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is
that 50 per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be
milk-fat. Various states have local requirements but most of them
include the federal rule as to fat. New York and Wisconsin now restrict
the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states have
laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese.
+333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.+--A cheese of foreign origin if
made in this country must be branded to show that it is not imported.
For example, Camembert made in America is labeled Domestic Camembert.
Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of cheese. The same applies to
other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a
trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that
name. For example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other
concerns may make cream cheese, but they must call it by some other
name.
The committee on definitions and standards for the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper
use of type names. This is intended to determine the proper limits of
composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials of physical
identification as will insure the proper use of these names.
Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to
denote quality. If the cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be
applied to show this fact. This is usually called the state brand. If
made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show this. The
following[140] illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and
skimmed-milk cheese:
Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every
manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label
upon such cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the
date of the month and year when made; and no person shall
use such a brand or label upon any cheese made from milk
from which any of the cream has been taken. The
Commissioner of Agriculture shall procure and issue to the
cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application
therefor, and under such regulations as to the custody and
use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand
or labels bearing a suitable device or motto, and the
words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such
brand or label shall be used upon the outside of the
cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate
factory. The commissioner shall keep a book, in which
shall be registered the name, location and number of each
manufactory using the brands or labels, and the name or
names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use
the same. No such brand or labels shall be used upon any
other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the
same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of 1910.)
Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of
skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or
expose for sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is
falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or
expose for sale cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese
made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the
same is branded to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All
such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be
branded with the words 'skim-milk cheese,' or if such
cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over,
it may be branded 'medium skim-milk cheese,' or if it
contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may
be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such branding shall
be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container.
The branding herein provided shall be in block letters at
least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456
of the Laws of 1913.)"
Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and
other animal fats substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the
manufacture of this product. The federal law relating to filled cheese
permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government inspection.
The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the
cheese may be held in cold storage.
Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a
license. He must pass an examination to show that the principles and
practices of cheese-making are understood.
CHAPTER XXI
_CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD_
Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been
widely regarded in America as an accessory, almost a condimental
substance rather than as a staple food worthy of comparison with meat or
eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation and exportation
of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is
about 300,000,000 pounds--perhaps three pounds per capita. The household
manufacture and consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount
to these figures.
Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of
Europe. Such use of cheese increases rather than decreases with the
density of the population. France with a small fraction of the land area
and one-half the population of the United States produces and consumes
about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been
developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories
only to be dropped as increasing population produced greater demands for
milk in other forms. If cheese had been accepted as a regular part of
the food supply in such communities, some form of cheese-making would
have survived the economic changes.
+334. Food value of cheese.+--A consideration of the nutritive
components of cheese shows it to be a rich source of fat, protein or
both, according to the variety under examination. It is low in
carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably
with other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion
with an amplified table is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:[141]
"In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet
may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison
with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance of data
available on this subject, since the composition of cheese and other
foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in
experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition
problems are studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of
different sorts is included in an earlier publication of this
department.[142]
"Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods
are summarized in the following table.
"It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice
as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition as
purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great. It
contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of
porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat.
"As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per
cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in
cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is
characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium,
phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of
the department[145] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent
magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent
iron."
TABLE XXX
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER COMMON FOODS AS PURCHASED,
AND ALSO ON THE BASIS OF EDIBLE PORTION
====================================================================
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
FOOD MATERIALS | REFUSE | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT | CARBO |
| | | | | HYDRATES |
| | | | | |
----------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+----------+
| % | % | % | % | % |
Cheese, American | | | | | |
Cheddar[144] | -- | 34.2 | 25.2 | 33.7 | 2.4 |
| | | | | |
Beef of average | | | | | |
composition | | | | | |
as purchased | 18.6 | 50.5 | 15.2 | 15.5 | -- |
Edible portion | -- | 62.2 | 18.8 | 18.8 | -- |
| | | | | |
Porterhouse steak | | | | | |
as purchased | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 | -- |
Edible portion | -- | 60.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | -- |
| | | | | |
Loin steak, broiled, | | | | | |
edible portion | -- | 54.8 | 23.5 | 20.4 | -- |
| | | | | |
Dried beef | -- | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9 | -- |
| | | | | |
Eggs as purchased | 11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3 | -- |
Edible portion | -- | 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5 | -- |
| | | | | |
Milk | -- | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 |
| | | | | |
Bread | -- | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3 | 53.1 |
| | | | | |
Potatoes as purchased | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8 | .1 | 14.7 |
Edible portion | -- | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1 | 18.4 |
| | | | | |
Apples as purchased | 25.0 | 63.6 | .3 | .3 | 10.8 |
Edible portion | -- | 84.6 | .4 | .5 | 14.2 |
====================================================================
=====================================================
| | | FUEL
| | FUEL | VALUE
FOOD MATERIALS | ASH | VALUE | COMPARED
| | PER | TO
| | POUND | CHEESE[143]
----------------------+------+----------+------------
| % | Calories |
Cheese, American | | |
Cheddar[144] | 3.8 | 1,950 | 1.00
| | |
Beef of average | | |
composition | | |
as purchased | .7 | 935 | 0.48
Edible portion | .9 | 1,145 | 0.58
| | |
Porterhouse steak | | |
as purchased | .8 | 1,110 | 0.57
Edible portion | 1.0 | 1,270 | 0.65
| | |
Loin steak, broiled, | | |
edible portion | 1.2 | 1,300 | 0.66
| | |
Dried beef | 8.9 | 790 | 0.45
| | |
Eggs as purchased | .9 | 635 | 0.32
Edible portion | 1.0 | 720 | 0.37
| | |
Milk | .7 | 310 | 0.16
| | |
Bread | 1.1 | 1,215 | 0.62
| | |
Potatoes as purchased | .8 | 295 | 0.15
Edible portion | 1.0 | 385 | 0.20
| | |
Apples as purchased | .3 | 190 | 0.10
Edible portion | .3 | 290 | 0.15
=====================================================
It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar
cheese takes first rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The
estimate of food values in terms of calories may not completely express
the value of that food to a particular individual. It is generally
conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and
this function is probably more closely determined by the number of
calories produced than in any other known way. Such calculation has
become an essential factor in the preparation of dietaries. The
calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By
easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be
compared with that of any competing food and the relative economy
determined, whatever the price asked. Another recent calculation with
reference[146] to the same cheese follows:
"One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as--
1.57 pounds of sirloin steak.
1.35 pounds of round steak.
1.89 pounds of fowl.
1.79 pounds of smoked ham.
1.81 pounds of fresh ham.
"In order to judge the value of foods fairly not only the protein but
the energy also must be compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the
best of food products. On the basis of energy supplied, 1 pound of
cheese equals--
1.98 pounds of sirloin steak.
2.61 pounds of round steak.
2.52 pounds of fowl.
1.17 pounds of smoked ham.
1.29 pounds of fresh ham."
All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With
minor reductions, much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger,
Brick, Munster, Edam.
On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the
skimmed-milk cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times
been enormous. Many households purchase milk by the bottle, use the
top-milk as cream and lose a part of the remainder. Similarly creameries
have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the protein of this
milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to
the dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently
published the following: "Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most
meats and is very much cheaper. Every pound contains more than three
ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body building. It is a
valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more
fat. It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased
by serving it with cream, as is so commonly done."
It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America
is not due to our failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim
cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very rich in fat. Use of such cheese
in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads to the
ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily
protein food and as such substitutes for lean meat.
"The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than
most meats in furnishing protein for the diet.
"For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
1.27 pounds sirloin steak.
1.09 pounds round steak.
1.37 pounds chuck rib beef.
1.52 pounds fowl.
1.46 pounds fresh ham.
1.44 pounds smoked ham.
1.58 pounds loin pork chop.
1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb.
1.37 pounds breast of veal.
"In addition to protein, energy for performing body work must be
furnished by food. As a source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper
than most meats at present prices. The following table shows the
comparison when energy is considered.
"On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
8-1/3 ounces sirloin steak.
11¼ ounces round steak.
11¼ ounces chuck rib beef.
10¾ ounces fowl.
5½ ounces fresh ham.
5 ounces smoked ham.
6 ounces loin pork chop.
7-1/3 ounces hind leg of lamb.
12¾ ounces breast of veal."
+335. Digestibility of cheese.+--Although it has been a staple food with
many races for uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese
is suitable for use chiefly in small quantities as an accessory to the
diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to produce physiological
disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of a
special investigation by the United States Department of
Agriculture.[147] Calorimeter experiments[148] were made to test the
digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some of these varieties
at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be
digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately
90 per cent of the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the
body. Unripe cheese in these experiments was apparently digested as
completely as the ripened forms. These experiments make clear the
possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the regular
dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the
desirability of the use of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as
cheap sources of protein when properly combined with other foods, may be
made to replace meats as a less costly source of proteins. Cheese is
then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce of
Cheddar[149] cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of
milk, or to two ounces of meat. It is properly to be combined with
bread, potatoes and other starchy foods, lacking in the fat in which the
cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort, fresh-made and
ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese.
+336. Cheese flavor.+--"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and
their compounds which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed
during ripening from the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the
curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by
molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of
the fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are
also the ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert
a trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected.
"The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other
changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally
present in cheese or by micro-organisms and are to be regarded as
fermentative and not as putrefactive changes.
"The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of
individual preference, but from the chemist's standpoint there is no
reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone
putrefactive decomposition."
+337. Relation to health.+--In connection with the use of cheese as a
food, its relation to the health of the consumer must be considered. The
presence of the bacillus of tuberculosis in milk has led to careful
study of its possible presence in cheese. When American Cheddar cheese
was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism was
recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United
States Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from
cheeses, such as Cream and Neufchâtel, which are eaten when
comparatively freshly made. The disease has been produced in guinea pigs
from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of
developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly
pasteurized milk. This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with
it eliminate the possibility of transmitting other diseases.
+338. Cheese poisoning+[150] cases occasionally occur. These take two
main forms: (1) an enteritis (caused by _Bacillus enteritidis_) or some
other member of that series which while painful and accompanied by
purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxæmias which, although rare,
usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of _Bacillus
botulinus_, an organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was
isolated by the New York State Department of Health. The occurrence of
such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the desirability of using
every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to
enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which
actually gain access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be
introduced.
+339. Proper place in the diet.+--It has already been noted that cheese
is used "in general in two ways--in small quantities chiefly for its
flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well as for
its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the first
purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for
their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute little to the
food value of the diet, because of the small quantity used at a time.
They have an important part to play, however, in making the diet
attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not
as necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of
choice.' Having first satisfied herself that her family is receiving
sufficient nourishment, she then, according to her means and ideas of an
attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are to be
considered luxuries.
"Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in
large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important
not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of
view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are American Cheddar,
Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchâtel.
It is clear that in buying cheese, the housekeeper should know
definitely the dietary purpose of the purchase, and then choose the
variety of cheese best suited. To a very large degree the personal
tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be
tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of
Roquefort or Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of
choice in which much judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with
mild-flavored foods should as a rule be also mild-flavored. For most
sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very acceptable;
Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin
rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it
has somewhat more flavor without being too strong. With proper handling
it is good policy to buy the cheapest of these forms for this purpose.
The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If served with
mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchâtel or
mild Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or
Camembert. If tobacco smoke is present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger
and related types will satisfy many consumers better than mild cheeses.
The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be
adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to
strong-smelling or strong-tasting cheese has been frequently known to
approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger when served without label but
spread upon a ginger cracker.
For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality.
In large markets, old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years
is commonly purchasable for Welsh rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An
expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening has demonstrated
that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or
over-ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the
acceptability of the product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it
has been shown[151] that over-ripe cheese so strong as to be
objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of the raw
product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first
time should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No
matter what the variety, it will add to the food value and palatability
of some one of the common dishes served within forty-eight hours.
+340. Care of cheese.+[152]--"One of the best ways of keeping cheese
which has been cut is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in
paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it
and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin
paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered
dish, the air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it
molds more readily.
"In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be
satisfactorily kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a
cover, and removing the cheese as needed with a knife, a strong spoon,
or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs
which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle.
The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth."
+341. Food value and price.+--There is little relation between the price
and food value of standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced
varieties claim and hold their place because they possess particular
flavors. These may or may not accompany high comparative food values.
Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is largely
based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk
commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be
based either on purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price
should not change the selection. If, however, a particular quality of
cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory form of
utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard
recipes are given in the following paragraphs.
+342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.+--(1) As a meat substitute.
Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential
to a well-balanced meal and there are many housekeepers who for one
reason or another are interested in lessening the amount of meat or to
substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is
undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable
dishes for the sake of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some
other reason than the general replacement of meat dishes by other
things.
Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein
and fat and should also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a
substitute for meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients
that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is familiar
and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In
substituting cheese for meat, especial pains should be taken to serve
dishes which are relished by the members of the family. A number of
recipes[153] for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They are
preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are
called for in the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In
the first list of recipes, cheese means Cheddar.
Cheese Sauce No. 1
1 cupful of milk.
2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese).
Salt and pepper.
Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving
add the cheese, stirring until it is melted.
This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs,
or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to
ordinary milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It
may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over
hard-boiled eggs.
Cheese Sauce No. 2
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is
increased from 1 to 2 ounces.
This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or
for baking with crackers soaked in milk.
Cheese Sauce No. 3
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of
grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon
toast as a substitute for Welsh rabbit.
Cheese Sauce No. 4
Same as cheese sauce No. 2, save that 2 tablespoonfuls of
melted butter are mixed with the flour before the latter
is put into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in
fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese.
Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following
give products which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the
same kind and amount of nutritive material as the ordinary servings of
meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a resemblance in
appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be a
point in their favor with many families.
(2) For general cooking purposes:
Cheese Fondue No. 1
1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs.
6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or
1-1/3 cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small
pieces).
4 eggs.
1 cupful of hot water.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks
thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites of
eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and
cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once.
The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities,
is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of average
composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains
about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of about 1300
calories.
Cheese Fondue No. 2
1-1/3 cupfuls of hot milk.
1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs.
1 tablespoonful of butter.
4 eggs.
1/3 of a pound of cheese (1-1/3 cupfuls of grated cheese
or 1 cupful of cheese cut into small pieces).
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Prepare as in previous recipe.
The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1-1/8 pounds of
potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in excess of these.
In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be
substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice measured before
cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used.
Corn and Cheese Soufflé
1 tablespoonful of butter.
1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper.
¼ cupful of flour.
2 cupfuls of milk.
1 cupful of chopped corn.
1 cupful of grated cheese,
3 eggs.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make
a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn,
cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites
beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake
in a moderate oven 30 minutes.
Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a
food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a
pound of potatoes.
Cheese Soufflé
2 tablespoonfuls of butter.
3 tablespoonfuls of flour.
½ cupful of milk (scalded).
½ teaspoonful of salt
A speck of cayenne.
¼ cupful of grated cheese.
3 eggs.
Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add
gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and
cheese. Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the
eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and
fold into it the whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff.
Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a
slow oven. Serve at once.
The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a
pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of
three-fourths of a pound.
Welsh Rabbit
1 tablespoonful of butter.
1 teaspoonful of corn-starch.
½ cupful of milk.
½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces.
¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard.
A speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk
gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir
until it is melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread
toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the
untoasted side. Food value is that of about three-fourths
of a pound of beef.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces.
2 quarts of boiling salted water.
1 cupful of milk.
2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
¼ to ½ pound of cheese.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a
strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the
pieces from adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of
the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in
alternate layers in a buttered baking dish, cover with
buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 2
A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a
rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture
is usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the
oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish,
however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as
the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the
stove.
Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of uncooked rice and
4 cupfuls of milk;
or,
3 cupfuls of cooked rice and
1 cupful of milk.
2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
½ pound of cheese.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls
of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the
flour, cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put
alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover
with buttered crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown.
The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk,
are equal to those of nearly 1¾ pounds of average beef.
If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly
3½ pounds of beef. Whole milk raises the fuel value
still higher.
Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1
6 slices of bread.
1 cupful of milk.
2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate.
Butter or other fat for frying.
Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the
grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread
in this mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium
bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is
desirable, however, to keep the milk hot while the bread
is being dipped.
Plain Cheese Salad
Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces,
scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French
dressing.
Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese
Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives
and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much
salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount
depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The
mixture may be spread between thin slices of bread or it
may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and
served on lettuce leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Tomato Salad
Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce
leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Pimiento Salad
Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices
and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce
leaves with French dressing.
(3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an
appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with
sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar,
or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed.
The following recipes[154] illustrate a number of ways in
which cottage cheese may be served:
Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies
Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as
strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or
crackers. If preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served
separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive
dish may be made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of
the cottage cheese.
Cottage Cheese Salad
Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half
tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped
parsley and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin
mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line
the bottom with waxed paper, then pack in three layers of
the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of
pimiento, fresh or canned, between the layers. Cover with
waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve;
then run a knife around the sides and invert the mold. Cut
in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing
and wafers or thin bread-and-butter sandwiches. Minced
olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped
nuts also may be added.
Cottage Cheese Rolls
(To be used like meat rolls.)
A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main
dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of
various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage
cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick
enough to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but
peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread
crumbs and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in
which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to
get the right consistency; or, instead of beans or peas,
chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added.
Boston Roast
1 pound can of kidney beans, or equivalent quantity of cooked beans.
½ pound of cottage cheese.
Bread crumbs.
Salt.
Mash the beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the
cheese and bread crumbs enough to make the mixture
sufficiently stiff to be formed into a roll. Bake in a
moderate oven, basting occasionally with butter or other
fat, and water. Serve with tomato sauce. This dish may be
flavored with chopped onions cooked until tender in butter
or other fat and a very little water.
Pimiento and Cottage Cheese Roast
2 cupfuls of cooked Lima beans.
¼ pound of cottage cheese.
Salt.
3 canned pimientos chopped.
Bread crumbs.
Put the first three ingredients through a meat chopper.
Mix thoroughly and add bread crumbs until it is stiff
enough to form into a roll. Brown in the oven, basting
occasionally with butter or other fat, and water.
Cottage Cheese and Nut Roast
1 cupful of cottage cheese.
1 cupful of chopped English walnuts.
1 cupful of bread crumbs.
Salt and pepper.
2 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion.
1 tablespoonful of butter.
Juice of half a lemon.
Cook the onion in the butter or other fat and a little
water until tender. Mix the other ingredients and moisten
with the water in which the onion has been cooked. Pour
into a shallow baking dish and brown in the oven.
Cheese Sauce
(For use with eggs, milk toast or other dishes.)
One cupful of milk, 1 tablespoonful of cottage cheese, 2
tablespoonfuls of flour, salt and pepper to taste.
Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving
add the cheese, stirring until it is melted.
This sauce may be used in preparing creamed eggs or for
ordinary milk toast. The quantity of cheese in the recipe
may be increased, making a sauce suitable for using with
macaroni or rice.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Ont. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 237-241.
Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121.
N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and
individuality on the composition and properties of milk,
Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913. Eckles, C. H., and R. H.
Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of milk
from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Bul. 157, 1913.
[2] Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different
cows, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890.
[3] Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of
lactation on the composition and properties of milk, U.
S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155, 1913. N. Y. Exp.
Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140.
[4] N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247.
Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions
of fat and protein in cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.,
30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186.
[5] Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and
properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and
their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul.
26, 1912.
Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the
literature of phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism,
Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36, 42-45.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of
casein and salts in milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39.
[6] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166.
[7] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese
from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912.
[8] Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected
by food, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904.
[9] King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by
silage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 59, 1897.
[10] N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30.
Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77.
Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601.
[11] Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88.
Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in
milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908.
Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying
the lactic acid bacteria, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Bul. 154, 1912.
Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria,
Jour. Med. Research, Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200,
1908.
Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn.
(Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1906.
Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912.
[12] Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts
in dairy products, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages
107-115.
[13] Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon
mold spores, Jour. Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages
153-156.
[14] Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell)
Exp. Sta. Bul. 197.