In flying from flower to flower bees carry pollen and thus produce

cross-pollination. They are of value also in the pollination of

buckwheat, the clovers, and of many other farm crops. Horticulturists

have learned to appreciate this service so highly for orchards and small

fruit gardens that few commercial fruit growers will be without a

good-sized apiary in the orchard if there are no bees in flying reach.

It is impossible to measure the good that is accomplished in this way,

but since many varieties of fruits are not fertile to their own pollen,

it is obvious that were it not for the bees and other insects which

carry pollen there would be much less fruit. Of course not all the

pollen is carried by honey-bees, but this is the only species of insect

which may be taken to the orchard to insure pollination.

THE WORK OF THE BEEKEEPER

The average citizen has but a vague idea of the duties required of the

beekeeper for success. The idea prevails commonly that bees require but

little care. That is all wrong. Careful study, frequent attention, and

real work are essential. The work of the year may be briefly summarized

as follows: First, the beekeeper provides such conditions as will

encourage the colonies to produce young “workers” to the fullest

capacity of the hive before the secretion of nectar begins from the

principal honey plants. Second, he prevents a division of the working

force of the colony by swarming, through the well-understood means of

discouraging it. In addition to these activities, he provides the

additional space for storage of the surplus honey crop at the right

time. To have the bees reach their greatest strength in time for the

first honey flows taxes the skill of the best apiarist, but by a careful

study of the flowers from which the principal nectar crop is obtained in

this locality the beekeeper is able to create sufficiently in advance

conditions which will greatly multiply his working bees. Failure to do

this and failure to appreciate the importance of being prepared has

caused many beekeepers the loss of the best honey flows of the year. In

such cases the beekeeper often does not know that he is missing the

largest flows, because his colonies do not acquire their full strength

until after these flows have terminated.

It may seem unnatural to fight the swarming instinct, as swarming is the

natural way for new colonies to be formed. It is, however, the nature of

bees to swarm at a time when swarming will result in a division of the

working force, and just at the period when they should be concentrating

on the principal flow of the season. Therefore the beekeeper arranges,

if possible, that any increase in the number of colonies shall be made

when it will not prevent the gathering of nectar. This requires

vigilance just at the swarming season, since no satisfactory way has

been devised for treating the whole apiary long in advance of this

season to check the swarming instinct. There are, however, ways of

control by weekly visits during the swarming season--ways which can not

be explained in this short monograph, but which can be learned from

literature or in an agricultural college course in beekeeping.

The busy season for the beekeeper begins about two months before the

main honey flow, continues through the swarming season, and ends when

the comb honey is taken from the supers or when the honey is extracted

from larger frames which have been added to enable the use of the

extracting machine. Afterwards there is less rush, the only important

work being early preparation of the bees for winter. Every latitude in

the United States has its winter problem, and it is of the first

importance that prospective beekeepers realize that success depends more

on proper wintering than on any other one thing.

WINTER OCCUPATIONS

It will be evident that most of the work of the beekeeper comes in the

spring, summer, and fall. When your bees have been properly prepared for

winter with plenty of stores, there is nothing to be done for their

welfare until the early spring and “flying-out” time. There are,

however, many profitable winter jobs for the beekeeper. Equipment should

be stored, repaired, and put in complete readiness for the next season.

Many beekeepers turn their time into money by retailing the honey crop

during these out-of-season months, and when all their own honey is sold

they buy from other beekeepers to supply the trade. By developing a home

market you will get the profit not only of the producer, but as well

that of the wholesaler and retailer.

Everyone ought to have free a part of each year for study and

recreation, and the winter is the free time for the beekeeper, while his

little workers themselves are resting. Wintertime well employed in study

will prepare you for better returns. A thorough study of some new phase

of beekeeping can be taken up every winter. There is an abundance of

literature, and you can greatly profit by the experience of other

beekeepers and experiment-station records. Interest and determination to

acquire knowledge of your chosen vocation will be the best evidence of

your suitability for bee culture. Your enthusiasm may cause you to cover

the literature speedily. If there remains time unemployed, you may

desire to take up some other line of work, either physical or mental.

Some beekeepers have found it pleasant and profitable to teach in the

winter. Teaching interferes but slightly with beekeeping. Mornings,

evenings, Saturdays, and the long summer vacations can be devoted to the

bees. The teacher should produce extracted honey to avoid the

difficulties of swarm control.

Farm mechanics may prove advisable for a winter vocation and become an

income-bearing side line for one who is handy with tools, tractors,

trucks, and other machinery. The demand for able mechanics to repair and

place in overhauled readiness for spring use all the up-to-date

machinery now used on the farm is constantly growing. (See Farm

Mechanics).

NUMBER OF COLONIES NEEDED TO MAKE A LIVING

In deciding on beekeeping as a life work, one should have some idea of

the necessary amount to invest and the work entailed. There are many

persons in the country who earn a livelihood almost or entirely from

bees, and the number is increasing every year. In the Eastern States,

where the weather during the summer may interfere with the work of the

beekeeper, a skilled man may care for perhaps 600 colonies. In the West,

however, where the weather does not so greatly enter into the

beekeeper’s calculations, this number may be increased to 1,000. In

giving these figures, it is assumed that the beekeeper is able to put in

a full day’s work, is capable of considerable physical effort, and is a

good manager. If he does not possess these qualifications, he may be

much behind in his work at critical times, which necessarily means loss

of honey, perhaps a total loss of the year’s work.

During and since the war, prices for honey have been high, making the

returns larger than one may ordinarily expect. Perhaps the safest plan

is to use figures which applied before the war, although in all

probability honey prices will not for a long period, if ever, drop to

their former level. With honey figured at prewar price of 25 cents a

pound retail, the good beekeeper may confidently expect to average $10 a

colony. This is on the basis of extracted honey, which will probably be

produced by those about to engage in the business, certainly after the

first year’s experience. The expense in addition to labor per colony

will not average more than $1 a year. Income may be greatly increased by

selling honey locally at retail.

For one whose physical condition does not permit regular and hard work,

the number of colonies must be correspondingly smaller, at least at

first. When one has thoroughly mastered the business, the actual

physical labor may be greatly reduced and by the proper hiring of

unskilled labor the beekeeper may be saved much of the hardest part of

the work. Women have made a success of commercial beekeeping, and while

unable to do the hard physical work, they have had it performed under

their personal supervision by hired labor. Comb-honey production is

lighter work and not so many colonies are necessary to get the same

financial returns if the beekeeper retails his comb honey at the apiary.

However, with large apiaries composed of hundreds of colonies the

conditions change and comparison of financial returns are favorable to

the production of extracted honey. The large commercial beekeepers

follow extracting.

THE OUTFIT NEEDED

In addition to the colonies of bees properly hived, the beekeeper needs

some other equipment. This chiefly consists of a small house in which to

prepare the equipment and extract the honey, keep miscellaneous tools

for fitting out the apparatus, and usually an automobile truck for

moving bees and honey. It is usually not profitable to keep more than

100 colonies in one apiary. It therefore becomes essential to rent or

buy small tracts of land--about 4 miles apart--so that 100 colonies may

be kept in each place. This necessitates moving supplies and from time

to time colonies of bees. For this a small 1-ton truck is preferred by

most commercial beekeepers. At first necessary hauling may be hired. The

home apiary is usually best equipped, and frequently it is the practice

to haul in the honey to the home apiary after extracting. Many use a

small auto for this service. Another plan is to have an extracting house

rigged up on a trailer to the auto or truck, so that it may be moved

from place to place as needed. Usually the only labor employed at the

time of extracting is unskilled, but if your disability is troublesome

when preparing for winter or in doing other work, you can hire such help

as you may need. Even during the swarming season you may hire somebody

to take down the hives while you examine the combs for queen cells and

perform the various operations necessary for swarm control.

INVESTMENT NECESSARY

The investment which the general beekeeper makes in his business is

nine-tenths brains and study and one-tenth money invested in bees and

equipment. If he invests money only, his failure is a foregone

conclusion.

The price of hives and other equipment has greatly increased during the

war, and there is not much likelihood that it will decrease materially

during the next few years. However, by making inquiry the beekeeper may

frequently find opportunity to buy equipment from persons who have

failed to make a success because of unwillingness to study the problems

of the apiarist or of inability to devote to the work the time

necessary. Such failures are sufficiently clear proof that the bee

business requires devotion. The country is full of discarded hives which

have been bought by persons who have conceived the idea that it was only

necessary to buy a colony of bees and that the bees would “work for

nothing and board themselves.”

If new hives completely equipped for producing extracted honey are

bought at present prices they will probably cost from $4 to $5 each. The

bees to start a colony will cost perhaps $5 if purchased from dealers in

bees, but may obtained for much less by arranging with some apiarist to

fill the hives one supplies with swarms as they come off. Frequently

such arrangements may be made with some beekeeper who, not caring for

more colonies and to avoid buying hives, will gladly sell swarms as they

issue, at a nominal cost.

In proportion to the return, there is no other branch of agriculture

requiring so small a financial investment as beekeeping. Before the

inflation of prices due to the war two colonies of bees on an average

paid the good beekeeper as well as an acre of corn, and the investment

was, of course, much less. It is estimated that an apiary of 300

colonies will yield a net income equal to that of a good 160-acre farm

and be quite as reliable from year to year. However, the statement made

should be kept in mind--the investment which the beekeeper makes is

chiefly brains. This is a commodity which can not be purchased from the

hive dealer or secured with any number of swarms. In fact, the more bees

and equipment you have without the use of brains and training, the worse

off you are.

IS THERE A FUTURE FOR BEEKEEPING?

There is a demand for all the honey that can be produced in the United

States, and there was never a time in the history of the industry when

the honey market was so well established. Of course, during the war,

when there was a shortage of sugar, the demand for honey was abnormal,

but it seems improbable that the market will ever revert to prewar

conditions in price or demand. Many persons learned to use honey who

will continue purchasing it, notwithstanding they may now buy all the

sugar they wish. Honey is not a substitute for sugar in the diet, but

properly takes the place of jellies and jams. With the development of

the bottle trade in honey, which has been rapid during the past five

years, there is an increasing demand in the wholesale markets. The

introduction of prohibition has unquestionably caused the use of more

honey and of all kinds of sweets. This has already become quite evident.

The sugar stringency resulting in the war-basis distribution had its

application in many States simultaneously with prohibition. It was not

difficult to enforce the curtailment of sugar to confectioners in wet

States, but most difficult, and in fact impossible, in the prohibition

States, where it was actually necessary to increase the sugar allotment

to candymakers. Investigation proves that former users of alcoholic

beverages were large buyers of candies and other sweets.

There is an abundant opportunity for the development of local trade in

honey in almost all parts of the country. The future of beekeeping is

inviting. There is every reason to expect that it will continue to

develop rapidly for several years and that it will long continue to be

an important minor branch of agriculture. From its very nature, owing to

the limited supply of nectar, it can never be one of the leading

branches of agriculture, but there is abundant nectar to build up

beekeeping to ten times its present capacity.

NEED OF TRAINING

From the requirements indicated for good beekeeping, it is evident that

you will need all the information obtainable before engaging in the

business on a commercial scale. Such training you may secure through the

agency of the Federal Board for Vocational Education from courses in

beekeeping in some of the agricultural colleges. After you are well

equipped with all that one of these colleges can give you, then a good

plan probably will be to arrange for a season, or part of a season, in

the apiary of a thoroughly good commercial beekeeper. This selection

must be made with great care. Not all beekeepers who are fairly

successful in honey production are as careful in their work as they

should be, and by working with the wrong man you might get into

beekeeping habits that should be avoided. A man should be chosen who

makes a study of the behavior of his bees, one who is familiar with the

literature of his vocation, and if possible, one who is able to succeed

in regions where most of the beekeepers fail to get the full crop. After

a season with such a man--and there will be many who will be glad to

have your services in this way--you should be able to care for 100

colonies managed for extracted honey, provided your disability does not

prevent you from doing the work necessary. By that time you will have a

good idea of the amount of work which 100 colonies require.

You should avail yourself of every opportunity to visit apiaries and

talk with expert bee men. Visits to and careful surveys of the apiaries

of others who are successful may be worth almost as much to you as a

season’s close application.

Beekeeping means outdoor life under healthful conditions, well suited to

facilitate recovery from incipient tuberculosis, neurasthenia from shell

shock and other afflictions. At first in some of the manipulations of

the apiary there will be more or less difficulty which will arise

directly from your disability, but by the exercise of ingenuity you will

be able to devise ways of doing the work. If you have lost an arm, you

will need an artificial arm or some device for lifting the hives and

hive parts. Racks to hold frames while working with them, trays and

small tables are used and you will improvise other conveniences. If your

disability prevents your getting about easily, you will be able to

arrange your apiary so that there is the least possible amount of

walking. Light stools are employed for sitting while working over hives.

After training, the sooner you get to work the better. You will find

that actual work with artificial limbs and devices has a greater

theoretic value than mere exercises and work is incomparably more

interesting.

_AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE COURSES IN BEEKEEPING_

One of the best ways to acquire a thorough knowledge of beekeeping is to

take a course in one of the agricultural colleges which offers such

work. It must, of course, be understood that the knowledge so gained

must of necessity be largely theoretical, for there is not time in a

college course for much practical work. However, if the work is properly

presented the student should be able at the close of the course to begin

with 100 colonies and then he may work up in beekeeping practice as he

increases the number of colonies. The following colleges offer good

courses in this subject:

University of Minnesota, College of Agriculture, St. Paul, Minn.

College of Agriculture. Ames, Iowa.

Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn.

College of Agriculture, New Brunswick, N. J.

Agricultural College, East Lansing, Mich.

Agricultural College, College Station, Tex.

Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.

Your time will not be fully occupied with the beekeeping course and

practical training at any of these institutions. You can at the same

time take valuable courses in other subjects, such as fruits, gardening,

flowers, and poultry, which combine well in practice with beekeeping.

Farm mechanics (see Monograph on the subject) may be made a part of your

training, and prove a valuable winter side line after you become a

beekeeper, as the bees will not require your time during the winter

season.

The Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, has

held and has announced many valuable short schools for beekeepers in

various parts of the United States and there is contemplated a course of

intensive training for disabled soldiers who desire to take up

beekeeping. These will probably be arranged in several of the principal

beekeeping regions, and in proximity to the district offices of the

Federal Board for Vocational Education.

_SHORT SCHOOLS IN BEEKEEPING_

San Diego, Calif., November 25-30, 1918.

Davis, Calif., December 1-7, 1918.

Visalia, Calif., December 9-16, 1918.

Ithaca, N. Y., February 24-March 1, 1919.

Lafayette, Ind., April 7-12, 1919.

Ames, Iowa, April 14-19, 1919.

St. Paul, Minn., April 21-26, 1919.

California five weeks beginning November 17, 1919.

_LITERATURE FOR THE BEEKEEPER_

BULLETINS FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION

Farmers’ Bulletin 447. Bees.

Farmers’ Bulletin 653. Honey and its Uses in the Home.

Farmers’ Bulletin 695. Outdoor Wintering of Bees.

Farmers’ Bulletin 820. Sweet Clover: Utilization.

Farmers’ Bulletin 961. Transferring Bees to Modern Hives.

Farmers’ Bulletin 1005. Sweet Clover on Corn Belt Farms.

Farmers’ Bulletin 1012. Preparation of Bees for Outdoor Wintering.

Farmers’ Bulletin 1014. Wintering Bees in Cellars.

Farmers’ Bulletin 1039. Commercial Comb Honey Production.

BEE JOURNALS PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES

American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Ill.

Gleaning in Bee Culture, Medina, Ohio.

Domestic Beekeeper, Northstar, Mich.

The Western Honeybee, Covina, Calif.

Beekeepers’ Item, New Braunfels, Tex.

BOOKS OF INTEREST TO BEEKEEPERS

These may be obtained from dealers in beekeeping supplies, from

publishers of bee journals, and from general book dealers:

ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture, A. I. and E. R. Root.

Beekeeping, E. F. Phillips.

Langstroth on the Hive and Honey Bee, revised by C. P. Dadant.

Fifty Years Among the Bees, C. C. Miller.

Advanced Bee Culture, W. Z. Hutchinson.

Productive Beekeeping, F. C. Pellett.

Practical Queen Rearing, F. C. Pellett.

First Lessons in Beekeeping, C. P. Dadant.

Bee Primer, C. P. Dadant, Free to Soldiers from Bee Journal.

PLAN No. 1235. FARM MECHANICS AS A VOCATION

Acknowledgment is due E. B. McCormick, Chief Division of Rural

Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture; American Society

of Agricultural Engineers; Curtis Publishing Co.; Vacuum Oil Co.;

International Harvester Co.; Domestic Engineering Co., and A. W. Shaw

Co., for data, suggestions, and illustrations; also to Dr. John

Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.

The war, just over, has been a war of machinery. The observing soldier

has seen the effectiveness of the tank, the airplane, the truck, the

motor transport, and the ambulance. He will remember them almost as

comrades in the great struggle. He has seen the systematic care required

to keep all this equipment in shape to deliver maximum service.

Many of the returned soldiers have been truck, ambulance, or automobile

drivers, or at least have seen the vast field of work that has been done

by the gasoline engine in some form and have developed an admiration for

machinery. If you have driven any of these machines and experienced the

thrill of pleasure on getting your machine out of some tight place, or

in overcoming some difficulty by your own ingenuity, you have the best

evidence that you will enjoy the vocation that is spoken of in this

monograph.

In selecting your future vocation you should aim to profit by your past

experiences as much as possible and at the same time select such work as

will best enable you to enjoy life and health. You have had an

experience in the “great outdoors,” possibly a prewar experience in

agriculture, and can readily decide whether you will be contented under

such conditions as are found in country life. The majority of soldiers

have, barring injuries, been greatly benefited by their Army life.

Uncle Sam having called several million men into his service, many of

whom have been injured, is employing the best experts available to

restore these to a condition of maximum usefulness. Just as the expert

surgeon is restoring to useful condition the injured, so there is need

of a mechanical expert to keep in good order the machinery of the farm

and to restore to usefulness that which may have been injured.

The farmer is realizing that one of the chief problems of the modern

farm is that of getting sufficient help when needed. He has been in the

habit of depending on floating labor for extra help. During the past few

years this help has been getting more and more uncertain, inefficient,

and expensive, and during the war it has in fact often been impossible

to get help at any price. To meet this condition a more general use is

being made of modern machinery, which enables more and better work to be

done with fewer workers.

Modern farming depends to a large extent on machinery. The average

farmer is not a mechanic and must employ expert help to get the maximum

service from his equipment. You may have had training and experience in

mechanical work, and with a little special training this may become a

valuable asset to you as a farm mechanic. A person properly trained for

this work can save many machines for future usefulness and increase the

life of all the mechanical equipment of the farm.

The chart shows the relative amount of power on American farms as

compared with power used for manufacturing. All of this power on the

farm is utilized through machinery, and the large investment in farm

machinery makes it important that the best of care shall be given to

insure long life and efficient service.

When the call came for greatly increased production many farmers who

doubted their ability to handle the modern farm machinery hesitated to

undertake the larger acreage. In some cases crops already started were

not harvested for want of help and lack of ability to use the machinery

that might have taken the place of man power.

The more complicated machinery becomes, the more important becomes its

proper care and management. Neglect or improper usage shortens the life

of the machines and often causes breakage, necessitating repair or new

parts. The services of a man who has ability and training in the repair

and operation of such implements are needed to secure the best results.

If maximum life and service is not secured from farm equipment the

farmer can not afford to have it. With maximum service the farmer can

not afford to do without it.

THE FARM TRACTOR

The tractor is the most important recent addition to farm equipment. Its

use is increasing because it enables one man to do the work of several

and do it better.

Many farmers hesitate to invest in the tractor and other modern

machinery now available, because realizing that they are not mechanics,

they doubt their ability to operate such equipment satisfactorily.

Manufacturers employ mechanics to care for and operate their machines.

Farmers must adopt similar methods. They are recognizing that in heavy

farm work the tractor will accomplish more and do it better than horses,

and that the tractor does not require feed or care when not being used.

The use of the tractor involves so many changes in methods of work that

farmers are often staggered by the new problems to be solved. Every

farmer has grown into the use of horses and horse-drawn equipment. He

knows he can handle them, but he has not the same conscience in his

ability to handle the tractor and the machinery that goes with it.

The farm mechanic will be expected to operate the tractor in plowing,

seeding, cultivating, harvesting, and various other operations. He will

be able to get more and better work out of the tractor and other

machines than one who does not fully understand them.

If the services of a trained farm mechanic were obtainable, many farmers

would adopt the methods of the manufacturer, and they would find it

profitable to use such modern machinery as is adaptable to their needs.

This machinery, to give the best service, must be kept in first-class

condition, which requires the attention of a mechanic familiar with farm

machinery, not a machinist trained to do one, two, or several things in

a fully equipped up-to-date machine shop, but an ingenious all-round

mechanic who can keep the equipment in condition for operation at all

times.

A NEW VOCATION

This opens a new field of employment, that of farm mechanic.

The farm mechanic will have employment the year round, and the farm

owner who has a competent mechanic in his employ will find his machinery

in good order when needed.

The farm mechanic should not think that he is above doing regular farm

work, when that is more important. He may be called upon to repair

buildings, build fences, or even plant potatoes, but his duties should

be primarily the operation and upkeep of mechanical equipment.

With the machinery cared for by a competent farm mechanic there will be

less loss of time due to breakdowns and the equipment lasts longer. If

anything goes wrong with any of the mechanical equipment while in

operation it will receive the immediate attention of an expert. When

there is a need for repairs to any of the buildings a competent man is

available to do the work.

Some large scientific farmers who have made their farming truly

commercial propositions have introduced as one of the economic features

of their business a department of farm mechanics with an expert mechanic

in charge. The time is ripe and the need urgent for the general

introduction of the farm mechanic on every farm of sufficient size.

Adjoining farms might in some cases advantageously combine in employing

a farm mechanic.

A person with a desire to farm and an inclination toward mechanics may

make one help the other by getting a farm so located that he can do

general repair work for near neighbors, this work to be undertaken with

the understanding that repairing and sharpening of tools will be done

when farming is at a standstill because of weather or for other reasons,

and that his own farming operations must not be sacrificed. Those

desiring his services will gladly bring their machines to him to be

overhauled before the season for use and while other work is not

pressing.

The farm mechanic must be ingenious in utilizing the equipment at hand.

He can often adapt available equipment to do work that, without his

ingenious help, would be accomplished with much difficulty.

The cut shows a small gasoline engine mounted on a binder to drive the

cutting and binding machinery. With this arrangement the team has only

to draw the binder. This is particularly advantageous on soft ground.

Where the bull wheel does not have to drive the machinery it is not so

liable to mire in wet places. This plan, taking much of the load from

the team, enables more and better work to be done. If a tractor is

available that can draw a grain drill and a harrow at the same time, it

is poor economy not to do both operations at once.

Efficient hitches are very important and the mechanic must arrange these

so that he can do the maximum work with a minimum power in the shortest

time. It has been found that the power required by some methods of

hitching may be 15 to 25 per cent greater than by others. As a rule,

proper hitches not only take less power but the tools do better work.

This illustrates one of the benefits to be derived from having an expert

in charge of the machinery.

The farm mechanic will be able to supervise the use of machines and

tools on the farm and thus greatly increase the efficiency of the

equipment in the hands of others, as well as of that operated by

himself. By supervising machines when in use and by keeping equipment in

the best working condition, the farm mechanic can make himself the most

valued man on the place.

In some sections of the country drainage and irrigation are very

important. The intelligent farm mechanic with a little training can be

of great service in the simple farm surveying necessary.

The erection of and additions to farm buildings is another line of work

that naturally falls to the farm mechanic, as does also the installation

of farm equipment. Many convenient devices are possible if some one is

available who can use tools and has ability to plan and construct such

improvements. How many farmers, for example, have a dumb-waiter

connecting with the cellar, or water in the kitchen to save steps for

the farmer’s wife?

Most farms have a gas engine for pumping water. It would be an easy

matter to arrange this engine so that it could be fitted to a short

shaft provided with pulleys to drive various machines, such as feed

grinder, feed cutter, grindstone, fanning mill, etc. A 1¹⁄₂ or 2

horse-power engine on a small truck would be very convenient for moving

from place to place for odd jobs. Many farms are supplied with small

electric-light plants, which by a little ingenuity could be made more

convenient and also save work in the home. Electric lights, running

water, bathroom, vacuum cleaner, cream separator, electric washer,

electric iron, furnace, and many other conveniences are all

possibilities, although many farmers do not realize that these are

available for the country home. However, with the assistance of the farm

mechanic, the farmer will feel that he, too, may enjoy city

conveniences. Farmers are not unwilling to have things made convenient

for themselves, but hesitate because of the difficulty of getting a

competent person to operate and maintain the plant. Lights, feed

cutters, milkers, and other conveniences are needed at the barn.

Probably no farm would have all these improvements, but any farm may

have some, and, if a farm mechanic of originality is available, many of

these will be possible.

The farm mechanic should be provided with a shop equipped with well

selected tools. This shop, for convenience, should be located as closely

as possible to the machine sheds. It should have good light, a tight

floor, and some means of heating in cold weather, for most of the work

in the shop will be done during weather which is unsuited for outside

operations. The equipment should consist of a forge and anvil, a bench

and vise for metal work, a bench and vise for woodwork, good, suitable

tools, and a small stock of supplies--such as nails, screws, nuts, and

bolts.

Farm machinery is built on the interchangeable plan, and a few of the

extras most liable to be needed should be kept on hand to avoid delay.

For example, a careful inspection of the binder before harvest will show

what parts are likely to give trouble and which, if immediately replaced

by extras on hand, will eliminate unnecessary delay at a time when every

hour counts in saving a crop. It is well to know months before harvest

that when you hitch to the binder it will be in shape for work; also,

that when the silo is to be filled the knives will be sharp and the

blower in good working order.

With a reasonable outfit of tools a trained mechanic can repair almost

any ordinary break that may occur in the busy season which, otherwise,

would cause the work to stop and the crew to be idle while a part, or

perhaps the whole machine, is taken to the local shop for repair, only

to find the shop crowded with similar rush jobs which must take their

turn.

The farm mechanic should know how to do simple forge work; sharpen

plows; dress and temper ordinary chisels, punches, and other steel

tools; make good welds in iron and steel; do a fair job of woodwork,

such as will be required in repairing around the house and barns, and

erect such small buildings as may be needed. He should know how to

babbitt a bearing; fit new piston rings in a gas-engine cylinder; grind

in the valves; clean out the carbon from the cylinders of the gas

engine, auto, or tractor; overhaul the binder, mower, hay loader, or

other machinery; and replace such parts as are broken or worn.

Practically, all repair work should be done on the farm and most of it

may be done when the machines are not in use, or when the weather

prevents other work.

While a machine is in use, or immediately after it is brought in from

the field, any repairs or replacements that are needed should be noted

by the operator on a tag to be attached to the machine before it is put

away for the season. This will serve as a reminder when the machine is

overhauled to prepare it for the next season.

During the late fall and winter the entire equipment of machinery should

be overhauled and put in shape for use. This will give ample time to

secure extra parts. The “one-hoss shay” had no weakest part, but most

machinery has. If the weak parts can be repaired, or replaced, before

they give way the life and efficient service of the machine will be

prolonged. A point often overlooked is that poor results are secured by

using tools that are not sharp, or not in good repair, and, also, the

additional fact that much time is lost. Men will do more work, and do it

better, if the tools they use are in first class condition. A man who is

swearing mad at a dull, rusty plow that will not scour, will be liable

to mistreat his team and he will be unprofitable in many ways all on

account of a neglected plow. In consequence of poor tools, or tools in

poor condition, inefficient plowing, cultivating and other operations

follow with their resultant losses in crop returns. To illustrate, the

average yield of wheat in the United States is about 15 bushels per

acre, but the efficient farmer produces 25 to 40 bushels, and thereby

greatly reduces his cost per bushel. Likewise with corn or other crops,

the larger the yield the less the cost to produce, and hence the greater

the net profit.

Even if the local repair shop happens to be convenient, and the farmer

inclined to use it to the best advantage and as often as would be

profitable, it would frequently be impossible to get efficient service,

since the local shop is often congested with work, poorly equipped, and

the shop mechanic may not be familiar with the machinery to be repaired.

To make the farm investment as a whole most profitable a considerable

and judicious investment in modern farm machinery is absolutely

necessary. The farm equipment will usually include a tractor, sometimes

a truck, depending on the size of the farm and farm implements suited to

the lines of work being carried.

It must be realized, however, that the best results from the farm depend

on the efficient equipment of the farm home. The farmer’s home is more

than a shelter, it is the most important tool in his business. The farm

equipment chart, shows the result of a study of all the farm homes in a

township in Iowa. Half of all the farm homes in this township had

furnaces, while the proportion having water, bath, and electric or gas

lights was somewhat less. Nearly half had vacuum cleaners, power

washers, and electric irons. Nearly all these homes had telephones. Over

half had pianos, and about half had automobiles. This is not a picture

of average conditions obtaining at present in farm homes throughout the

United States, but it is a picture of conditions, somewhat exceptional

at present, to which we are, however, rapidly approaching.

In many instances an automobile is included in the farm equipment.

Farmers have in fact more need for a car than have any other class,

since it serves the double purpose of business and pleasure and makes

possible the greater enjoyment of church, town, and neighbors.

Statistics show that nearly 2,000,000 autos are owned by farmers.

COST OF FARM EQUIPMENT

The machinery on a 200-acre farm will vary from $3,000 to $4,000 or

more. No business man would put such expensive equipment in the hands of

a crew of untrained men without some one in charge to see that it is

properly used, kept in repair, and cared for when not in use. With a

farm mechanic assured, farmers will realize that it is good business to

supplement their farm investment by the purchase of such machinery as

will result in improved farming and increased production.

The necessity for proper mechanical equipment of the farm was

appreciated by the Federal Farm Loan Board when it provided that part of

the Federal loan funds might be used for mechanical equipment. The board

realized that a farm can not be profitably operated without suitable

machinery and that without modern farm tools the farmer is severely

handicapped, even though he has a good farm and sufficient buildings.

Thorough preparation of the soil and cultivation and harvesting of the

crop all depend upon proper equipment of the farm.

The economic importance of modern labor saving tools, implements, and

machinery for the farm, orchard and garden was not fully appreciated

until four years of a world-disturbing war had created havoc with the

farmer’s labor supply, already short from losses to other industries.

This supply was further curtailed by the demand for workers in the

manufacture of war supplies and by enlistments. Even in the face of this

tremendous depletion in his labor supply, labor-saving machinery,

available from abundant prewar manufacture, enabled the farmer,

nevertheless, to expand the area under cultivation by hundreds of

thousands of acres, and thus to meet war emergency needs.

The satisfaction and profit of having an outfit of tools and a competent

man to keep the equipment in good working condition, will be realized

more fully as the mechanic demonstrates his ability and ingenuity. The

average farmer has not had the experience of having his machines and

tools in condition without considerable trouble and outlay of time and

expense. The change will be such a relief, and the increased efficiency

so noticeable that the farm mechanic will have little difficulty in

making such services appreciated, securing acknowledgment of his ability

and therefore establishing his rank among the men on the farm. He

should, of course, be considered a permanent man and be provided with

all the perquisites that other permanent men enjoy, including a house

and a garden in addition to adequate compensation.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

The demand for farm mechanics may be expected to grow somewhat in

proportion to the increase in the use of tractors. The introduction of a

tractor on a farm necessitates many changes in methods of work which

call for the exercise of mechanical ingenuity to get maximum results.

The advantage of having a trained man to help plan and start the work

under the new conditions is evident.

The Curtis Publishing Co. has made a study of tractor production and has

plotted a curve (Fig. 18) which shows the probable future of the

industry. If the demand for farm mechanics increases in proportion as

does the utilization of tractors, the future looks bright for

well-trained men.

You may have had mechanical experience and possibly experience with farm

machinery, but you will, nevertheless, need a short intensive course in

the care and repair of farm machinery. Such a course will fill you with

new ideas for greater efficiency in the employment and adaptation of

numerous tools not generally used on the farm. If you have had little

mechanical training, but have had some experience with farm machinery,

you will need a course in shopwork to enable you to do a good

workmanlike job instead of the usual makeshift work to which many

farmers have been accustomed.

HANDICAPS

Some of you may be saying, “But I can’t hope to make good on the farm

because of my handicap. I have lost a foot or an arm or am otherwise

crippled.” It is true that these may seem hard to overcome, but the

mechanic’s work on a farm is such that few of these losses will be

prohibitive or constitute serious handicaps.

Ordinarily the loss of a leg would prevent a man from doing the

necessary walking in soft ground, but even this will not be found such a

serious loss after you have been supplied with the “extras” to which you

are entitled. Uncle Sam has had his “physical mechanics” at work for

some time getting these “extras” ready, and after you have gotten them

adjusted and properly “broken in” you will find considerable pleasure in

your ability to use them. Your work as a mechanic will be with machinery

and you will almost invariably ride while operating it. In the shopwork

and repairs, if you can stand at a bench and move around your machine,

you will find little difficulty on account of loss of a leg.

As for arms, the candidate should have one good hand, but the mechanical

substitutes that have been developed will enable you to get along very

comfortably with one good hand and a workable substitute for the other.

After you are accustomed to your store hand its use will become second

nature to you and you will not often be conscious of the change. Even

store teeth require a certain amount of education before they work well.

Increase in the use of artificial limbs at this time has led to material

improvements being made in appliances to overcome various handicaps. The

illustrations you have undoubtedly seen in print or on the screen are

not “make up” pictures but actual cases of what training in the use of

these appliances will enable a person to do. What others can do, you can

do.

Physical disabilities, such as shell shock, nervous troubles, and lung

troubles will be greatly benefited by the free outdoor life of the farm.

There are side lines that would be very profitable and interesting which

would sandwich in with the work of the farm mechanic in a very

satisfactory way, such as beekeeping, poultry, and sheep.

There is a fascination about farm life to many persons that more than

compensates for any loss of the enjoyments peculiar to city life. The

farmer has been looked on as not quite the equal of the manufacturer or

merchant, but opinion is rapidly changing. The farmer is the original

producer on which others depend. This war has caused the world to

realize his importance, and now he is beginning to receive his dues and

be recognized for his real worth.

When you have had the special training as a farm mechanic you will find

that the demand for your services is from well-equipped and experienced

farmers. While you are rendering valuable service to your employer in

your line of work you will be getting a good salary and securing useful

experience which will prepare you for a better position as a farm

mechanic or for successful management, eventually, of a farm of your

own.

The Surgeon General is instructed to fit you out with the best

appliances possible for your future work, and the Federal Board for

Vocational Education is ordered to provide the training that will fit

you for the work which you decide is best and most nearly meets your

needs.

The Federal board’s training courses have been arranged for in every

State, and information in regard to them can be secured from your

nearest district vocational officer. See list on the last page of this

monograph.

PLAN No. 1236. SHOW-CARD WRITING

This monograph was prepared by May H. Pope, under direction of Charles

H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board of

Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of

the Research Division, for editorial assistance.

THE PURPOSE OF THE SHOW CARD

A man’s attention is attracted through his sense of sight more readily

than in any other way. A word, a phrase, a pithy sentence will catch his

eye and focus his interest, where something requiring more concentration

would fail. For this reason window dressing has grown into an important

feature of every merchant’s business, and cards pointing out the quality

and prices of the goods displayed are universally used. These show cards

were formerly made by sign painters, until some, more farseeing than

others, realized the opportunity to specialize in this line of work,

which has now developed into a distinctive trade.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CARDS

There is a great variety of types in show cards. Some are large, others

are small; some are ornamented with designs suitable for the occasion,

or season, or goods to be featured in the advertisement; others are

plain numerals or letters giving the bare detail of cost. As these cards

are shown in the street cars, on moving picture announcements, on

billboards at theatre entrances, as well as in the stores, they must be

so varied as to be appropriate to their surroundings.

A practical feature in writing show cards is the selection of some

special design or slogan with which the article or firm may always be

associated in the mind of the public. In this field a show-card writer

with originality is able to realize materially upon his ideas.

FUTURE OF THE TRADE

Because the merchant believes that seeing is very likely to mean buying

he finds the show-card writer indispensable to his business. Whether

large or small, every store needs these display cards with their catchy

announcements to aid in promoting business. Present-day competition

makes it necessary that every known means at attracting attention shall

be utilized by the merchant who would keep up in his line.

Progressiveness in store management has occasioned rapid growth in the

trade of card writing within the last few years, and the constantly

increasing demand for advertising indicates that the trade of show-card

writing has an assured future.

EQUIPMENT

For the man possessing limited capital the small cost of the necessary

equipment is an alluring inducement to enter the trade. A few dollars

will cover the entire cost. Brushes, pens, penholder, with ink retainer,

ruler, art gum or sponge rubber, thumb tacks, combination compass, a

pair of large shears, a T-square, a box of charcoal, soft lead pencils,

and cardboard make up the list of necessary material for the show-card

writer. A good-sized drawing board completes the list. “The better the

workman the fewer the tools” has been said. An expert card writer works

efficiently with a board, a T-square, and a half dozen thumb tacks.

WHAT MEN IN THE TRADE SHOULD KNOW

A good general education is essential for a show-card writer who expects

to be more than merely a mechanical maker of words and letters. Those

who become expert in the art need a knowledge of designing and an

originality in composing effective phrases, such as can not be resisted

even by those who read the cards casually.

A practical knowledge of the geometric construction of letters is

fundamental, for though simple lettering may be largely mechanical work,

skill must not be confined to the utilization of mechanical means alone.

A knowledge of color is an advantage to those who make sign cards. Color

combinations and contrasts play an important part in producing

attractive cards. As card writers are confronted by all sorts of

combinations of words in inscriptions, it is necessary for them to know

letter forms; to understand novelty in designing, arrangement, and

artistic embellishment; and to exercise taste in harmonizing colors, so

as to produce cards that will be not only neat and attractive but at the

same time legible.

WHAT MEN IN THE TRADE DO

Show-card writers make price tickets and all types of trade cards used

in windows, on special sale sections, on the announcement boards of

theatres, on automobiles, in cafeterias, in street cars, and wherever

else the card may serve as a proper medium of advertising. The trade is

carried on in different ways. Cards are sometimes made by salesmen who

give only part of their time to this work. Other writers give all of

their time to one firm requiring a large number of cards for its own

use. Some card writers work for show-card firms and others have their

own offices and fill special orders.

OPPORTUNITIES

The demand for show-card writers is far greater than the supply. Every

small town offers an opening for one or more, who would make a good

living at the trade in that locality.

HOW MEN ARE TRAINED

Many card writers are trained in the shop. Correspondence courses afford

fair advantages to the man who must save time and money, but personal

supervision is of great advantage, and personal criticism is essential

if a correspondence course is taken. Courses in card writing are now

offered in technical schools and Y. M. C. A. classes and vocational

schools all over the country. Among the schools now offering courses in

show-card writing are the following:

Federal School of Commercial Art, Minneapolis, Minn.

Idaho Technical Institute.

Los Angeles Y. M. C. A. schools.

St. Louis Y. M. C. A. schools.

Lowry Sign and Advertising Service, Chicago.

Link’s Business College, Boise, Idaho.

State Trade School. Danbury, Conn.

Appleton, Wis., Industrial School.

Kenosha, Wis., Vocational School.

Neenah, Wis., Industrial School.

New York High School.

New York Vocational Schools.

Detroit, Mich., School of Letters.

Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill.

College of Commerce, De Paul University, Chicago.

School of Industrial Arts, Trenton, N. J.

Koester School, Chicago.

Semby School, Minneapolis, Minn.

The length of time required for the completion of courses depends upon

the student; one very good course covers eight weeks. Some students

after the fifth or sixth lesson have done work sufficiently creditable

to bring a money return. Proper and methodical training is very

necessary. Care and exactness must first be acquired and speed will

naturally follow.

Courses given in show-card writing cover such subjects as how to mix and

when to use water colors, inks, and oils; the care of brushes and pens;

the proper kind and color of cardboards to use; and how to apply bronze

and diamond dust. The formation of pen and brush letters is, of course,

fundamental, and the principles of lettering must be taught in a simple,

thorough, and correct way. Proper instruction, with application, is

bound to bring success.

_Lesson plates Nos. 1 to 6._--Improved method for teaching, correct

formation and relative proportions of letters and numerals.--Brush

method.

_General instructions._--Proper material, student’s worktable, light,

how to care for brushes, show-card paint, how to practice, kind of

practice that counts, lesson plates explained, how to fill the brush,

how to bring the brush to working point, how to hold the brush,

position at table, position of paper.

_Lesson plates Nos. 7 to 10--Single stroke rapid Roman

lettering._--How to begin the practice, time-saving methods, how to

hold the brush, various positions of the brush explained, how to

manipulate the brush to produce clean-cut strokes, purpose of

single-stroke vertical and italic roman lettering.

_Lesson plates Nos. 11 and 12--How to shade letters._--Various styles

of shading, proper colors for shading, shading as an embellishment,

shading to give emphasis.

_Lesson plates Nos. 13 to 16--Single stroke Egyptian

lettering._--Brushes to use, how to hold the brush, how to manipulate

the brush to produce the proper stroke, how to practice the elementary

lines and curves.

_Lesson plates Nos. 17 and 18_--Single and double stroke alphabet and

numerals.--Purpose of this style of letter, brushes to use, method

explained, different methods of finishing the letters.

_Lesson plate No. 19--Single-stroke old English alphabet._--Purpose of

old English lettering, how to hold the brush, retouching the principal

strokes.

_Lesson plate No. 20--Single-stroke modified Roman pen

lettering._--Advantages of pen lettering for text or descriptive

matter, inks to use, how to practice pen lettering, how to hold the

pen, how to manipulate the pen to procure clean-cut strokes, how to

use an ink reservoir to facilitate rapid work.

_Fifteen practical show-card layouts._--In the foregoing lessons the

student acquires sufficient ability to enable him to make practical

use of his knowledge. The alphabets covered are sufficient for general

show-card use. Therefore, at this point, the course presents 15

practical layouts showing how the text should be separated into

display lines and descriptive groups, also various styles of letters

that may be used in harmony for display and descriptive matter. An

appropriate show-card phrase is used for each layout. Display lines

and descriptive groups are indicated in the exact size and styles of

letters to be used in lettering each layout. Specific directions as to

color, combinations, and embellishments are given for each layout.

_A study in design and layout._--The principles of spacing, importance

of show-card designing, best rules for spacing, lessons in spacing,

how to center a word or line.

_Condensing and extending letters._--How to plan lettering to fit a

given space, rules for condensing, rules for extending, appropriate

uses of condensed and extended letters, practice exercises.

_Principles of the balanced layout._--Balanced layout defined, how to

plan the balanced layout, important points to observe, examples of

balanced layout, practice exercises in balanced layouts.

_Border lines, underscore, space fillers, and panels._--Brush ruling,

how to draw an ellipse, initial panel, initial letters, a few card

kinks.

_The group layout._--How to plan the group layout, examples of group

layout, practice exercises in group layout.

_Combination layout._--Purpose of the combination layout, how to

divide the phrase into display lines and groups for the combination

layout, examples of combination layouts, exercises in combination

layouts.

_Price tickets._--Normal style price tickets, bold style price

tickets, small price tickets, fancy price tickets, illustrative price

tickets, practice exercises.

_Illustrated show cards._--Sources of ideas, tracing from clipped

illustrations, how to use the pantograph for enlarging illustrations,

the mirrorscope, examples of appropriate designs for various purposes,

exercises in illustrated show cards.

_Principles of colors--Color contrasts._--How to mix water-color

paint, color effects; color combination; mixing standard colors to

produce shades, tints, and unusual colors; lessons in color

combinations.

_Show card embellishment._--Dry-color blending; spatter work; relief

lettering; applying metallics, diamond dust, flock, etc.; phrase and

picture tiling; seasonable embellishments; floral decorations; poster

cut-outs; silhouettes; how to paint muslin signs.

_Instruction in the use of the air brush._--Principles of the air

brush; sectional view of an air brush; illustrating and describing all

important parts; air pressure; how to put a gas outfit together;

colors for air-brush use; how to use the air brush; care of the air

brush; how to cut stencils; practice exercises to gain control of

brush; color blending; exercises in the use of stencil designs.

_Lesson plate No. 21._--Single-stroke alphabet and numerals for modern

speed ball pen lettering.

_Lesson plate No. 22._--Uniform single-stroke alphabet and numerals

for Payzant pen lettering.

_Lesson plate No. 23._--Single-stroke Payzant or speed ball pen

alphabet with retouched spurs.

_Lesson plate No. 24._--Speed ball pen initial capitals, retouched and

embellished.

_Lesson plate No. 25._--Outline Roman initial, embellished capitals,

plain lower-case letters.

_Lesson plate No. 26._--Modern Roman and fancy alphabets for music pen

lettering.

_Lesson plate No. 27._--Old English text pen, and small speed ball pen

alphabets.

_Lesson plate No. 28._--Speed ball pen alphabets.

_Lesson plate No. 29._--Rapid single-stroke antique Roman brush

alphabet.

_Lesson plate No. 30._--Rapid single-stroke modified Roman brush

alphabet.

_Lesson plate No. 31._-Single-stroke antique alphabet and numerals.

QUALIFICATIONS

Anyone who can learn to write can learn to draw or paint letters for

show cards. It is not essential to have artistic ability, although this

would be an asset in the trade; a steady hand and a correct eye are the

only requirements, and it is well to remember that “the sight that

insures correct drawing is not that of the eye only, but of the mind.”

HANDICAPS

Good eyesight is essential, but almost no handicap other than blindness,

or the loss of both arms, is prohibitive. It is an advantage to have

both hands, but the fact that one-armed men have so clearly demonstrated

their ability to write as legibly as others with both hands indicates

that the difficulty for a man with one hand becoming a show-card writer

be overcome.

DESIRABILITY FOR THE DISABLED MAN

The work is not heavy, the hours may be adjusted to the strength of the

worker, the prospects for work in the trade are favorable, and the pay

is good--all of which characterizes the trade as one suitable for

disabled men. A chief attraction which show-card writing holds out for

the handicapped man is the freedom allowed in the choice of a working

place. He may be independent, not only in the place of his work, but in

selecting his own hours for work. This liberty means much for a man who

is physically below normal. The conditions under which a writer of show

cards works are favorable, both as to time and place.

REMUNERATION

Show-card writing is a fascinating art and brings good profits. For this

reason its appeal will be strong to the wounded soldier.

An exact standard of prices has never been possible for card writing, as

so much depends upon the quality of the work and the time required to

make the cards. The cost of the material is negligible; but show cards

have an intrinsic value to the merchant, who is usually willing to pay

for them.

Card writers make from $25 to $75 a week. Advertising cards, being of a

temporary nature, must be inexpensive. Rapidity is necessary, in order

to make it profitable, as the writers are usually paid by piece-work.

The example may be cited of a hunchback who began show-card writing at

$3 a week and by his energy and application rose to a salary of $40 in a

short while.

A lack of application or giving way to discouragement over first

attempts may cause failure, but for no other reason should a disabled

man who desires to become a writer of trade cards feel the slightest

fear of the undertaking. Begin the course with a determination to

succeed, and remember that lack of confidence is not conducive to

success in any trade. Learn the principle strokes with great care,

practice diligently until dexterity is acquired, work without

hesitation, boldly and with enthusiasm, and in a short time there will

be acquired expertness in a trade which is interesting, agreeable, and

lucrative.

PLAN No. 1237. THE PRINTING TRADES

This monograph was prepared by T. G. McGrew, Superintendent of the

United Typothetæ of America, School of Printing, Indianapolis, Ind.,

under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research

Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment

is due to Marden Scott, President of the International Typographical

Union, Dr. Frederick W. Hamilton, and Henry P. Porter, for valuable

suggestions and advice in the preparation of this monograph and to Dr.

John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.

PRINTING AS AN OCCUPATION

The printing industry is both a profession and a trade. It is

essentially an occupation of intelligence, the mechanical processes of

which require a high degree of specialized skill and training. Printing

in the United States employs nearly half a million people. The trade is

not confined to any particular locality, but is practiced in all parts

of the country. The number of printing establishments in any city is a

comparatively accurate index to its size and commercial importance;

therefore, the competent man in the printing business is not restricted

to certain localities or conditions.

The printing trade develops intellectually, as a printer must be well

read in the very nature of his occupation. His work is skillful, but not

extremely arduous, and the eight-hour day is practically standard. Wages

in the various branches average from $15 to $40 per week, with special

and executive positions commanding higher salaries.

FUTURE OF THE BUSINESS

This is an age of rapid industrial changes, and new inventions may

render certain occupations almost obsolete in a night. It is unwise to

enter some lines of industry because the demand is lessening, the

business decreasing, and the future uncertain. This is not the case,

however, in regard to printing, which is a growing business. The use of

printing is increasing in every field of industry. In so far as human

judgment can determine, it will continue as an essential industry, and

twenty years from now there will be unmeasurably more product than there

is today.

PRODUCTS OF PRINTING

Printing has been aptly designated “the art preservative of all arts.”

The product of the printer’s trade is so well known as to require little

comment. Books, periodicals, newspapers, commercial forms, advertising

literature, and other products of the press form a competent part of

the business and social structure of all civilized nations, and are

integral parts of the daily life of practically every individual. Hardly

any other field of human activity has a product so universally used.

ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY

Of all the trades, printing is one of the best organized, both on the

part of employers and of employees. There are few strikes, as

arbitration agreements are in effect, and work is seldom interrupted.

The various organizations use their dues to much better advantage than

in financing internecine struggles.

The employers’ associations maintain many activities for improving

conditions in the business, including installation of cost systems,

maintenance of trade schools, advertising service, and provision of

educational courses.

The unions pay old-age pensions, death benefits, and sick benefits. They

provide homes for the aged and indigent, sanatoriums for the sick, and

instruction for apprentices.

All these organizations aid morally and financially in promoting

education for the craft.

ENVIRONMENT OF WORKERS

The printing business is entirely shop and office work. There is no

exposure, nor is the trade affected materially by weather conditions.

The work is more uniform in volume than in many other trades. Only a few

of the processes have special hazards, and the health of printers

compares favorably with that of other indoor trades.

ENTERING THE TRADE

The printing trade embraces several distinct branches, chief among which

are composition, including hand and machine, presswork, and bindery.

Each of these is subdivided into a number of processes. The regular

apprenticeship is 5 years for each branch of the trade. Very few men are

proficient in more than one branch, the nature of the business being

such that specialization is necessary for both the trade and the

individual.

Within the last few years, technical schools have been established which

aid in training for the industry. It must be clearly understood that the

schools are interconnected with the trade, and are for the purpose of

adding to shop training and not superseding it. An indispensable

requisite of the printing industry is thorough intensive training and

experience. In common with other worth while things, it can not be

hurriedly or superficially mastered. Time and work both are necessary.

PRINTING COURSES FOR THE DISABLED

Men disabled in the war who may be interested in printing will naturally

fall into two classes: those formerly employed in the trade, and those

without trade experience.

If you belong to the first class and have worked at the trade, we would

unhesitatingly urge you to continue in it in some capacity. Special

efforts will be made by all trade organizations to enable you to do so.

Your previous training and experience should not be thrown away, but

should on the contrary be used as the foundation for specialization,

either in your own particular branch of work or in some allied branch.

The Government is offering you the opportunity to greatly improve your

ability by technical training. You can return to the trade more expert

by adding to your previous experience the training of one or more of the

courses offered. This will give you a better position than you held

before entering upon military service. It will enable you to earn more

money, and to be more valuable to the trade and to the Nation.

If you are interested in the trade but have never worked at it, there is

only one right way to begin--through thorough preparation. We should

consider ourselves delinquent in our duty if we did not impress on you

that competency is the result of sufficient time, proper prerequisites,

and practical trade experience. Printing requires a high degree of

skill, speed, and accuracy. These essentials can not be acquired

superficially. The Government, the schools, and the trade are prepared

to furnish you this preparation, asking from you only the time and

effort necessary to do it right.

The accompanying chart affords detailed information regarding the

various positions for which training is provided.

_Chart showing character of occupation, qualifications, requirements,

and training for various positions in the printing industry._

===============+=================+=================+=================+

Occupation. | Character | Work requires. | Qualifications. |

| of occupation. | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+

1. Hand |Setting ads, |Walking, bending |Good general |

compositor |jobs, and general|over, standing at|education, |

(ad. and |printing, make-up|cases, and |technical |

job). |of machine |handling various |knowledge of |

|composition, |tools, type, and |typesetting, |

|paging, |other small |styles of |

|distribution, and|articles. |composition, |

|other composing | |principles of |

|room work. | |design, color |

| | |harmony, etc. |

| | | |

2. Linotype |Operating |Work is mostly in|Good general |

operator. |keyboard of slug |sitting posture, |education, |

|casting machines |rising |capitalization, |

|for production of|occasionally. |division of |

|all classes of |Operation of |words, |

|composition; |keyboard, |punctuation, and |

|knowledge of |somewhat similar |spelling. |

|mechanism to |to typewriter. |Experience in |

|operate. | |setting type. |

| | |Knowledge of |

| | |styles of |

| | |composition. |

| | | |

3. Linotype |To make all |Work necessitates|Experience in |

machinist. |adjustments and |walking, bending,|printing |

|repairs on slug |and reaching in |sufficient for |

|casting machines |the repair and |adjustment of |

|and erect |adjustment of |machine, general |

|machines. |machines. |knowledge of |

| | |mechanics, and |

| | |use of tools. |

| | |Specialized |

| | |training in |

| | |repair and |

| | |adjustments of |

| | |machine. |

| | | |

4. Linotype |Operating |Work requires all|Combination of |

machinist- |keyboard and |physical |all essential |

operator. |sufficient |movements |requirements of |

|knowledge of |necessary for |keyboard operator|

|mechanism to keep|manipulation of |and machinist. |

|machine in |keyboard and | |

|running order. |adjustment of | |

| |machines. | |

| | | |

5. Monotype |Operation of |Physical exertion|Good general |

keyboard |keyboard of |is about the same|education in |

operator. |monotype machine |as operating a |punctuation, |

|for all styles of|typewriter; |spelling, |

|composition. |operator is |experience in |

| |seated and little|hand composition |

| |walking required.|on all classes of|

| | |work. |

| | | |

6. Monotype |Operation of |Work is standing.|Experience in |

machinist. |monotype caster |Considerable |printing, |

|on composition |walking, bending,|knowledge of type|

|and casting type,|and stooping in |sizes and |

|borders, rules, |adjustment and |measurements, |

|etc. Making |running of |general knowledge|

|adjustments and |machine. |of mechanics and |

|repairs on caster| |use of tools. |

|and keyboard. | |Thorough training|

| | |in repair and |

| | |adjustment of |

| | |machine. |

| | | |

7. Monotype |Operating |Requires all |Combination of |

combina- |keyboard and |physical |all essential |

tion. |running caster. A|movements |requirements of |

|combination of |designated as |keyboard operator|

|the functions of |essential in |and machinist. |

|keyboard operator|operation of | |

|and caster |keyboard and | |

|runner. |caster. | |

| | | |

8. Stoneman. |Imposition and |Work is standing |Expert knowledge |

|lock up of forms,|or walking about |of imposition for|

|figuring margins,|imposing stone. |hand and machine |

|etc. |Constant use of |folding, margins,|

| |hands and arms. |sizes of paper, |

| | |lockup job, and |

| | |cylinder forms, |

| | |plates, and |

| | |bases. |

| | | |

9. Composing |Supervision of |Physical movement|Good technical |

room |all work produced|a variable |knowledge of |

foreman. |in composing room|factor, much of |printing, |

|by hand and |work can be |practical |

|machine. |handled from desk|composing room |

| |if necessary. |experience, |

| | |disposition to |

| | |direct, assume |

| | |responsibility |

| | |with capacity to |

| | |plan production. |

| | | |

10. Copyholder.|Assistant to |Reading and |Good education, |

|proof reader, |assisting proof |ability to read |

|reading the copy |reader. |clearly and |

|with proof reader| |accurately. Such |

|for corrections. | |knowledge of the |

| | |trade as will |

| | |enable him to |

| | |competently |

| | |assist proof |

| | |readers. |

| | | |

11. Proof |Marking errors in|Work seated at |Good education |

reader. |proof sheets in |table or desk. |and thorough |

|composition, | |training in |

|revising, etc. | |punctuation and |

| | |English, proof |

| | |readers marks, |

| | |methods of |

| | |correction. |

| | |Technical |

| | |knowledge of |

| | |printing. |

| | | |

12. Copy |Writing or |Desk work |Good education, |

writer. |editing copy for |entirely. |particularly in |

|ads, booklets, | |English and |

|and other details| |expression, |

|connected with | |ability to |

|advertising and | |analyze service, |

|other work. | |and write |

| | |forceful |

| | |descriptive |

| | |matter. Should be|

| | |familiar with |

| | |different kinds |

| | |of printing and |

| | |its |

| | |possibilities. |

| | | |

13. Assistant |Feeding press, |Constant movement|Must be able to |

pressman, |assisting |of hands and |feed to register,|

platen or |pressman in make-|arms; |keep up color, |

cylinder. |ready, oiling and|considerable |have speed and |

|washing up |standing and |accuracy, know |

|presses, handling|lifting of paper |how to put in |

|stock, etc. |and rollers. |rollers, keep up |

| | |presses, oil, |

| | |washup and assist|

| | |pressman in make-|

| | |ready, etc., |

| | |common school |

| | |education. |

| | | |

14. Pressman, |Making ready type|This line of work|Practical |

platen or |and plates for |requires |experience in |

cylinder. |printing, |movements of |trade, good |

|registering |nearly all parts |education, |

|forms, mechanism |of body; |artistic sense, |

|and adjustments |involving |mechanical |

|of presses, |walking, bending,|ability, training|

|proper use of |stooping, |in all process of|

|inks, mixing |constant use of |make-ready. |

|colors, printing |fingers, arms, | |

|qualities of |and hands. | |

|papers. | | |

| | | |

15. Press |Supervision of |Requires walking |Shop experience, |

foreman. |all work in press|and supervision |knowledge of |

|department, |in directing |mechanical |

|knowledge of time|work, also work |processes, |

|tickets and |at desk in |capacity to |

|production |sitting posture. |organise |

|records. | |production and |

|Familiarity with | |direct work. |

|the mechanical | |Education |

|processes of the | |sufficient to |

|pressroom. | |handle record |

| | |forms, make up |

| | |reports, etc. |

| | | |

16. Bindery |Setting and |Operation of |Practical |

worker. |feeding folding |various machines |knowledge of |

|machines, hand |requires use of |bindery |

|folding, |hands, arms, and |machinery, |

|adjustment and |legs. Work |bindery |

|operation of |requires both |operations, |

|stitchers and |standing and |technical |

|other bindery |sitting position.|knowledge of |

|machinery. | |imposition and |

| | |margins, |

| | |knowledge of |

| | |special |

| | |operations, such |

| | |as round |

| | |cornering, |

| | |punching, |

| | |indexing, etc. |

| | | |

17. Stockman |Operation of |Must be in |Knowledge of |

and paper |cutting machine, |sufficiently good|standard |

cutter. |figuring cuts, |physical |qualities, kinds,|

|sizes of stock, |condition to lift|sizes, weights, |

|etc. Supervision |and handle paper,|and finish of |

|of stock, |keep record on |paper. Know how |

|receiving, |same and operate |to receive, store|

|issuing, and |cutting machine. |and disburse |

|storing. | |stock, make out |

| | |and handle |

| | |requisitions and |

| | |stock room |

| | |records. Be able |

| | |to perform |

| | |mechanical |

| | |operation on |

| | |machine, figure |

| | |and cut stock, |

| | |trim books, etc. |

| | | |

18. Printing |The teaching of |Care and |Must be practical|

instructor.|printing to |thoroughness more|printer, have |

|apprentices or |essential than |good standing in |

|students of |speed, much work |trade, ability to|

|vocational |can be done |teach, careful, |

|classes. Proper |seated. Requires |thorough, |

|functioning with |use of hands and |patient, |

|trade in thorough|arms while |cooperative |

|training along |standing at case |disposition. |

|practical lines. |or platen press. | |

| | | |

19. Cost clerk.|Keeping cost |This is clerical |Good education, |

|records, posting |and mostly desk |quick and |

|time tickets, |work which may be|accurate at |

|compiling |done standing, or|figures, |

|statements of |sitting on stool |preferably a |

|cost and other |or chair. Some |knowledge of |

|clerical details.|walking. |printing |

| | |operations. |

| | | |

20. Layout man.|Making sketches |Desk work |Knowledge of type|

|and layouts, |entirely. |faces, |

|designating type | |composition, |

|and decorations, | |paper and color. |

|selecting paper | |Have training in |

|and inks for jobs| |drawing, |

|and ads. | |lettering, |

| | |principles of |

| | |design and be |

| | |well informed on |

| | |reproductive |

| | |processes. |

| | | |

21. Printing |Marketing the |Must be able to |General knowledge|

salesman. |printers product,|exercise all the |of printing |

|developing new |physical |business, |

|business, acting |functions |particularly of |

|as representative|necessary to |paper and |

|of the printer to|locate business |engraving, type |

|the customer. |and obtain it. |faces, etc. |

| | |Should be a |

| | |specialist in |

| | |business |

| | |development and |

| | |capable of |

| | |affording real |

| | |printing service |

| | |to the customer. |

| | | |

22. Estimator. |Figuring the |Desk work. No |Practical |

|amounts of |physical exertion|experience in |

|material; |necessary, except|printing |

|processes, time |involved in |business, |

|required and |handling samples,|informed about |

|other factors of |cost records and |paper, ink, |

|cost necessary to|figuring. |engraving and |

|furnish prices on| |other materials |

|printing, | |and processes. |

|cooperating with | |Knowledge of |

|sales and | |costs. |

|manufacturing | | |

|departments. | | |

| | | |

23. Super- |Management of |Work at desk and |Practical |

intendent |operations of |in different |information |

and |plant as a whole,|portions of the |regarding all |

manager. |determination of |plant, more |manufacturing |

|methods of |mental than |processes, |

|manufacture, |physical, but |knowledge of cost|

|cooperative |must be able to |accounting and |

|connection with |get around |estimating, |

|all activities of|departments in |ability to |

|the business. |control of |organize |

| |operations. |departments, plan|

| | |production, |

| | |direct |

| | |operations, and |

| | |deal with men. |

| | | |

24. Proprietor.|Directing the |Work may of |This presupposes |

|policy and |course be |a knowledge of |

|operation of the |adjusted to |business with |

|business from the|conditions. Desk |specialization in|

|standpoint of |work is essential|printing plant |

|ownership and |in control of |costs, |

|profits. |business if |management, |

| |active part is |sales, service, |

| |taken in |product and |

| |management. |organization. |

---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+

===============+=========+========+=======================+===========

Occupation. |Wages per|Hours of| Physical | Training

| week. | labor | requirements. |needed by

| | daily. | |journeyman

| | | | workman.

| | | | [43]

---------------+---------+--------+-----------------------+-----------

1. Hand |$20 to | 8 |One eye, both hands, |1 year.

compositor |30. | |one leg, (if fitted |

(ad. and | | |with usable artificial |

job). | | |limb), physical ability|

| | |for standing and |

| | |stooping, no lifting |

| | |required, good hearing |

| | |not essential. |

| | | |

2. Linotype |25 to 35.| 8 |Good eyes, both hands |6 months.

operator. | | |with thumbs, and at |

| | |least four fingers, one|

| | |leg and artificial |

| | |limb, good hearing |

| | |desirable but not |

| | |essential. |

| | | |

3. Linotype |25 to 40.| 8 |Must have good |1 year.

machinist. | | |eyesight, two hands, |

| | |both legs, unless |

| | |artificial limb permits|

| | |active use, good |

| | |hearing. Work requires |

| | |some lifting and much |

| | |movement of arms and |

| | |body. |

| | | |

4. Linotype |25 to 35.| 8 |Requires physical |18 months.

machinist- | | |capacity designated for|

operator. | | |linotype operators and |

| | |machinists. |

| | | |

5. Monotype |20 to 30.| 8 |Good eyesight, both |6 months.

keyboard | | |hands with one thumb |

operator. | | |and enough fingers to |

| | |operate; perfect |

| | |hearing not necessary. |

| | |Work is light, no |

| | |lifting or stooping, |

| | |sitting posture. |

| | | |

6. Monotype |25 to 40.| 8 |One good eye, both |1 year.

machinist. | | |hands, one leg, and |

| | |artificial limb, good |

| | |hearing, no heavy |

| | |lifting or strain; work|

| | |is standing. |

| | | |

7. Monotype |30 to 40.| 8 |Requires physical |18 months.

combina- | | |capacity designed for |

tion. | | |monotype keyboard |

| | |operator and monotype |

| | |machinist. |

| | | |

8. Stoneman. |25 to 35.| 8 |Work is standing, |6 months.

| | |requiring constant |

| | |movement of hands and |

| | |arms, considerable |

| | |lifting of forms. One |

| | |good eye and partial |

| | |hearing. |

| | | |

9. Composing |25 to 60.| 8 |Good eyesight, right |1 year.

room | | |arm, and hand, one leg |

foreman. | | |(provided artificial |

| | |limb permits walking), |

| | |little manual labor, |

| | |requires good hearing. |

| | | |

10. Copyholder.|10 to 20.| 8 |Good eyesight, hearing,|6 months.

| | |and articulation, one |

| | |arm and hand, work |

| | |requires no standing or|

| | |lifting and little |

| | |walking. |

| | | |

11. Proof |20 to 30.| |Work seated, good |Do.

reader. | | |eyesight, and hearing, |

| | |must be able to write, |

| | |no physical strain. |

| | | |

12. Copy |20 to 50.| 8 to 9 |One eye, good hearing, |Do.

writer. | | |ability to write, desk |

| | |work, no physical |

| | |exertion. |

| | | |

13. Assistant |15 to 22.| 8 |Good eyesight, two |6 months.

pressman, | | |hands and arms, one leg|

platen or | | |(with artificial limb),|

cylinder. | | |enough fingers to |

| | |handle sheets, good |

| | |hearing not essential, |

| | |work is standing. |

| | | |

14. Pressman, |22 to 40.| 8 |Good eyesight and |1 year.

platen or | | |hearing, hands, arms, |

cylinder. | | |enough fingers to |

| | |handle tools and |

| | |sheets, work requires |

| | |standing, walking, and |

| | |movement of upper part |

| | |of body. |

| | | |

15. Press |30 to 60.| 8 |Good eyesight, hearing,|1 year.

foreman. | | |arm and leg if he can |

| | |walk on artificial one.|

| | |Work mostly supervisory|

| | |and at desk. |

| | | |

16. Bindery |12 to 25.| 8 |One eye, both hands and|6 months.

worker. | | |arms, ability to walk |

| | |and stand, although |

| | |much of work may be |

| | |done seated, foot |

| | |control of some |

| | |machines, no very heavy|

| | |work, may be partly |

| | |deaf. |

| | | |

17. Stockman |15 to 25.| 8 |Involves lifting of |3 months.

and paper | | |stock. Arms, hands, one|

cutter. | | |leg (artificial one can|

| | |be used), one eye, |

| | |partial hearing |

| | |desirable. |

| | | |

18. Printing |25 to 40.| 6 to 8 |Good hearing, eyesight |1 year.

instructor.| | |and articulation, |

| | |ability to write, and |

| | |demonstrate mechanical |

| | |work, no hard physical |

| | |work. |

| | | |

19. Cost clerk.|15 to 25.| 8 to 9 |One eye, right hand and|6 months.

| | |arm. Work may be done |

| | |seated, is entirely |

| | |clerical, no physical |

| | |strain. |

| | | |

20. Layout man.|25 to 75.| 8 to 9 |Good eyesight, one arm |1 year.

| | |and hand, does not |

| | |require walking or any |

| | |movement except drawing|

| | |designs. Good hearing |

| | |not essential. |

| | | |

21. Printing |25 to |No fixed|One eye, good hearing, |1 year.

salesman. |100. | hours. |one arm and hand, two |

| | |legs or equivalent, |

| | |good articulation, good|

| | |appearance. |

| | | |

22. Estimator. |35 to 75.| 8 to 9 |One eye, good hearing, |1 year.

| | |one hand and arm, desk |

| | |work (very little |

| | |walking) no lifting, |

| | |little physical |

| | |exertion; estimating is|

| | |a mental job. |

| | | |

23. Super- |50 to |No fixed|Good eyesight, good |2 years.

intendent |200. | hours. |hearing, able to walk, |

and | | |work is mental. |

manager. | | | |

| | | |

24. Proprietor.| ... | All the|Should possess such |1 year.

| | time. |unimpaired mental and |

| | |physical faculties as |

| | |will enable him to |

| | |conduct his business |

| | |under conditions of |

| | |individual case. |

---------------+---------+--------+-----------------------+-----------

[43] Based on intensive technical training of 35 to 40 hours per week.

Practically all specialized positions in printing are properly based on

a journeyman’s experience. In the case of men who have served only

partial apprenticeships, or who have no training whatever an individual

determination is necessary in each case as to the amount of special

education, technical school training, and shop work required to equal

the regular apprenticeship foundation.

The very elaborate artificial limbs now available may in many cases

enable the individual to meet the physical requirements where the above

statement would indicate a difficulty. Each such case must be decided on

its merits.

COURSES OF STUDY

For requirements as to previous education and physical condition for

each of these courses, see chart. The technical courses are organized to

afford the following training. Provision is made for individual

instruction where needed, and for classes in English, history of

printing, trade arithmetic, and printing design directly connected with

the trade work.

1. HAND COMPOSITOR (STRAIGHT MATTER, AD. AND JOB)

Explanation and use of materials and equipment used in the composing

room, lay of cases, correct position at frame, straight composition,

correcting, proof reader’s marks, distribution, casting-off copy, styles

of composition, setting bookwork, tabular matter, ad. and job work,

design and layouts, and imposition.

2. LINOTYPE OPERATOR

The construction and operation of the several models of machines,

cleaning and care of mats and machine, correct method of fingering and

acquiring speed, practice on styles of composition. Proper condition of

metal, machine changes, and adjustments.

3. LINOTYPE MACHINIST

Construction and operation of machine, care of mats and machine,

cleaning, oiling, overhauling, tearing down machine and assembling,

condition of metal, detecting trouble, adjustments. Repair work, care

and system of handling sorts and supplies.

4. LINOTYPE MACHINIST OPERATOR

Construction and operation of machine, cleaning mats and machine.

Correct method of fingering and acquiring speed. Correct condition of

metal, oiling, overhauling and assembling, changing parts.

5. MONOTYPE KEYBOARD OPERATOR

(Monotype is in two units, keyboard and caster.)

_Keyboard._--Theory and operation of keyboard, cleaning and care of

keyboard, work of keyboard and its relation to the caster, reading

perforations, changing keyboard to various layouts, adjustments,

practice on styles of composition. Practice for speed.

6. MONOTYPE MACHINIST

_Keyboard._--Theory and construction of keyboard, care, adjustment,

repairs.

_Caster._--Parts of machine, use of micrometer, sizes and handling of

type, machine changes, casting of display type, borders, slugs and

rules, keeping metal in proper condition, care of machine, adjustments,

and repairs.

7. MONOTYPE COMBINATION

_Keyboard._--Theory and construction of keyboard cleaning and care, work

of keyboard and its relation to caster, reading perforations, changing

to various layouts, adjustments.

_Caster._--Parts of machine, use of micrometer, type sizes, machine

changes, casting display type borders, slug and rule attachments,

conditions of metal, care of machine, oiling and adjustments.

8. STONEMAN

Handling of type and forms, locking up forms, imposition for hand and

machine folding, study of various folds, kinds of folding machines,

margins, sizes of paper, patent blocks and bases, lockups for register

and color.

9. COMPOSING ROOM FOREMAN

Composition of straight matter and display, classes of composition,

methods of handling, book, tabular, and commercial work by hand and

machine, make-up, illustrations and plates, layouts, design and color,

paper sizes, kinds and uses, department forms of record, department

systems, selection and arrangement of equipment.

10. COPY HOLDER

Technical terms used in printing, sizes and kinds of type, office style,

reading reprint and manuscript copy, proof reader’s marks, punctuation,

abbreviations, spelling, division of words, reference marks, technical

copy, tabular copy. (Special instruction in English of an informational

character.)

11. PROOF READER

Details of the course include book, magazine, and newspaper styles,

proof reader’s marks, technical terms, orthography, book and magazine

make-up, editing copy, proof room rules and procedure, reading,

correcting, and revising proofs.

12. COPY WRITER

Proof reader’s marks, punctuation, capitalization, division of words,

abbreviations, construction of sentences, paragraphing, writing

advertising copy and sales literature, planning and layout of

composition, making up dummies, styles of typography, editing copy,

analyzing problems of publicity and devising advertising service.

13. ASSISTANT PRESSMAN

Feeding stock, uniformity of color, proper handling of sheets after

printing, keeping press in good condition, setting rollers and fountain,

principles of make-ready on type and plates.

14. PRESSMAN

Cleanliness and careful use of materials, theory and construction of

various types of machines, setting impression screws, bearers, rollers,

and other adjustments, registering forms, care of rollers, paper, ink,

make-ready and running different grades of work, including half-tones in

black and color, process plates, etc. Department details.

15. PRESSROOM FOREMAN

Makes of presses, presses best suited for work on hand, adjustments

necessary to keep in good running order, economical ways of running,

various folds (hand and machine), inks, paper, color, planning work,

production forms, and department management. Arrangement of equipment.

Pressroom accessories.

16. BINDERY WORKER

Receiving and handling printed sheets, knowledge of paper, counting,

straightening, cutting, folding (hand and machine), gathering,

collating, stitching, trimming, punching, numbering, padding, wrapping.

(This course deals only with the simpler phases of bindery work.)

17. STOCKMAN AND PAPER CUTTER

Study of various kinds of paper, tests, sizes and weights, economical

methods of cutting stock, equivalent weights, methods of figuring stock;

care, oiling, cleanliness, and operation of cutters. Stock handling

system, perpetual inventory and stock record forms.

18. PRINTING INSTRUCTOR

Work in typesetting, locking forms, make-ready, and feeding on job

presses (both theory and practical work), instruction methods and

outlines of instruction for classes, trade English, design and

arithmetic, visits to printing and allied plants, training as a teacher.

19. COST CLERK

(Based on United Typothetæ of America Standard Cost Finding System.)

Analysis and explanation of cost principles and their application,

stockroom systems, time tickets, job records, and operating forms for

all departments, recapitulation of plant details of expense and output,

compiling statement of cost of production.

20. LAYOUT MAN

Principles of design, type faces, color, paper, making layouts of work

for composition, and producing harmonious combinations of stock,

illustrations color, and typography; specifications and methods of

increasing production, acquiring speed on layouts.

21. PRINTING SALESMAN

(Based upon United Typothetæ of America Standard Salesmanship Course.)

Qualifications of salesman, the printer’s product and market,

specialized manufacturing processes, the sales department, customer and

business development. Creating business, technical knowledge required,

successful salesmanship, practical sales demonstrations in specialized,

manufacturing, general, and merchandise printing.

22. ESTIMATOR

(Based upon United Typothetæ of America Standard Estimating Course.)

Details of estimating, including specifications, estimate blanks,

figuring stock, artwork, plates, kinds of composition, imposition,

presswork (platen and cylinder), and bindery details, copy, ink,

engraving, plates, trade customs. Practice in making out specifications,

estimating work, and submitting proposals.

23. SUPERINTENDENT AND MANAGER

Estimating, cost finding, forms for composing room, pressroom,

stockroom, bindery, trade conditions, processes of composition,

presswork, bindery, paper, ink, color, production methods, planning

work, organization, and management

24. PROPRIETOR

Estimating, cost finding, study of composition, paper, ink, plates and

engravings, composing room, pressroom, bindery, condition of printing

trades, business development, visits to allied plants, plant

organization and management, sales values.

PLAN No. 1238. THE GARMENT TRADES

This monograph was prepared by May H. Pope, under direction of Charles

H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for

Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of

the Research Division for editorial assistance.

A place to sleep, something to eat, and something to wear constitute the

primary needs for us all. To satisfy the need for clothing a group of

great American industries has developed--great in the value of their

product as well as in the number of their workers.

FROM HAND WORK TO MACHINE OPERATION

It would be interesting to trace the development of the clothing

industries out of the common household trade, using crude methods in

introducing homemade garments, the materials for which were grown and

spun and woven by the family, through the hand-sewing days and the

various stages of foot-power machines to the present-day methods of

electrically driven machines, adjusted to do most accurate work with

special devices for all sorts of processes.

PROVIDING A PRIME NECESSITY

On the whole it may be conceded that these industries compare only

fairly with others as regards prevailing conditions of labor, but as

regards benefits conferred upon people generally, in placing within easy

reach of all a prime necessity of life, the clothing industries rank

very high.

SEASONAL CHARACTER OF THE INDUSTRIES

Employment in the garment trades is highly seasonal and is influenced by

certain causes beyond control of the manufacturer. This irregularity of

work is often a real hardship for employees. The busy seasons run from

January through the spring months, and from August through the fall

months. Some manufacturers, however, manage to keep workers busy 11

months during the year. Efforts have been made to equalize the work,

seasonally, but nothing has been definitely accomplished so far. There

is much greater irregularity of employment in the women’s garment trades

than in the men’s. It often occurs that only one-half of those employed

in the busy season in making women’s clothes are kept at work during the

dull seasons.

Factors which influence this irregularity in employment are seasonal

changes, changes in style, degree of specialization required, quality of

product, and method of production. In the men’s garment industries,

manufacturers often utilize the dull season for making up standard

goods, such as blue serge suits, but makers of women’s clothes find

style such a variable factor that they dare not make up stock much in

advance of the season. Employment is more regularly distributed in the

industries producing waists, skirts, and under muslins than it is in the

cloak and suit industry.

AN IMMIGRANT’S TRADE

Garment making has long been known as an immigrant’s trade. Before the

war it absorbed annually approximately 10,000 immigrants. Irish,

Germans, and Italians have all worked in considerable numbers in the

clothing industries, but at present the Jews predominate, not only among

the workers, but as well among those exercising controlling power.

WHERE THE WORK IS DONE

The work may be carried on, it has been said, in any place “where there

are a half dozen machines and an ironing board.” But in some places

large clothing factories have been built, though much of the work is

done in medium-sized shops.

The clothing industries differ from other manufacturing industries in

several particulars. They are highly localized. More than half of all

the clothing manufactured in the United States is made in New York City.

Choice of a home is, therefore, limited for the young man who enters any

one of these industries. Other cities in which the industries flourish

are Philadelphia, Cleveland, Baltimore, Boston, Rochester, Chicago, and

Cincinnati. Because of the congestion in New York some concerns have

made attempts to move away from such crowded quarters, but the character

of the industries requires just those things which are not found in

rural districts. It is for one thing important to be near the labor

supply and near the markets, both for buying materials and for selling

goods. The prestige accredited to New York manufacturers as to style is

another factor holding concerns in that city.

TWO TYPES OF EMPLOYERS

There are two types of employers in the clothing industries, namely, the

manufacturer and the contractor or submanufacturer. Many factories,

especially those where the high-grade garments are made, have their own

“inside shops” where all work is done under supervision of the

manufacturer or his foremen.

But there is a tendency to increase the contracting system, particularly

in the making of cheaper garments. When the contracting method is

employed the manufacturer or jobber purchases the material and turns it

over to the submanufacturer, who has the garments made in his small

shop. The manufacturer who gives his work out to contractors avoids the

necessity for maintaining a large factory, and for keeping a great

number of men on his pay roll. He is also relieved of the responsibility

of dealing with labor, the contractor being in direct contact with the

workers. On the other hand, the contractor obtains materials from the

jobber, which otherwise he would not be financially able to purchase. In

the contract system there is complete separation of the commercial

processes from the technical. The manufacturer is responsible for the

purchase of materials and for securing and filling orders for the trade,

but all technical processes in the making of garments are left to the

contractor, who is entirely responsible for the work. The contractor not

only supervises the workers, but often works with them. He is no

shirker.

WHAT THE WORKERS PRODUCE

All sorts of wearing apparel, from children’s rompers to opera cloaks,

make up the product of these industries, which are naturally divided

into two classes--those making men’s garments and those making women’s.

The two groups of industries are sharply differentiated, and in each

group processes are highly specialized.

Men’s clothes are made in three separate types of shops--the coat shop,

the pants shop, and the vest shop.

Women’s garment trades fall generally into the following groups:

(1) Custom tailoring.

(2) Manufacture of cloaks, suits, and skirts.

(3) Manufacture of dresses and waists.

(4) Manufacture of misses’ and children’s dresses.

(5) Manufacture of muslin underwear.

(6) Manufacture of house dresses, kimonos, etc.

About 77 per cent of the workers in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry

are men; a smaller percentage being found in the other groups.

Garments made by custom tailors are usually of the highest grade in

women’s clothing, and include cloaks, suits, opera cloaks, evening

gowns, waists, and dresses. These tailors make up garments on individual

orders, allowing customers to select materials and designs.

Manufacturers in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry make a number of

models, but their product is usually limited to cloaks, suits, skirts,

one-piece woolen or worsted dresses, and linen suits and skirts. Dresses

and waists cover a wide range of many styles for evening wear, street

wear, and sporting uses. Under muslins, misses’ and children’s dresses,

house dresses and kimonos, dressing sacques and aprons are made in

separate establishments largely by women workers.

WHAT MEN DO IN THE CLOTHING INDUSTRIES

Though many more women are employed in the garment trades than formerly,

still the large body of workers are men. Men are employed for processes

in which greater endurance or speed is required. In high-class

dressmaking men work on dresses made of heavy materials, while women

make those of lighter weight. Cloaks and suits are made by men, while

waists, under muslins, and children’s clothes are made by women. An

equal number of men and women are skirt operators, while in buttonhole

making the number of men operators exceeds the number of women.

Strange as it may seem, men form the larger percentage of those who work

on women’s clothes, and women make up a majority of those who work on

men’s clothes. There is less routine in making women’s garments, and it

has been suggested that this may account for the preference given such

work by men.

It has been said that “mechanical power and division of labor have

impersonalized industry,” and this is clearly true of the garment

industries as regards their products, for except in the case of the

custom tailors a worker can not think of any finished product as

distinctly his. Any given garment is the joint product of many persons.

Formerly a whole garment was made by one man, who necessarily must be a

skilled tailor. Now many persons may have a part in the making of a suit

of clothes. This division of labor grew out of the need for different

degrees of skill in the different processes. By specialization a large

product may be produced by relatively unskilled labor.

The work may be divided into three general systems: Teamwork, in which

the tailor, like the contractor, hires his workers and superintends the

work; piece operating, in which all of one kind of work is done by one

worker on the same garment; and section work, in which each operator

does only that one process allotted to him.

In the cheap grade of women’s clothing this division of labor is very

marked. One man works only on belts, another makes cuffs, another

collars, and so on. In the better grade of clothes the garment after it

has been cut is given to the tailor, who with his helper completes all

the work and turns it over to the presser. In the expensive shops the

tailor makes the entire garment, doing even his own cutting and

pressing.

While no single operation can be said to be given over entirely to one

sex, the cutting and pressing is done almost exclusively by men. Men who

work in the garment trades may be generally divided into designers,

sample makers, cutters, machine operators, hand sewers, pressers, and

examiners. In the following paragraphs the brief descriptions given of

these principal occupations have been summarized from Bulletin No. 183

of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and from the bureau’s publication

“Descriptions of Occupations.”

PLAN No. 1239. DESIGNING

In large plants there is often a man separately charged with the

designing of garments. He must create the designs, make the models, and

choose the materials for the designs. His chief responsibility is

choosing the materials for the style of garment he wishes to produce and

co-operating with the sales department in producing designs which will

sell and also be economical to cut. This is a high-grade position for a

man with artistic ability. Only men are employed.

Qualifications include high-grade intelligence and a knowledge of

drafting. Although designing is a question largely of artistic sense,

the designer should have had some experience in connection with the

making of garments, and especially with the laying out of patterns and

the cutting of cloth.

PLAN No. 1240. CUTTING

In all of these industries cutting is done almost exclusively by men,

and consists of marking, laying up, and cutting textiles in accordance

with specific patterns. It is the most skillful and responsible of all

the occupations for the reason that upon the quality of the cutting

depends not only the appearance of the garment, but also, to a

considerable extent, its cost, inasmuch as the ability of the cutter to

lay out economically his pattern determines the amount of cloth that is

consumed. Cutting is the only occupation of the garment trades in which

an apprenticeship is required.

Considerable intelligence, accuracy, and a steady hand, with ordinary

strength is required for the work.

PLAN No. 1241. SAMPLE MAKING

Sample making is done by _men_ and _women_, and consists of making

samples of new garments from models furnished by the designer. This work

calls for tailors (males, usually, in the cloak and suit industry) and

operators (usually females, in the other industries) of rather

exceptional ability and skill. Sample making occupies a small number of

workers for a short time at the beginning of each season, the makers of

samples being recruited temporarily from among the more expert tailors

and operators.

The sample maker must have ordinary strength and ability, and must be an

all-round tailor.

PLAN No. 1242. OPERATING

Operating is done by _men_ and _women_, and consists of sewing the parts

of a garment together, by machine, as they come from the cutting

department. In most instances it is one of the least-skilled

occupations, manned to a considerable extent by inexperienced,

recently-arrived immigrants. Except in the cloak and suit industry,

where the greater part of the operating is done by men, the operators in

these industries are predominantly female.

Speed and manual dexterity are essential. The operator must be able to

stand the nervous strain of the noisy machine and of intense application

to rapid work.

PLAN No. 1243. BASTING

In the cloak, suit, and skirt industry, and in the dress and waist

industry, basting is done mostly by _females_, and consists of roughly

sewing together by hand (“basting”) the partly finished garment, for the

purpose of placing it, at times, on a dummy figure or living model, so

that careful examination may be made by the tailor or sample maker of

the character of the work at various stages of manufacture. In the cloak

and suit industry approximately two-thirds and in the other industries

almost all of these workers are women.

PLAN No. 1244. PRESSING

Pressing is done by _males_ and _females_ and consists of pressing out

with a hot press or iron the seams and various parts of a garment after

they have been put together by the operators--except in the case of the

part presser, who is required to press out pieces, such as sleeves,

pockets, collars, cuffs, and belts. The under presser presses the

garment before it is lined, and the upper presser, the most skilled of

the three, presses the finished garment, shaping and molding it, to some

extent, into the finished product. In the cloak and suit industry, where

the irons used, as well as the textiles, are rather heavy, pressing is

done almost exclusively by men.

More than average strength is required for pressing and ability to stand

while at work; also ability to handle a pressing machine.

EXAMINING

The examiner looks over the garment in the process of manufacturing or

when it is completed, to discover defects and ascertain whether the

shape is correct. This is an important position, as it entails

considerable responsibility for the quality of the garments

manufactured. _Men_ and _women_ both are employed.

The examiner must be an experienced operator on the garments, and should

have had enough experience at examining to know the various styles and

designs.

HOW MEN ARE PAID

In the clothing industries men are paid either by time or by piece. The

difference in these two systems of payment amounts to very little. Under

the time system wages remain unchanged from day to day even though the

product varies, and under the piece system as the product increases

wages increase proportionally. But the minimum and maximum amount of

work insisted upon in one instance by the employees and in the other by

the employers make the actual difference in wages received under the two

systems almost negligible. The tendency is to base all wages upon time,

as this does away in some degree with the dangers of speeding up and

with the difficulties of adjustment.

The quantity and quality of the work is so important in the garment

trades that it is characterized by a range of wages rather than by a

fixed rate. The highest paid men are the designers, who make from $50 a

week in the smaller shops to $12,000 a year in the shops of custom

tailors. Foremen are paid $25 to $75 a week. Cutters receive wages

ranging from $20 to $50 a week. The average cutter receives $35 a week.

Pressers make about $33 a week, and machine operators $25, though some

shops report wages up to $60 a week for some of their operators, which

means much speeding up and overtime work.

Workers on women’s clothes are better paid than those who work on men’s.

HOW MEN ARE TRAINED

Not much attention has been given to the training of garment workers,

though many employers are realizing the necessity for the workers to

have a knowledge of English, an understanding of the fundamental

principles of arithmetic, and some industrial information.

Factory schools have been organized in some instances and workers are

allowed to take some of their working time to attend the classes.

Adaptability, general intelligence, skill, precision, and speed are

important in the making of a good workman.

The designers, who have been called the “autocrats of the trade,” need,

in addition to a native gift of creative art, some knowledge of the

technical processes of cutting and sewing, and a course in drafting.

Schools of design give courses, but the majority of designers are

foreigners, and but few Americans enter this trade.

Cutters are sometimes trained in schools organized for the purpose,

though often they learn as apprentices, paying from $50 to $150 for the

instruction. From 6 to 20 weeks is the time usually required to learn

the trade.

Pressers work a few weeks on seams, and after about a year become

responsible pressers on high-grade garments.

The only training necessary for a machine operator in factory work is

instruction in power sewing-machine operating. Training for the majority

of the processes is given in the shop, and the length of time required

depends in a great measure upon the ability of the worker to learn.

The requirements for acceptable workers in the clothing industries may

be summed up as follows: Ability to run a power sewing machine, general

intelligence sufficient to understand simple directions, and health and

strength to work full time for six days a week.

CONDITIONS OF WORK

Overcrowding, overwork, and underfeeding are often evidenced by the

pallor of the operatives; and the undue prevalence of tuberculosis,

neurasthenia, and anemia among them clearly show that the constrained

position, exposure to dust and fumes from leaky gas tubing, insufficient

lighting facilities and ventilation found in many of the smaller shops

are conditions yet to be remedied before the garment industries can

receive an unqualified recommendation as suitable for a disabled man.

However, men in the clothing industry work under more favorable

conditions than formerly. The “sweat shop” is a thing of the past. The

efforts of joint boards of sanitary control in New York City have, by

educating both employers and employees, done much toward mitigating the

intolerable conditions which existed in the early days. Tenement-house

regulations and State laws of inspection have proved beneficial and have

abolished many evils of the old shop. Laws prohibiting isolated home

work have forced the contractors to secure better outside shops. Home

shops now must not be connected with living quarters, and consequently

they are often found in the upper floors of warehouses or factories,

roomy and well ventilated. Factories where the better grade of work is

done have their own “inside shops” built for the purpose and therefore

more satisfactory. The workers themselves are often to blame for the bad

air in their workroom, because of their careless waste of gas from the

pressing iron or their fear of open windows.

The shortening of the working day also signifies progress in the

clothing industries, and the welfare of the worker is now given fair

consideration in many instances. Some factories plan the routing of work

with a view to relaxation of the worker, and some require operators to

get materials from a near-by table, or to go to the supply room for such

things as thread, buttons, and trimmings. Even these small practices

give relief from the fatigue of sitting constantly at a machine.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE DISABLED

Occupations in garment making are largely nonhazardous. Handling heavy

rolls of material, climbing ladders to hang shrunken goods to dry,

testing heating apparatus for pressing irons, managing the knives of

cutting machines, are all accompanied by some danger, but accidents as

serious may occur in the daily occupations of any home.

Yet it may fairly be said that the clothing industries offer only small

inducements to the handicapped. The man who has lost a leg would hardly

choose to be a cutter, a presser, or an examiner, since much standing is

required of these workers. Nevertheless, a well-fitting artificial leg

might enable him to do any of this work successfully. Machine operating,

a sitting-down job, might appeal to him. A man with both legs amputated

could run a power machine. A man with an arm gone or with eyesight

impaired would not find employment in the clothing industries suitable,

for the use of both hands and good eyesight are essentials in the trades

generally.

The lint which constantly flies in the air of the shop is bad for the

lungs, and catarrhal conditions of the nose and throat, as well as

tuberculosis, are prevalent among the workers. Nevertheless, one who

understands the difficulties and the drawbacks of the garment trades, as

well as its advantages, makes the following statement:

“I do not think that the clothing trade per se is injurious except for

the possible slight dust and the stooping posture. I have also no doubt

that the trade could be made so hygienic as to enable a post-tuberculous

person to work a limited number of hours. There are, of course, some

processes, like pressing, which it may not be advisable for

post-tuberculous persons to engage in. Most of the work in clothing

shops consists in the operator guiding various clothing material under

the needle of the machine. This by itself should not be injurious. There

are also other processes, like sewing on buttons, either by machine or

by hand, which have very few harmful features in them.

“I should say that soldiers whose legs are not functioning could well be

taught to work on electrically-driven machines with benefit to

themselves and to the industry.”

Neurasthenics should avoid employment in these trades, as nervous

disorders are intensified by the noise, close confinement, and intense

application which the work involves. Pressers suffer from flat foot

because of their constant standing, but otherwise they are quite robust,

which is an indication that this work is not too severe for men who are

physically below par.

GOOD FARMERS SHOULD NOT TRY TO BECOME TAILORS

In most cases the returned soldier whose disability necessitates a

change of employment will, in choosing a new occupation, turn from the

clothing industries as unsuitable for him. The needle is not an

attractive tool to men unless they have been raised in the atmosphere of

the tailor shop. It is with no desire to make tailors of farmers,

sewing-machine operators of truck drivers, that opportunities in the

clothing industries are here described. If a man has other talents, by

all means let him cultivate them and leave the garment trades to those

qualified for those trades by experience and aptitude.

There has been improvement in working conditions in recent years. This

has resulted in part from superior organization within the industries

themselves, better adjustment, increase in product, and improved

machinery and skill, all of which have led to increased wages and better

living conditions for the workers.

The small amount of capital required to organize the business attracts

many, but success can come only if good judgment is exercised.

As has been noted, these industries attract the immigrant worker

largely, and the Jew looks upon entrance into some one of the garment

trades as a first step on the way to managing a small shop of his own.