of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying
percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage
of fat in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases,
according to the table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk,
the percentage of moisture in the cheese increases, showing that
moisture is substituted for fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of
milk is also given in this table. This yield varies with the amount of
moisture incorporated into the cheese, the amount of solids not fat in
the milk, and the solids lost in the whey.
TABLE XIV
TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF SKIMMED-MILK
CHEDDAR CHEESE
============================================================================
| |PERCENTAGE|NUMBER | COMPOSITION OF THE CHEESE
PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE|OF FAT IN |OF POUNDS +----------+----------+----------
OF FAT |OF THE |THE MILK |OF CHEESE |PERCENTAGE| |
IN THE |MILK |IN THE |FROM 100 |OF TOTAL |PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE
MILK |SKIMMED |VAT AFTER |POUNDS |OF TOTAL |OF FAT |OF WATER
| |SKIMMING |OF MILK |SOLIDS | |
----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
4.7 | 50 | 2.4 | 9.92 | 54.75 | 22.00 | 45.25
4.7 | 60 | 2.0 | 9.74 | 52.46 | 17.50 | 47.54
4.7 | 70 | 1.5 | 9.26 | 49.87 | 13.50 | 50.13
4.7 | 80 | 1.0 | 8.42 | 48.26 | 10.00 | 51.74
4.0 | 50 | 2.0 | 9.70 | 53.29 | 21.00 | 46.71
4.0 | 60 | 1.6 | 9.50 | 50.89 | 17.00 | 49.11
4.0 | 70 | 1.2 | 9.30 | 48.06 | 13.50 | 51.94
4.0 | 80 | 0.9 | 9.20 | 45.24 | 10.50 | 54.76
3.5 | 50 | 1.8 | 8.54 | 54.20 | 19.50 | 45.80
3.5 | 60 | 1.5 | 8.10 | 51.10 | 16.50 | 48.90
3.5 | 70 | 1.1 | 7.44 | 52.62 | 13.00 | 47.38
3.5 | 80 | O.9 | 7.00 | 49.64 | 9.54 | 50.36
3.4 | 50 | 1.9 | 8.24[102]| 54.50 | 20.00 | 45.50
3.4 | 60 | 1.5 | 7.82 | 52.05 | 16.50 | 47.95
3.4 | 70 | {1.4 | {7.80 | {49.04 | {14.00 | {50.96
| | {1.2 | {7.28 | {50.76 | {14.00 | {49.24
3.4 | 80 | 0.9 | 7.24 | 47.41 | 10.50 | 52.59
============================================================================
In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the
cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar
process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to
standardize a method that will produce the flavor and body of the
whole-milk Cheddar cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and
mellowness of texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be
tough, dry or leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by
incorporating more moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added
moisture tends to replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It
requires skill on the part of the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture
to take the place of the fat in giving the cheese mellowness and
smoothness of body.
The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits--from
those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which
only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like
whole-milk cheese. Because of the gradations of skimmed-milk cheese, it
is difficult to make anything but general statements and to base
comparisons with whole-milk cheese.
CHAPTER XIV
_CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING_
Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks
characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green,"
unripe or not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes
through a complex series of changes which are collectively known as
ripening. In the ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow
and the characteristic cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be
considered from two view-points, first, the changes taking place inside
the cheese and secondly the outside conditions necessary for ripening.
Some of the chemical changes during ripening are known, while others are
not understood. The different agents causing ripening, and the
constituents of the milk, will be discussed.
+231. Fat.+--Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what
chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,[103]
in studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or
volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing
amounts during the ripening process and after the lactose had
disappeared. Acetic and propionic acids reached a maximum at three
months and then decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually
increased during the experimental period covered. Formic acid was
detected in the whole-milk cheese only at the five and one-half month
stage. In the judgment of the experimenter the principal source of
acetic and propionic acids was probably lactates. Traces of these acids
may have had their origin in protein decomposition or further
fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources indicated for butyric
and caproic acids were fats and proteins.
The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor
solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance
to the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk
cheese contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic
acid, while from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were
largely compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The
alcohol may have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an
important factor in flavor production. The agencies operative in the
production of volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet
undefined.
+232. Milk-sugar.+--The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid
by the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after
the cheese is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as
fast as it is formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have
entirely disappeared from the cheese.[104] The relation between the
milk-sugar and lactic acid is very close. It is necessary that
milk-sugar be present in order later to have the lactic acid develop.
+233. The salts.+--Just what changes the salts[105] undergo or how they
combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed
that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as
the lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a
calcium lactate.
+234. Gases.+--In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the
commonest being carbon dioxide.[106] Exactly how this gas is formed is
not known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the
milk-sugar or to the living organisms in the cheese.
+235. Casein or proteins.+--Complex ripening changes in the cheese take
place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex
chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them,
it is difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different
opinions regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought
to be formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:[107]
_Paracasein_ (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein).
Insoluble in brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine.
_Protein._ Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine.
_Protein._ Insoluble in warm salt brine or water.
_Paranuclein._ A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute
hydrochloric acid.
_Caseoses and proteoses._ Protein derivations soluble in water and not
coagulated by heat.
_Peptones._ Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in
water and not coagulated by heat.
_Amido acids._ Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex
except ammonia.
_Ammonia._ The simplest protein derivations.
From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is
evident that practically all the principal ripening changes are
concerned with those taking place in the proteins.
+236. Causes of ripening changes.+--Authorities disagree as to the exact
agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the
action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk.
Others hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A
combination of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract
renders the casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins
become soluble, the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is
ripened. The amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is
used as a measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a
chemical standpoint.
+237. Action of the rennet extract.+--Some authorities hold that rennet
extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it
is a single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects[108] closely
related to, if not identical with, those of pepsin in the following
particulars: neither the rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any,
proteolytic change except in the presence of acid; the quantitative
results of proteolysis furnished by the rennet enzyme and pepsin agree
closely, when working on the same material under comparable conditions;
the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzymes are
the same, both quantitatively and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms
any considerable amount of amido compounds and neither produces any
ammonia; the soluble nitrogen compounds formed by both enzymes are
confined to the group of compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and
peptones.
Rennet exerts a digestive effect on the casein[109] which is intensified
by the development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products
formed in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the
higher peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the
amido acids and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the
only digesting ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese
flavor. This is probably due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed
the casein into caseoses and peptones but did not form amido acids and
ammonia. Some authorities[110] think that the enzyme galactase carries
the ripening of the protein from this stage. The question arises whether
these intermediate compounds must be found before other agents can form
the amido acids and ammonia.
TABLE XV[111]
SHOWING THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RENEET
EXTRACTS ON THE RATE OF FORMATION OF SOLUBLE
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN CHEESE RIPENING
=========================================================
| PER CENT OF WATER SOLUBLE NITROGEN
QUANTITY OF | COMPOUNDS IN THE CHEESE
RENNET ADDED PER +---------------------------------------
1000 LB. OF MILK | Initial | 32 days | 80 days | 270 days
-----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------
2 oz. | 0.14 | 0.47 | 0.68 | 1.30
4 oz. | 0.16 | 0.75 | 1.13 | 1.74
8 oz. | 0.16 | 0.90 | 1.50 | 1.97
16 oz. | 0.14 | 1.26 | 1.70 | 2.04
=========================================================
The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the
cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds
formed in the cheese.
+238. The action of the bacteria.+--Authorities[112] disagree as to the
groups of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of
proper classification. Some of the groups are: _Bacterium lactis acidi_,
_B. coli communis_, _B. lactis aerogenes_, _B. casei_, Streptococci,
_B.[113] Bulgaricum_ and Micrococci. Authorities agree that the _B.
lactis acidi_ group is the most prominent. This group makes up 90 per
cent or more of the total bacteria flora of the cheese in the early
stages of ripening. In the course of a few weeks, however, this group is
largely replaced by the _B. casei_ group[114].
TABLE XVI
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA TO A GRAM IN CHEDDAR
CHEESE AS DETERMINED BY LACTOSE-AGAR PLATE CULTURES
====================================================================
TIME OF | CHEESE NUMBER
PLATING +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
| 580 | 581 | 582 | 583
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
Milk | 8,000,000 | 500,000 | 700,000 | 500,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
Curd at | | | |
salting | 160,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 912,000,000 | 839,000,000
time | | | |
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
12 hours | 332,000,000 | 1,048,000,000 | 623,000,000 | 965,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
1 day | 586,000,000 | 736,000,000 | 709,000,000 | 569,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
2 days | 235,000,000 | 405,000,000 | 848,000,000 | 580,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
4 days | 145,000,000 | 684,000,000 | 522,000,000 | 1,025,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
6 days | 165,000,000 | 184,000,000 | 853,000,000 | 184,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
14 days | 51,000,000 | 211,000,000 | 369,000,000 | 401,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
21 days | 284,000,000 | 290,000,000 | 348,000,000 | 319,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
28 days | 285,000,000 | 453,000,000 | 314,000,000 | 144,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
35 days | 104,000,000 | 261,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 504,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
49 days | 132,000,000 | 228,000,000 | 436,000,000 | 661,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
70 days | 128,000,000 | 291,000,000 | 193,000,000 | 168,000,000
---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------
98 days | 114,000,000 | 212,000,000 | 45,000,000 | 55,000,000
====================================================================
From Wis. Bul. 150.
The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number
as given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese,
as it is very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for
plating.[115]
The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese
ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid
and the formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic,
succinic and formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other
than lactic acid is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the
cheese may be important. Heinemann shows[116] that lactic acid exists in
two optical modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In
cheese they are usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the
levorotatory and dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What
importance the question of optical activity of the lactic acid may
assume is not definitely known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a
specific effect on the lactose, producing only one modification of
lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic acid may exercise a selective
action and use only one or the other optically active modification. In
other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening bacteria may determine
the later flora by the production of a form of lactic acid attacked by
one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on the flavor
will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese
increases for a time, then decreases.
The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that
the tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long
after the lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one,
that in the lactic acid fermentation an intermediate compound or
compounds are formed which exist for some time, the conversion into
lactic acid being complete at about three months; the other is that
lactic acid is formed as a product of paracasein proteolysis.
The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state
but reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium
lactates. It is thought that there is sufficient of these salts to
neutralize all the acid formed, and therefore the acid does not enter
into combination with the paracasein salts. It has been found that
lactates are the principal source of acetic and propionic acids. These
are supposed to have some effect on the flavor of the cheese.
The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic
changes is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid
suppresses the growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes
the acid medium necessary for the best action of both the coagulating
and peptic enzymes.
The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been
summed up by Hastings[117] as follows: "The functions of this group of
bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as
follows: (_a_) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (_b_) The
bacteria of the milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the
acid they influence the shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey,
(_c_) The acid so changes the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,'
or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (_d_) The acid activates the pepsin of the
rennet extract, (_e_) The acid prevents the growth of putrefactive
bacteria in the cheese. (_f_) It has been shown that _Bacterium lactis
acidi_ is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell. (_g_) The
development of _Bacterium lactis acidi_ is followed by the growth of
another group of acid-forming bacteria, the _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ group.
They reach numbers comparable with those of the first group, reaching
their maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they
develop after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some
other source of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also
probable that other groups constantly present contribute to the changes.
From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening
agents has its important part to play in the ripening process and a
normal ripening of the cheese is a composite result of these various
agencies.
+239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.+--The rate at
which these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several
factors.[118] Most of these factors are within the control of man. They
are as follows: the length of time; temperature of the curing-room;
moisture-content of the cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt
used; the amount of rennet; the influence of acid.
+240. The length of time.+--The water-soluble nitrogen compounds
increase as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of
increase is not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the
succeeding stages of ripening.
+241. The temperature of the curing-room.+--Very few cheese factories
have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the
curing-room. Without such provision the temperature follows closely that
of the outside air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the
boiler-room and hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses,
provision has been made to control the temperature very closely.
Experiments show that the soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the
average, closely in proportion to an increase of temperature, when the
other conditions are uniform.
The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality
of the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at
40° F., part at 50° F., part at 60° F. show considerable differences,
the greatest seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those kept at the
low temperature cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, those at
the higher temperature cure faster and develop undesirable flavors. At
the higher temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be more active.
Some very skillful makers and judges of cheese have always contended
that if Cheddar is properly made, firmed to the body and texture of a
high-class cheese, ripening at 55 to 60° F. gives a higher quality. Such
a cheese must be low in moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per cent lower than one
cured successfully by the cold process.
The following tables[119] XVII, XVIII show the effect of different
temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of
the flavor, body and texture:
TABLE XVII
TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING
TO TOTAL SCORE
==========================================
TEMPERATURE OF CURING | TOTAL SCORE
----------------------+-------------------
40° | 95.7
50° | 94.2
60° | 91.7
==========================================
TABLE XVIII
TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING
TO SCORE OF BODY AND TEXTURE, AND FLAVOR
=================================================
TEMPERATURE OF CURING | 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F.
----------------------+--------+--------+--------
Body and texture | 23.4 | 32.0 | 22.2
Flavor | 47.4 | 46.4 | 44.8
=================================================
Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total
score and a higher score for flavor, body and texture.
The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as
this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a
mealy texture.
+242. Moisture-content of the cheese.+--Other conditions being equal,
there is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese
containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture.
Therefore, a high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure
faster. The presence of moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation
products which otherwise would accumulate and thus check the action of
the ripening agents.
+243. The size of the cheese.+--Cheeses of large size usually cure
faster than smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the
fact that the large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by
evaporation and therefore after the early period of ripening have a
higher water-content.
+244. The amount of salt.+--The relation of salt to the rate of ripening
is more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the
cheese, since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture.
Thus, cheese containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds
more slowly than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct
effect in retarding one or more of the ripening agents.
+245. The amount of rennet extract.+--The use of increased amounts of
rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results
in the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds
in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein,
caseoses and peptones.
+246. The influence of acid.+--It is necessary that acid be present but
the exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes
of the ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present,
it imparts a sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the
cheese to be mealy or sandy instead of smooth and waxy.
Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening:
1. Increase of temperature.
2. Larger amounts of rennet.
3. More moisture in the cheese.
4. Less salt.
5. Large size of the cheese.
6. Moderate amount of acid.
Conditions that may retard ripening:
1. Decrease of temperature.
2. Smaller amounts of rennet.
3. Less moisture in the cheese.
4. More salt.
5. Small size of the cheese.
6. No acid or an excess of acid.
+247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.+--The cheeses need daily
attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned
every day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an
even evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not
evaporate evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven
distribution in the cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually
gives the product an uneven color.
The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths
stick. If they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of
the moisture. If the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the
surface of the cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to
prevent the rind from cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not
smooth, due to wrinkles in the bandage, or if it cracks, due to the lack
of cloths, it furnishes the opportunity for insects to lay their eggs
and the larvæ to develop within the cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in
such cracks.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cheddar cheese curing-room.]
The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means
that the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The
shelves should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with
hot water whenever they become greasy or moldy.
Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and
humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by
opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing
them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to
keep the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have
shades to keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may
be dampened with cold water.
The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is
made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies
from two to six weeks.
When the surface of the cheese becomes dry and the rind is well formed,
the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after
cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process.
The object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to
keep the cheese from molding.
+248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.+--The
losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a
considerable item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature
and humidity of the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the
moisture-content and protection to the surface.
Table XIX[120] shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the
curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the
evaporation of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and
the temperature is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the
smaller cheese has more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The
evaporation increases with temperature, probably because of lowered
relative humidity. The humidity can be tested with an hygrometer.
TABLE XIX
SHOWING THE VARIATION OF LOSSES IN WEIGHT OF CHEDDAR
CHEESE WHILE CURING, DUE TO SIZE OF CHEESE AND TEMPERATURE
OF CURING-ROOM
=============================================================
| WEIGHT LOST PER 100 POUNDS OF CHEESE IN 20
WEIGHT OF CHEESE | WEEKS AT
IN POUNDS +---------------+--------------+------------
| 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F.
-----------------+---------------+--------------+------------
70 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 4.2
45 | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.1
35 | 3.9 | 5.9 | 8.5
12½ | 4.6 | 8.1 | 12.0
=============================================================
The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is
the evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture
to evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese
does not form so good a rind.
249. +Paraffining+[121] consists of dipping the cheese in melted
paraffin at a temperature of about 220° F. for six seconds. Fig. 54
shows an apparatus for paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of
paraffin on the cheese; at a lower temperature, a thicker coat would be
left. The thicker coating is more liable to crack and peel off. If the
cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated, the paraffin will
blister and crack off.
Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the
starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the
coating is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced.
The amount of paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the
temperature of the paraffin and the length of time the cheese is
immersed. Usually at 220° F. it requires about 0.15 of a pound for each
35-pound cheese. After the cheeses have been paraffined, they may be
left on the curing-room shelves or boxed ready to ship.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A paraffiner for cheese.]
+250. Shipping.+--When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully
and accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after
being paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the
curing-room, they should be removed just before weighing. These cloths
should not be left in a pile in the factory after being removed as they
have been known to heat and sometimes cause fires. They should be washed
clean and dried ready for use again. If starched circles are used, they
should be left on the cheese. A scale board should be placed on each end
of the cheese to prevent its sticking to the box and also to keep the
box from wearing the surface of the cheese.
The box should be a trifle larger in diameter than the cheese so that
the latter can be easily placed in it. The sides of the box should be
the same height as the cheese.
The weight of each cheese should be neatly and accurately marked on each
box. Care should be exercised to keep the boxes clean.
DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE
A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these
are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither
cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common
defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different
headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and
remedies; defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies;
defects in color, their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their
causes and remedies.
+251. Defects in flavor.+--Any flavor differing from the characteristic
Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be
recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be
distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given.
+252. Feedy flavors.+--Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding
stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed
silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar
flavors to both milk and cheese. Freshly drawn milk usually absorbs
these odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of
these materials may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts
without affecting the milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not
be used. Milk should not be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of
the objectionable odors may be removed by airing the curd for a longer
time after milling before the salt is applied.
+253. Acid flavors.+--A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour
smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which
may be due to any of the following causes: (_a_) receiving milk at the
factory which is sour or has too high development of acid; (_b_) using
too much starter; (_c_) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet;
(_d_) not firming the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the
latter; (_e_) developing too much acid in the whey before it is removed;
(_f_) retaining too much moisture in the curd.
The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following
precautions: (_a_) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese
factory; (_b_) maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and
acidity; (_c_) adding the rennet at the proper acidity; (_d_) using less
starter; (_e_) adding the rennet extract so that there will be
sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid has developed to such a
stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (_f_) producing the
proper final water-content in the newly made cheese.
+254. Sweet or fruity flavors.+--These are the sweet flavors
characteristic of strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are
very objectionable and usually increase with the age of the cheese. They
appear to be caused by: (_a_) carrying both milk and whey in the same
cans without properly cleaning them; (_b_) exposing milk near hog-pens
where whey is fed; (_c_) dirty whey tanks at the cheese factory; (_d_)
micro-organisms which get into the milk through any unclean conditions.
These troubles can be controlled: (_a_) if milk and whey must be carried
in the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at
the farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (_b_) the whey vat at the
factory should be kept clean and sweet; (_c_) the starter must have the
proper clean flavor.
Other defects may be classed as "off flavors," "dirty flavors," "bitter
flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary
conditions whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though
the particular organism is often not determined. The flavors may be
improved by the use of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing
the curd after milling before salting. The best remedy is to remove the
source of the difficulty.
+255. Defects in body and texture.+--The body and texture should be
close. A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth
and waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this
is to be avoided.
+256. Loose or open texture.+--A cheese with this defect is full of
irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is
serious if the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are
likely to collect in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate,
thereby shortening its commercial life.
Several causes may bring about this condition: (_a_) insufficient
cheddaring; (_b_) pressing at too high a temperature; (_c_) inadequate
pressing; (_d_) development of too little acid.
The corresponding remedies are: (_a_) cheddar the curd until the holes
are closed and the curd is solid; (_b_) cool the curd to 80° F. before
putting to press; (_c_) press the curd longer, possibly twenty-four to
twenty-six hours; (_d_) develop a little higher acid in the whey before
removing the curd.
+257. Dry body.+--A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and
dry, sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture,
fat or both, and may be due to the following causes: (_a_) making the
cheese from partly skimmed-milk; (_b_) heating the curd in the whey for
too long a time; (_c_) heating the curd too high; (_d_) stirring the
curd too much in the whey or as the last of the whey is removed; (_e_)
using too much salt; (_f_) developing of too much acid in the whey;
(_g_) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a curing-room; (_h_) not
piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring process.
The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as
follows: (_a_) make cheese only from whole milk; (_b_) draw the whey
sooner; (_c_) firm the curd at as low temperature as possible in the
whey; (_d_) stir the curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd
particles separated but do not hand-stir it; (_e_) use less salt; (_f_)
develop less acid in the whey; (_g_) cure the cheese in a cool moist
curing-room; (_h_) pile the curd sooner and higher during the cheddaring
process.
The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry
cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the
development of a high degree of judgment.
+258. Gassy textured cheese.+--Gassy cheese has large numbers of very
small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called
"pin-holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are
due to the formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a
cheese is gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising
of bread. If enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or
crack open. Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so
nearly spherical as to roll from the shelf at times.
The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions
somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese.
Some of the common sources of gas organisms are: (_a_) unclean milkers;
(_b_) dirty cows; (_c_) aërating the milk in impure air, especially air
from hog-pens where the whey is fed; (_d_) allowing the cows to wade in
stagnant water or in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly
cleaning the cows before milking; (_e_) exposing the milk to the dust
from hay and feed; (_f_) dirty whey tanks; (_g_) drawing milk and whey
in the same cans without afterward thoroughly washing them; (_h_)
unclean utensils in the factory; (_i_) using gassy starter; (_j_)
ripening cheese at high temperatures.
Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after
the making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal
vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the
following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a
clean commercial starter.
If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial
starter should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is
removed. If the gas shows while cheddaring, the curd should be piled and
repiled until the holes flatten out before milling.
The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process.
This may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two
of hot water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired
for a considerable length of time before salting. This will aërate the
curd and allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool
curing-room. (See handling of gassy milk.)
+259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.+--A cheese with acidy body
may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy
feeling when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the
same as for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers,
it is pasty and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese
containing too much water. (See control of moisture.)
+260. Defects in color.+--Any color which is not uniform is a defect.
The proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer
a white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it
is not defective.
_Mottled color_ is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese.
Several causes may give the same general effect: (_a_) uneven
distribution of moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter
in color; (_b_) neglecting to strain the starter; (_c_) adding the
starter after the cheese color has been added; (_d_) mixing the curd
from different vats.
Remedies for this mottled color are: (_a_) to maintain a uniform
assimilation of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (_b_) to strain
the starter to break up the lumps before adding to the milk; (_c_) to
add all of the starter before adding the cheese color; (_d_) not to mix
curds from different vats.
_Seamy color._--In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of
curd may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd
come together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or
so cold that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the
curd at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. when put to press. If it is
greasy, this may be removed by washing the curd in cold water.
_Acid color._--This is a bleached or faded color and is caused by the
development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies,
page 266.)
+261. Defects in finish.+--Defects of this class differ from those
previously mentioned in being entirely within the control of the
cheese-maker. All are due to carelessness or lack of skill in
manipulation. Anything which detracts from the neat, clean, workmanlike
appearance of the cheese is a defect that may interfere with the sale of
an article intrinsically good. Some of the common defects are: (_a_)
unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (_b_) cracked rinds; (_c_) moldy
surfaces; (_d_) uneven sizes; (_e_) cracked cheese; (_f_) wrinkled
bandages; (_g_) uneven edges.
CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING
Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with
those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the
qualities of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by
the use of a score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to
each a numerical value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese
a numerical score of 100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one
for export and the other for home-trade product. The latter is more
commonly used.
EXPORT SCORE-CARD HOME-TRADE SCORE-CARD
Flavor 45 Flavor 50
Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25
Color 15 Color 15
Finish 10 Finish 10
--- ---
Total 100 Total 100
The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different
numerical values are given them.
+262. Securing the sample.+--The sample of cheese to be examined is best
obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel
about five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is
semicircular in shape, about ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter. The
edges and end are sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the
cheese and turned around and then drawn out. It removes a long cylinder
of cheese, commonly called a "plug." This plug should be drawn from the
top rather than from the side of the cheese, because when the bandage is
cut it often splits, due to the pressure against it and so exposes the
cheese.
[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A cheese-trier.]
+263. How to determine quality.+--As soon as the plug has been removed,
it should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors
which are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of
the plug should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the
outer end of the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese
in the hole made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and
pushed in so that the surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents
mold and insects entering the cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after
a short time where the plug has been removed. The remainder of the plug
should be saved for determining the flavor and the body and texture.
The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese
on the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the
thumb and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly
warming causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should
seldom be tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be
judged, they all taste alike after the first five or six. This is
probably due to the cheese adhering to the teeth, tongue and other parts
of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse the mouth sufficiently. The
body and texture can be determined by the appearance and the feeling of
the cheese when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The body and
texture are distinct, yet they are more or less interchanged. The body
refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to the arrangement of
the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the holes can be
noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body and
smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed
between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is
first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or
after the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese.
Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance; when
cut it should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should
have a clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess
a mellow, silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and
fore-finger should be smooth and free from hard particles.
CHEESE SCORE-CARD
_Sample_................ _Date_......................
===============================================================
SCORE REMARKS
---------+-----+----------+------------------------------------
Flavor | 50 | ........ |
| | |
Body and | | |
Texture | 25 | ........ |
| | |
Color | 15 | ........ |
| | |
Finish | 10 | ........ |
---------+-----+----------+
Total | 100 | ........ |
---------+-----+----------+
Recommendations................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
Name of Judge.............................
---------------------------------------------------------------
SUGGESTIVE TERMS
FLAVOR
_Desirable_
Clean Pleasant Aroma Nutty Flavor
_Undesirable_
+Due to Farm Conditions+
Weedy Feedy Cowy Old Milk Bitter
+Due to Factory Conditions+
Too much acid Too little acid
+Due to either Farm or Factory Conditions+
Yeasty Fruity Fishy Rancid Sour Bitter Sweet Tainted
BODY AND TEXTURE
_Desirable_
Smooth Waxy Silky Close
_Undesirable_
Pasty Corky Acidy Greasy Loose Sweet Curdy
Gassy Watery Mealy Lumpy Yeasty Too dry
COLOR
_Desirable_
Uniform
_Undesirable_
Streaked White specks Seamy Mottled Wavy Rust spots
Acid cut Too high Too light
FINISH
_Desirable_
Clean surfaces Neat bandage Attractive
_Undesirable_
Wrinkled bandage Unclean surfaces Cracked rinds
Undesirable size Greasy No end caps Uneven edges
+264. Causes of variations in score.+--It is very seldom, if ever, that
a cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more
defects which may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The
seriousness of the defect is determined by the individual tastes of the
judges and the market requirements. It is customary for the judge to
pick out several samples and score them in order to fix the standard
and if there are several judges this serves to unify their standard.
Ordinarily judges will vary because of their individual tastes, unless
they begin with a uniform standard.
Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other
markets would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market
requires a very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider
undesirable.
The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents
so that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may
have little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable
flavor may have developed. This is probably due to the action of the
ripening agents, and therefore the second time it would be scored
differently.
+265. The score-card.+--When judging several samples of cheese, the type
of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one.
This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name
and reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these
troubles.
CHAPTER XV
_THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS_
Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some
extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to
supply the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now
considered.
SWISS CHEESE
Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyère, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and
Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this
region its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant
farmers into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the
United States in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York;
in Wayne, Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and
in Green and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin
colonies have become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed
the making of this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland.
+266. The Swiss factory.+--Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like
other types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the
vat is used a kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be
jacketed for steam or for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in
capacity from 600 to 3000 pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the
best care possible of his kettle, for an unclean utensil is one of the
easiest sources of contamination of the milk. When the kettle is not
jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this has been done, it is
suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane arrangement.
[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Swiss-cheese kettle.]
This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the
kettle rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon
another crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the
kettle is swung on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the
weigh-stand for filling. This requires a lid to swing down over the
fire, and keep the room free from smoke. The chimney generally has a
rather high stack to secure a good draft. This kettle is fastened to the
crane by a large iron band passing around the neck, to which a bail or
handle is attached. The kettle may be raised or lowered by means of a
simple screw on this beam. The crane consists of a heavy beam working in
sockets in the floor and a beam or cross brace, which has another and
shorter beam braced to it, to take the weight of the kettle.
The weigh-stand, and its efficient location, is a matter of extreme
importance. It is elevated a little above the remainder of the floor to
allow gravity to do the work. The next most important equipment is the
press and draining table. The table is made of wood or stone, and has a
slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The press is generally a
jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an enormous pressure
on the table below.
Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the
"block" or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the
round style, which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of
metal or of elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally
six inches, but of an undetermined length. These strips are then made
into a circle and held by a cord, which is easily lengthened or
shortened, thus varying the diameter of the hoop.
Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are
heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally
made, and are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the
bottom for rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to
cut the curd, and of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the
curd. Many clean bandages are also needed, and a kettle brake.
+267. The milk.+--Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high
acid and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of
manufacture and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects
milk if it shows acidity above 0.15 per cent. To secure milk in this
condition, factories are small and located so close to the producing
farms as to secure 1000 to 3000 pounds of milk delivered warm from the
cow twice a day. The cheese is made twice daily from this fresh milk.
If, however, milk is properly cared for, it is possible to mix night's
and morning's milk without bad results. In fact, in working
experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions against loss
of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk, thus
reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses
shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in
which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the
manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the
extra loss from curd-breaking.
+268. Rennet extract.+--Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their
own rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is
not uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the
desired coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll
fifteen to twenty well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them.
From this they cut off a definite amount each day to be soaked for
twenty-four hours in two to five quarts of whey at 86° F. Four quarts of
this solution added to 2000 pounds of milk at 90° F. should produce a
curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty minutes.
+269. Starter.+--Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for
Swiss cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the
cheese a decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that
it will control undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a
starter, it is possible to make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and
have uniform success.
Doane,[122] working with _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ as a starter, found that
these starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If
a cheese-maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this
may be overcome by making a starter[123] as follows from good cheese and
whey or milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes
and a good flavor. Grind up some of this and add about ¼ of a pound
to one gallon of milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm
temperature (85° to 90° F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just before
the rennet is added.
+270. The making process.+--The milk is delivered twice a day without
cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92° to 96°
F. It is strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at the
same temperature as received. (For method of adding rennet, see Chapter
V.) Enough rennet should be used to give a coagulation ready for cutting
in twenty to thirty minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested by
inserting the index finger in an oblique position, then raising it
slightly and with the thumb of the same hand starting the curd to break
or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready for cutting, it will give a
clear break over the finger.
It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in
process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan
arrangement which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of
water at 100° F., the temperature of the air above the milk will be
about 90° F. When the curd is ready for cutting, a scoop may be used and
the top layer carefully turned under to equalize the temperature more
closely.
_Cutting the curd._--In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar
cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss
harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into
pieces about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking"
curd instead of cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive
loss at times. Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be
kept as low as 0.3 per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for
the breaking tool formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades
supports the opinion that the removal of a small part of fat from usual
grades of factory milk produces a better quality of product than the use
of rich whole milk. This may be accomplished through the escape of fat
in the whey on account of breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously,
or by skimming a part of the milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred
under such conditions as to minimize the loss of fat.
_Cooking the curd._--After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for
about twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to
128° to 135° F. While this heating is in progress, constant stirring
must be given to avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks the curd
up into pieces about the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for the
large fat loss, which is one of the main sources of loss in making Swiss
cheese. This stirring is accomplished by a rotary motion, and the use of
a brake, which is a piece of wood closely fitting the side of the
kettle. This creates an eddy in the current at that point and gives a
more uniform distribution of temperature. The process of cooking takes
from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of that time the degree of
toughness may be determined by making a roll of curd in the hand, and
noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A short sharp break
indicates the desired toughness.
_Draining and hooping._--In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is
displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of
toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it
over a flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the
kettle, gives the contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then
suddenly reverses the motion, with the result that the contents form
into a cone, and the ring and bandage are dexterously slipped under this
cone, and drawn up to the surface of the whey with a rope or chain and
pulley. This part of the process is the most important, as a cheese must
have a smooth firm rind, else it will quickly crack. With too large a
batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two pieces and hooped
separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey, the piece of
perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under the
mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the
mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it
cannot mat badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is
raised clear of the whey, and run along a short track to the drain
table, where it is put in the press.
_Pressing._--The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the
cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the
pressure is applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final
pressure is about fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese.
During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and
the cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform
rind. After a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of
twenty-four hours the cheese is taken to the salting-room.
_Salting_ may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a
brine bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and
add a pailful or more of salt every few days thereafter to keep up the
strength. The cheese is then placed in this bath and left for three to
five days, depending on the saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with
a little of the rind above the surface, it should be turned a few times
to insure uniformity of salting. With dry salting, the salt is rubbed on
the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush, and any excess carefully wiped
off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the surface to work into the
cheese.
+271. Curing Swiss.+--From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the
first one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the
development of the characteristic eyes takes place.
During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant
attention must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at
first, and then every second or third day toward the end of the curing
period. Also, great care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as
it will soon work into the cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of
preventing mold is by washing the cheese, in either clean or slightly
salted water, as often as possible. A stiff brush is mostly used for
this.
The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the
whole process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but
it is attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes
has been examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen.
Sometimes hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation
of the milk-sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The
nitrogen[124] is included from the original air. Propionic acid is
formed at the same time as the eyes, and they are said to be the result
of a propionic ferment of lactic acid. The interior of the cheese is
anaërobic, due to low permeability and high oxygen-absorbing quality.
This propionic bacterium cannot, however, account for all the carbon
dioxide produced.
After the eyes have started, their further development depends on
temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese,
as regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a
temperature of 70° F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in the
second curing-room to about 60° to check the development. When any local
fermentive action starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on the
affected part. The humidity of the room is very important, because a
cheese will quickly dry out in a dry room, due to evaporation from the
surface. To prevent this, it is well to spray the floor with water, or
to have a steam jet in the room.
If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such
cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by
some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more
moisture. Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation.
The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following
test: Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger
slip from it, striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates
solidity, while a ring indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell
the size of the holes by the sound. This requires long practice for the
operator to become proficient.
After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and
the holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room,
which is held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The
cheeses are held in this room from three to ten months, depending on
market conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it
is customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in
America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do
not bring so high a price.
+272. Block Swiss.+--In making block Swiss, the same procedure is
followed through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square
form or in one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and
twenty inches long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed,
salted and cured in the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese
there is a much smaller cross-section; therefore the development of
holes is much more easily controlled on account of the ease with which
the salt can work into the cheese and control undesirable ferments. As
it is easy to control, this variety is made in the fall and winter when
the ferments are especially hard to keep in check. However, this cheese
has the disadvantage of cutting eye-development short by the rapid
entrance of salt.
The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the
changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not
known.
+273. Shipment.+--When ready for shipment, the drum cheeses of the same
general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care
must be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are
called scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The
cheeses are crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head
carefully fastened.
+274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.+--The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may
be characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very
tempting. The "eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with
a dull shine to the inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small
amount of a briny tasting liquid. These eyes should be uniformly
distributed. The color should be uniform. The cheese should have a neat,
clean, attractive appearance, and the rind should not be cracked or
broken.
There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not
clean-flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The
greatest difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does
not have these is called "blind." A product which has many small
pin-holes due to gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a
cheese with a thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes
cracks, it is called "glaesler." If the cheese contains too much
moisture, it will be soft and pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form
eyes.
+275. Composition and yield.+--A large number of analyses of Swiss
cheese have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the
fact that the composition and yield are both dependent on the following
factors: composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of
moisture in the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than
with some of the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because
more fat is lost in the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the
curd and the subsequent hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these
excessive losses has already been indicated.
Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of
composition:
Water 30-34 per cent
Fat 30-34 per cent
Protein 26-30 per cent
Ash 3-5 per cent
Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent
The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content
is proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long
ripening and long keeping periods.
The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss
cheese:
Flavor 35
Appearance on trier holes 30
Texture 20
Salt 10
Style 5
----
100
The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of
milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in
the cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process,
the larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk.
THE ITALIAN GROUP[125]
A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in
Italy with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are
very hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in
large cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for
Parmesan and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or
sheep milk or various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other
forms are known outside the place of origin except as they are exported
in a small way to satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions.
+276. Parmesan.+--One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has
become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not
discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan
is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper
ripening; in texture it is very hard with small eyes or holes formed by
very slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in
which hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by
experts. The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from
insects by rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the
cheese-trier is not used in testing, but the texture of the surface is
tested by pricking with an awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation
and associated ripening is determined by the sound given out when the
cheeses are tapped with a hammer.
When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally.
The broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other
cooked cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk;
the ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast
to the normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In
water-content much variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually
about 30 per cent water. Other members of the group are made with
different amounts of skimming, some of them from whole milk. The group
in general represents the requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer
regions (see Mayo and Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated
that the cheese does not become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a
water-content low enough to prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary
exposure of handling under warm conditions.
The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of
the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is
curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly
a provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a
truck, and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The
steam-jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure.
[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Parmesan cheese kettles.]
The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the
following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be
found. The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity
is, therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition
of the milk used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the
making of Cheddar (Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72° to 75°
F. Rennet is added in amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one hour
or slightly less. When the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under the
kettle and the curd is broken with a special implement into small
particles. After breaking, four grains of powdered sulfur to twenty-two
gallons of milk are added. The curd is stirred with a rake. By the time
the temperature rises to 77° F., the curd should be in very small
pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the temperature reaches 131°
F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes, after which it is
removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of the whey is
then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a compact lump
under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an assistant he
removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this the
curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a
slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before
night they are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day.
After standing four days, they are salted by covering the upper surface
with coarse salt. This is repeated with daily turning for twenty days,
then salted on alternate days for another period of twenty days. At the
end of the forty days' salting, the cheese is removed from the hoop,
scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind rubbed smooth. A dressing of
linseed oil either with or without bone black is applied.
[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A typical cheese-market in France.]
The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently
with linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin.
Careful grading as to quality of product and consequent response to
ripening conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence.
Those in which a ripening of three to four years is possible are most
highly esteemed.
+277. Regianito.+--A cheese of the Italian group is now made in
Argentina and imported to the United States under the name Regianito.
CHAPTER XVI
_MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS_
As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of
varieties of cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A
considerable number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found
by visiting the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts
of our large cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America
in a few factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for
brief discussion. Some of these are brought together here.
The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been
sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only
beginning to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as
Mysost, are applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is
extensively made and whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to
be practicable under some conditions.
+278. Caciocavallo+ originated in Italy, but is now made in certain
factories of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy[126] use
whole milk, others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is
probably the more common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated
with rennet, cut and firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey
drawn. The curd is then piled on the draining table and allowed to mat
or fuse into fairly solid masses. After several hours of draining and
matting, the curd is cut into strips and placed in a vat of hot water.
In the hot water, the blocks of solid curd melt into taffy-like masses
which are worked and molded by hand into more or less standard shapes.
Indian club or ten-pin forms are most commonly produced. When the proper
shape has been gained, each mass is thrown into cold water which
solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat and cool slowly; several
hours of cooling are required to insure a firm cheese. The newly made
cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a string to ripen.
Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are ripened several
months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba gives the
composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as water 32 to
34 per cent, fat 34 to 36 per cent, protein 28.5 to 29.5 per cent, salt
1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per
cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per
cent. Other analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the
differing fat-content of the milk. No standardized practice has been
established in America.
_Provolono_ resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and
composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is
more or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The
cheeses are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo.
+279. Sap sago.+--This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is
made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded
top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk
curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of _Melilotus
coeruleus_, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the
market form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special
care since the water-content is so low that fermentations are
exceedingly slow. This low-priced cheese may be used in cooking.
+280. Albumin cheese.+[127]--In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which
constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This
albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating.
The presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when
used alone. When the whey is heated to about 200° F., the albumin rises
and may be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It may be
shaped is hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This cheese
is pressed firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared as a
poultry feed.
+281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.+--The whey contains nearly 5 per
cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian
process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the
boiling point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating
the remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the
albumin is thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally
cooled into forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting
principally of caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage
composition as follows: water 10 to 20 per cent, protein 10 to 15 per
cent, milk-sugar 30 to 55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger
markets of the United States.
_Primost_ is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost.
It is made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main
difference is in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by
drying.
+282. Whey butter.+[128]--The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less
than 0.3 per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the
making of whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and
all whey is separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is
then ripened and churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter
made from whole milk but a fair market can usually be found for the
product. The recovery of 0.25 per cent fat means two and one-half pounds
of fat to 1000 pounds of whey. This will make about three pounds of
butter.
Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the
extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for
the product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in
large factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it
unless one has the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances,
the combination of small cheese factories with one churning plant has
proved to be economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is,
that it stimulates carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because
he thinks that the fat will be recovered by skimming. He does not
realize that the other milk solids are being reduced in the same
proportion as the fat, to the great loss in yield of cheese.
CHAPTER XVII
_CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION_
The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is
the available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a
canvass, and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought
to the factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to
insure sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory,
depends on the variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese
for which very sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice
a day. This demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its
supply. The length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and
the work necessary to care for them also limits the area which the
factory can serve, because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled
when the cheese must be given considerable attention in the
curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger and Brick cheese factories usually do not
require a large supply of milk; therefore the factories may be built
close together. The size of the Cheddar cheese factories varies but it
is generally considered unprofitable to make Cheddar cheese unless there
are 5000 pounds of milk available daily. Conditions have changed so that
at present different kinds of cheese are made from the surplus milk in
market milk plants. In such cases a uniform supply is not absolutely
necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the industry.
+283. Locating the site.+--In a farming community, several factory sites
are usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable
features of each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the
present cheese factories were located in hollows because it was easy to
secure a supply of water, but no thought or attention was given to the
disposal of the sewage. The following points should be considered in
choosing a site:
(1) _Drainage._--A factory should be so located that it has good
drainage. Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of
sewage easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and
left to decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run
into a cesspool or septic tank.[129] Even in a porous soil, a cesspool
frequently clogs and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best
method to dispose of the sewage unless the factory is so located that
connection can be made with a city sewage system.
(2) _Water._--An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a
factory. This may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a
never-failing water supply cannot be overestimated.
(3) _Exposure._--The factory should be so located that the receiving
room is away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown
into the factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to
the sun as this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory
of the ordinary type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a
cellar, it is better to locate the factory on the side of a hill. Then
the receiving and manufacturing room may be on the ground level and the
curing-room, a cellar, back of the manufacturing room and yet all on
the same level. This saves carrying the cheese up and down stairs.
(4) _Accessibility to market_ should not be overlooked. Often the
quality of the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in
marketing both milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use
the products are not so long in transit, and losses from exposure in
delivery are reduced. Both milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of
the sun for any length of time, become warm. This gives undesirable
organisms chance to develop.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A cheese factory of neat appearance.]
+284. The building.+--Details of construction or estimates of cost will
be omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this
satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing.
Only general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the
product will be taken up.
The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or
concrete. The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of
materials in the local market and on the amount of money available for
building.
+285. Heating plant.+--Many of the older factories have no heating
plants and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed.
Means of heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The
loss due to freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories
properly heated.
+286. Curing-rooms.+--The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the
amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese
to be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to
control humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry,
evaporation from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot
curing-room, undesirable types of ferments are more likely to develop
and to injure the quality of the cheese.
+287. Light.+--The importance of light should be emphasized. It acts as
a stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more
cheerful. There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A
skylight may often serve both as a source of light and ventilation.
+288. Ventilation.+--Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may
be accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a
good precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam
and control the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully
screened to keep out flies.
+289. Boiler-room.+--The boiler-room should be easily accessible from
the manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the
steam pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of
the boiler can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care
should be exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt
will be tracked all over the factory.
+290. Whey tanks+ should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely
necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been
found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is
used.[130] This is required by law in some states. It is sometimes
accomplished by heat with steam coils; in other cases by running live
steam directly into the whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel.
The acid of the whey seems to eat and decompose concrete.
+291. Store-room.+--There should be a separate room or a place in the
attic where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps
the factory cleaner and more tidy.
+292. The floors.+--The floor is the most important part of the
building. It should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily
cleaned, and it should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any
material used at present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The
corners between the floor and side walls should be rounding to make
cleaning easy. The drain should be provided with bell traps to prevent
the entrance of sewer gas into the factory. If the traps and floor about
them are slightly depressed, it will help to make the floor drain more
quickly. A catch-basin should be provided just outside the factory for
all solid material which might clog the sewer pipe. This should be
cleaned three or four times a year.
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A well arranged Cheddar cheese factory,
including the equipment for the manufacture of whey butter.]
+293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.+--The rooms and machinery
should be arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of
the process with as little inconvenience as possible. Some of the points
to be observed in this connection are: vats should be near the
weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the vats;
cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like.
Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary
machinery and rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In
this plan, the attic contains the store-room and the whey tanks. The
whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a steam jet and then
runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of
the ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and
butter refrigerator. In order to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene
engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-mill. The plan can
be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of
the factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small
room where the curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a
"lean-to" at one side of the building. This would materially reduce the
size of the main building.
Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory
without the whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the
vats might be criticized. In Fig. 62 is shown the arrangement of a
combined butter and cheese factory. Fig. 63 shows the possible
arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be
reduced by having the salting tables closer together.
In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the
manufacturing room. This makes considerable work in carrying the cheese
up and down. A small elevator may be used for this purpose. The same
principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties of cheese
are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There
is danger of the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the
cheese to leak fat. Shelves or tables should be provided on which to
put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never be placed on the
floor.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey
butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel for scalding
utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses; 7, weigh-can; 8, desk;
9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf; 11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.]
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Combined Cheddar cheese and butter factory.
1, Boiler; 2, engine; 3, water pump; 4, work bench; 5, wash sink; 6,
press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats; 9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11,
milk receiving vat; 12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15,
weigh-can; 16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer;
19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk pump.]
+294. Arrangements for cleanliness.+--A sink for washing the utensils
should be provided and boiling water to scald them after washing. After
being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly without rusting. The boiling
water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of water and
turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in
this barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis
cannot be laid on keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the
surroundings clean. This will prevent the development of mold. Cases are
known in which the cheese factory was allowed to become very dirty, so
that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and
caused red spots.[131] They are called rust spots. All doors and windows
should be screened to keep out flies.
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Limburger cheese factory.]
+295. Equipment and supplies list.+--The following utensils will be
needed in a Cheddar cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk
daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-can; 1 conductor head and
trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and sample
bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2
curd-knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1
long-handled dipper; 1 strainer dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1
glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1 paraffine tank; 1
Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1
sink; 1 40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3
thermometers; brushes and brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars
for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes.
If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the
whey; separator; cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter
refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine or gasolene engine.
The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese:
Bandages; boxes; scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or
pepsin; cheese color; press cloths; paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali;
indicator; sulfuric acid.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.]
When choosing the utensils, the ease of cleaning and sanitary
construction should not be overlooked. One of the most unsanitary
utensils in a factory is a dipper with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a
dipper with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all
utensils should be flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When
ready to clean or wash any utensils which have come in contact with milk
or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in cold water, wash in
warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse clean,
scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is
more sanitary.
+296. Factory organization.+--There are two general classes of
organizations[132] to operate cheese factories, one the proprietary and
the other the coöperative. Unless the kind of organization is what the
dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result.
(1) _Proprietary organization._--Under this form of organization, one
person owns and operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated
price for milk, or the milk is made into cheese for a stated price a
pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all losses.
So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary
organization. The gains and losses are shared by each member according
to the amount of money invested.
(2) _Coöperative organization._--In a true coöperative cheese factory
each patron is an owner, as the name indicates. The object of this
organization is to reduce the cost of manufacture rather than pay large
dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and small capital
invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns
considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are
coöperative in name only and proprietary in operation. The state of
Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop this defect and defines what
organizations may use the term or name, coöperative.
The constitution of a coöperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2,
object; 3, officers and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person
to run business; 5, capital stock; 6, meetings; 7, voting power; 8,
amendments.
Some of the most important statements which should appear in the
constitution are mentioned in the following sentences. A statement
should show what persons are eligible to membership in the organization.
It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the officers are
those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to
confusion and neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made
explaining the exact duties of each officer. The limits of the authority
of the manager or person who runs the business should be explicitly
stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters
or parts of the business must be considered by other officers or
committees. The amount of capital stock and the number and value of each
share should be exactly stated. The constitution should state when and
where the regular meetings must be held and by whom and when special
meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the
regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each
member of the special meetings.
The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to
shares of capital stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each
member. It is necessary to indicate just how amendments to the
constitution may be made. Each member should know before the final vote
just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions may be
found in the following references:
ELLIOTT, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories;
organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul.
53, 1904.
FARRINGTON, E. H., and G. H. BENKENDORF, Organization and
construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 244, 1915.
VAN SLYKE, L. L., and C. A. PUBLOW, The science and
practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909.
Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and
construction.
CHAPTER XVIII
_HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA_
Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first
immigrants came to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in
Europe, so that the early settlers brought with them and practiced
established methods. The countries of Europe developed different kinds
of cheese and have since become noted for such particular varieties, for
example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese;
England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and
Gouda; Italy, Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The
manufacture of these various cheeses has been attempted in this country.
Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in some cases the
use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to
manufacture some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic
conditions of this country and certain parts of England are somewhat
similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of England predominated, and
there was also more information on their manufacture. These are probably
the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for
Cheddar cheese.
The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work
was usually performed by women, and the process was very simple. The
methods were crude, and the cheeses were made in a more or less
haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed in a cheese tub in the
dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring. In
most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk
was removed in the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for
it was thought that in the process of manufacture it would all pass off
in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then mixed with that of
the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion
in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it
was emptied into the tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth,
the setting temperature was finally reached. Few of these settlers owned
thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were obliged to depend on the
sense of feeling to determine temperature.
One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the
production of rennet of a uniform strength. After the addition of the
rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk became firm enough, it was
broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a wooden
knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was
stirred by hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was
gradually brought to 98° F., aiming as near blood heat as could be
judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this temperature until
the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth.
The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to
press. All the curd of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in
small uneven-sized cheese. Since such cheeses were made from the milk of
single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the flavor was usually
good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the
cheese and marketing was entirely different from that practiced at the
present time. All the cheeses made during the entire season were held
until fall and marketed at one time. They were packed in casks four to
six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date when single
boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841.
Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As
this demand for cheese increased, particularly in England, it became
necessary to change the methods employed in manufacture. The farm dairy
cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd product. If not, it was
due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to
improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that
the cheeses were too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on
the farm continued until about 1851, when the factory system was
started, although home manufactures continued after that time. Following
are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1)
England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform;
(3) the quality of the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4)
factories saved much labor on the farms; and (5) could secure higher
prices.
+297. The factory system.+--Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese
factory in America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams
of Oneida County, New York, is supposed by many to have been the first
to build and operate under the factory system, in 1851. Cheese factories
were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period 1860 to
1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various
states, especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin.
+298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.+--In 1863, Harvey
Farrington of Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity
of developing the cheese factory system in Canada that he sold out his
business in New York and established the first Canadian cheese factory
in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by Canadian
farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small
quantity of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of
Canada has been large and growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the
leading provinces in the production of cheese.
+299. Introduction of cheddaring.+--The factories at first used the same
process as the farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert
McAdam introduced the English Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer,
New York. This is the Cheddar system as known to-day. It produces the
closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This introduction
made Herkimer County famous for its cheese.
+300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.+--In 1870, factories for
Limburger, Swiss and Brick cheese were started and have gradually
increased. In New York such plants are located around Boonville in
Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In Wisconsin, Swiss
cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New Glarus,
Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and
Rock counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du
Lac, Winnebago, Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark,
Washington, Dunn, Barron and Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part
of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and Wisconsin have manufactured
more of these cheeses, especially Swiss, than any other states. This is
probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those
of Switzerland.
When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for
market milk was felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply
both the cities and the cheese factories with milk. A large part of the
cheese was being exported and most of it had always been partly skimmed.
The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased. Then other
animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as
"filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making
skimmed-milk and filled cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws
prohibited the making of filled cheese and as a consequence Canadian
Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However, with the
control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled
cheese, the volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local
consumption. New York probably exported more cheese than any other
state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions, especially the
southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses
were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October,
1913, the first quotations[133] were made in New York City for Wisconsin
products.
+301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.+--The following list
and maps (Figs. 65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department
of Agriculture Dairy Division, show the number of cheese factories in
the different states and their location:
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Map showing the distribution of cheese
factories in the principal cheese-producing states.]
Arizona 3
California 93
Colorado 8
Connecticut 2
Delaware 1
Illinois 50
Indiana 13
Iowa 25
Kansas 1
Maine 5
Michigan 196
Minnesota 74
Missouri 4
Montana 1
Nebraska 1
New Hampshire 2
New York 995
North Dakota 3
Ohio 111
Oklahoma 1
Oregon 42
Pennsylvania 106
South Dakota 1
Utah 8
Vermont 35
Virginia 3
Washington 15
West Virginia 1
Wisconsin 1720
----
3520
+302. Total production of cheese in the United States.+--The following
figures (Table XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total
production of cheese and the amount made on farms and in factories in
the United States by ten-year periods:
TABLE XX
SHOWING THE TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CHEESE AND PART
MADE ON FARMS AND IN FACTORIES IN THE UNITED
STATES BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS
1849 Total 105,535,893 pounds
1859 Total 103,663,927 pounds
1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds
1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds
1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds
In factories 238,035,065 pounds
Total 256,761,883 pounds
1899 On farms 16,372,330 pounds
In factories 281,972,324 pounds
Total 298,344,654 pounds
1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds
In factories 311,126,317 pounds
Total 320,532,181 pounds
Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the
total production of cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539
pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in 1909 over 1899. During the
same years the amount made on the farms decreased 6,966,454 pounds, or a
decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories increased
29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent.
+303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.+--The rank of the
leading cheese states according to the number of factories in 1914 was:
Wisconsin 1720, New York 995, Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Showing the cheese factories in the Pacific
coast states.]
The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese
produced by the five states with the largest number of factories. This
table indicates that New York led in the production of cheese until some
time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably because, New York having so
many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is sold as
such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same
number of milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is
credited with more cheese in 1909 than New York ever produced and this
output probably will increase, as there are considerable areas of
undeveloped agricultural land in Wisconsin. It is also interesting to
note that Ohio is falling off in cheese production. This may be due to
the increased demand for market milk. On the other hand, production has
increased in Pennsylvania.
TABLE XXI
SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHEESE MADE IN FIVE LEADING STATES
BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS
----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
STATE |YEAR 1859 |YEAR 1869 |YEAR 1879 |YEAR 1889 |
----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|Amount in | Amount in |Amount in |Amount in |
| pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
Wisconsin | 1,104,300| 3,288,581| 19,535,324| 54,614,861|
| | | | |
New York |48,548,289|100,776,012|129,163,714|124,086,524|
| | | | |
Michigan | 1,641,897| 2,321,801| 3,953,585| 5,370,460|
| | | | |
Ohio |21,618,893| 24,153,876| 32,531,683| 22,254,054|
| | | | |
Penn | 2,508,556| 2,792,676| 8,966,737| 5,457,897|
----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
STATE |YEAR 1899 |YEAR 1909 |YEAR 1914 |
----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|Amount in |Amount in |Amount in |
| pounds | pounds |pounds from|
| | |factories |
| | |only |
| | | |
Wisconsin | 79,384,298|148,906,910|205,920,915|
| | | |
New York |130,010,584|105,584,947| 97,614,024|
| | | |
Michigan | 10,753,758| 13,673,336| 13,267,145|
| | | |
Ohio | 19,363,528| 12,473,834| 8,717,996|
| | | |
Penn | 11,124,610| 12,676,713| 14,808,573|
----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.+--The
accompanying table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to
1916 and their values, in so far as the figures are available.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Showing relationship of total production,
exports and imports of cheese.]
One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually
decreased and imports increased. This is probably because immigrants
have demanded the cheeses of their native country which were not made in
America. The exports for the years 1915 and 1916 are interesting as they
show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports being
gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased.
TABLE XXII
SHOWING THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF CHEESE BY THE
UNITED STATES FROM 1851-1916