Head of department.
Associates.
Instructors (2 to 4).
Agriculture, instructor.
Insecticides--
Instructor.
Assistant.
Limonology--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Floriculture:_
Head of department.
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Forestry:_
Head of department.
Instructor.
Management--
Foresters.
Rangers.
Guards.
Pursuits--
Associates.
Assistants.
Silviculture, associate.
Arboriculture--
Associates.
Assistants.
_Gardening, market:_
Head of department.
Assistant.
Vegetable, associate.
Small fruits, associate.
Truck--
Associate.
Instructor.
_Geology:_
Associate.
Assistant.
Meteorology, associate.
_Horticulture:_
Head of department.
Associates (2 to 4).
Instructors.
Assistant.
Pomology--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
Citriculture--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
Zymology--
Associate.
Assistant.
_Landscape architecture:_
Head of department.
Associates.
Assistants.
_Microbiology:_
Head of department.
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Parasitology:_
Associate.
Assistant.
_Poultry husbandry:_
Head of department.
Associate.
Instructors.
Assistant.
_Rural sociology:_
Head of department.
Assistant.
Instructor.
_Veterinary:_
Head of department.
Associate.
Assistants.
Diagnosis, associate.
Medicine--
Instructor.
Assistants.
Histology, instructor.
Laboratory--
Supervisor.
Assistant.
Physical therapeutics, instructor.
Anatomy--
Associate.
Instructor.
Pathology, associate.
Surgery, associate.
Bacteriology, associate.
_Viticulture:_
Head of department.
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Zoology:_
Associate.
Instructors (1 to 3).
Assistants.
Limonology--
Associate.
Instructors.
Ornithology--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
Morphology, associate.
PLAN No. 941. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION POSITIONS
Technical books have been in such exceptional demand by the wounded in
the hospitals that the American Library Association could hardly fill
the orders, it is noted, and that vocational education has received a
big stimulus from the soldiers having acquired the vocational study idea
which argues well for efficiency in their future undertakings. It is
difficult to adequately comprehend the value of the soldier’s experience
educationally. He has learned discipline and devotion to a cause and
that simple reading is not study. Study has been required and he knows
how, with concentration of his supple mind, to acquire definite
knowledge and employ it.
It should be emphasized that eligibility for positions in experiment
stations, except as assistants and helpers, presupposes definite college
preparation. The college course pursued should include training in
experiment work in some technical line in agricultural experimentation
or demonstration as a vocation. Experiment station work differs
radically from educational work in agricultural colleges and high
schools, and it may be well suited to those properly qualified for it
who are disinclined to undertake teaching.
Experiment work is exceedingly interesting and preparation for it can to
greater advantage be undertaken by those who have had some agricultural
college training, or even agricultural high school training, combined
with practical experience in agriculture. Half the battle is won when
one has determined to achieve efficiency in some line of work, and to
take such training as is required to prepare one to enter into
agricultural service as an expert.
PLAN No. 942. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS
_Station Staff:_
Director.
Vice director.
Assistant to director.
Editor.
Photographer.
Chiefs of divisions.
Associates.
Assistants.
_Agricultural engineering_, chief:
Irrigation--
Associate chief.
Assistants (2 to 7).
Mechanical--
Associate chief.
Assistants (2 to 5).
Electrical--
Associate chief.
Assistants (2 to 4).
Landscape--
Associate chief.
Assistant.
_Agricultural extension_, chief:
Co-operation, assistant chief.
Farm projects--
Associate chief.
Assistant.
_Agronomy:_
Chief of division.
Assistants.
Soil physics--
Associate chief.
Assistant chief.
Associates (2 to 3).
First assistants (2 to 6).
Assistant.
Plant breeding--
Associate chief.
First assistant.
Soil fertility--
Associate chief.
Associates (2 to 4).
First assistants (2 to 3).
Assistants (2 to 3).
Crop specialties--
Associate chief.
Assistants.
Crop production--
Associate chief.
First assistant.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Co-operative experiments, superintendent.
Soils laboratory, assistant chief.
Soil biology--
Assistant chief.
First assistants.
Soil analysis--
Associates.
First assistants.
Assistants.
Rust work, assistant.
Dry farming, assistant.
Seeds control, associate.
Laboratory, analyst.
Testing, assistants.
_Animal husbandry:_
Chief.
Associates (2 to 3).
First assistants (2 to 3).
Assistants (2 to 3).
Animal nutrition--
Associate chief.
Associates.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Swine husbandry--
Assistant chief.
Assistants.
Sheep husbandry--
Assistant chief.
Assistants.
Horse husbandry--
Assistant chief.
Assistants.
Cattle husbandry--
Assistant chief.
Assistants.
Genetics--
Assistant chief.
First assistant.
Animal pathology--
Chief.
Assistants.
_Botany:_
Chief of division.
Assistant chief.
Associates.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Plant pathology--
Associate chief.
Assistant.
_Chemistry:_
Chief of division.
Assistant chief.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Dairy chemistry--
Associate.
Assistant.
Floricultural chemistry--
Associate.
Assistant.
Horticultural chemistry--
Associate.
Assistant.
Soils chemistry--
Associate chief.
Associates.
Assistants (2 to 4).
Crops chemistry--
Associate.
First assistant.
Assistants.
_Dairy husbandry:_
Chief.
Associate chief.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Bacteriology--
Associate chief.
Associates.
Assistants.
Breeds, experimental--
Associate chief.
Assistants.
Manufactures--
Associate.
First assistant.
Assistants.
Milk production--
Associate.
Assistants.
Dairy production, first assistant.
Economics, assistant.
_Entomology:_
Chief of division.
Associate chief.
Assistants (2 to 4).
Beekeeping--
Apiarist.
Assistant.
_Farm organization_, chief of division:
Farm surveys--
Assistant chief.
First assistant.
Management--
Associate chief.
First assistant.
Assistants (2 to 7).
_Forestry_, chief of division:
Surveys--
Associates.
Assistants.
_Horticulture:_
Chief of division.
Assistant chief.
Olericulture--
Chief.
Assistant chief.
First assistant.
Assistant.
Truck crops--
Associate.
Assistant.
Plant breeding--
Associate chief.
Assistant.
Fruit breeding--
Assistant chief.
First assistant.
Assistants.
Floriculture--
Assistant chief.
Assistants (2 to 3).
Pomology--
Assistant chief.
Associates (2 to 3).
First assistant.
Assistant.
Plant physiology, associate.
PLAN No. 943. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE POSITIONS
The recent war necessity for organization of agricultural forces
exhibited the co-operative extension system through county agents, farm
bureaus, and local organizations, as a very effective means of greatly
increasing agricultural production.
To the Agricultural Extension Service established by our Government in
connection with the Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural
colleges was due this agricultural co-operation enabling the American
farmer in a great emergency to meet practically every demand for
production promptly and effectively.
Much remains to be done to perfect co-operation of organizations in
developing county communities, but a broad foundation has been laid for
the service and well-trained, practical men are employed to carry the
results of scientific research, demonstration work, and practical
experience to the farmer.
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENTS
The men holding these positions are known as county agents who direct
and demonstrate farm problems, club leaders who direct extension work
with young people, and specialists in different lines of agriculture.
There are 2,936 counties in the United States, of which 2,300 have
county agricultural agents. The duties developing upon the county agent
are numerous. In brief to introduce to the farmers in a practical manner
the scientific investigations and the experience of successful farmers.
Also to demonstrate so well their practicability that farmers may be
induced to adopt them.
If practical and reliable, the county agent is able to reorganize and
direct the agriculture of the community and be a force socially and
economically in improving country life. In short, he should be able to
instruct in all subjects having to do with improved agricultural
practice, and from a business standpoint with buying and selling and
general farm management. Many of these projects are brought home to the
farmer, and he is influenced in their adoption by actual demonstrations
which he is induced to undertake, with his own labor and at his own
expense. These projects are conducted under supervision, and may have to
do with crops, live stock, drainage, or any phase of farm work.
COUNTY AGENT IN TOUCH WITH FARMERS
The position of county agent affords an exceptional opportunity as a
step to further advancement. The county agent is an organizer of farm
bureaus, farm clubs, and stands back of all in demonstration work. He is
practically the farmer’s business adviser as well as his educator, and
need for his services is found in directing farm activities as well as
in demonstrations. As has been well said: “The purpose of the agent is
not to make farmers’ bulletins, but to interpret them; not to take
theory to the farmer, but practice to the puzzled tillers of the soil.”
In no other line of research work are young men of agricultural rearing
and experience and with scientific training more successful or
acceptable than in directing the farmer, though he may be old in
experience, in the many up-to-date measures productive of success and
profit on his farm.
Last year 500,000 farmers conducted demonstrations of various kinds in
co-operation with county agents which covered an aggregate of 1,000,000
acres. County agents held 135,000 meetings attended by 7,000,000
farmers, made 1,200,000 visits to farmers, and received 1,250,000 office
calls from farmers for advice.
The county agent works with all county societies, such as granges,
farmers’ unions, alliances, farmers’ institutes, community clubs, and
such boy and girl clubs as he may organize to support his work.
CLUB LEADERS
This club work is supervised by State and county leaders. Over 2,000,000
boys and girls were enrolled as club members the past year. For example,
the members enter into competition in corn growing, for prizes on a
basis of largest production at lowest cost, best collection of 10 ears,
and best story of the year’s work. They receive from the extension
instructors definite information regarding soil, planting, and
cultivation, and are taught valuable lessons in handling soil, picking
seed, improving varieties, use of fertilizers, cost accounting, etc.
Similar clubs for like purposes grow home gardens, potatoes, cotton,
grain, and fruits and much enthusiasm has been manifest in clubs for the
raising of pigs, sheep, calves, and poultry. These clubs are all
elementary to the more important work directed by the extension workers
in general farm lines, farm gardening in particular, and profitable farm
poultry raising.
EXTENSION SERVICE
The extension service workers have the support of many local
organizations in addition to those assisting the county agents, such as
local boards of agriculture, county councils, farm bureaus, clubs, and
agricultural committees. There are over 1,000,000 farmers members of
such organizations assisting county agents and extension workers. The
agricultural projects contemplated under the vocational education act
are lending great assistance to extension-service workers through
co-operation by encouragement to the country boys undertaking the
projects along with their club competitions.
You may well ask if there is any field of employment open to you which
promises greater satisfaction in health, happiness, and service than is
found in agricultural extension work. The scientific undertakings are
attractive, the positions numerous, paying good salaries, and, if one
desires, they can be sought where one’s life may be largely in the
outdoors. It is in fact difficult to conceive of a more attractive
vocation for which to select education and training. The curriculum of
some agricultural colleges will give you complete preparation and will
assure you success in some specific line of technical agriculture.
Positions available in extension service are shown in the following
list:
PLAN No. 944. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
_Extension staff:_
Director.
Vice director.
State leader.
State leader, junior, extension.
Assistant State leaders.
_Agricultural extension:_
Leaders.
Assistants.
Agronomy, specialist.
Farm crops:
Associates.
Assistants (3 to 8).
Soils:
Associates.
Assistants (3 to 6).
_Animal husbandry:_
Specialist.
Associates (2 to 5).
Assistants (3 to 7).
_Botany, agricultural:_
Associate.
Assistants.
_Club work_, assistants (2 to 4):
Boys’ and girls’ clubs--
Leader.
Assistants.
Canning clubs--
Leader.
Assistants.
Pig clubs--
Leader.
Assistants.
Calf clubs--
Leader.
Assistants.
Garden clubs--
Leader.
Assistants.
_Crop pests:_
Specialist.
Associate.
Assistants.
_Dairy husbandry:_
Specialist.
Associates (3 to 10).
Assistants (2 to 7).
_Farm demonstration work_, State leader:
Divisional, each branch--
Specialists (5 to 12).
Assistants (5 to 10).
Farm, advisory--
County agents (1 each county).
Assistants.
Junior extension--
State leader.
Assistants.
_Farmers’ institutes_, specialist.
_Farm management:_
Demonstrator.
Assistants (several).
_Farm organization:_
Specialist.
Associates (2 to 7).
Assistants (2 to 8).
_Hog production_, assistant.
_Horticulture_, specialist:
Demonstration--
Assistants (3 to 8).
Spraying--
Specialist.
Assistants.
_Market surveys:_
Associate.
Assistant.
_Poultry husbandry:_
Specialist.
Associates.
Assistants.
Management, associate.
Farm poultry, associate.
_Publications:_
Editor.
Assistants.
_Rural engineering_, assistant.
_Short courses and exhibits:_
Superintendent.
Associates.
Assistants.
_Veterinary extension:_
State veterinarian.
Associate.
Assistants.
PHOTOGRAPHY, PHOTO-ENGRAVING, AND THREE-COLOR WORK
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Prof. David J. Cook, Demonstrator and
Instructor, in the Bissell Colleges, at Effingham, Ill., under direction
of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal
Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John
Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
In the field of photography, photo-engraving, and three-color work you
can succeed and re-establish yourself in civil life as an independent
worker, in spite of your handicap, provided you have natural aptitude
for the work. You can do this even if you have lost your hearing, or
lost a hand, an arm, a foot, or a leg, or both legs, or an arm and a
leg.
In the best studies and shops of the country, from $25 to $75 a week may
be made by competent men; or one may establish himself in business with
pleasant surroundings and ideal working conditions. The photographer and
photo-engraver meet people at their best, and the taking of a picture,
or the making of an engraving becomes merely an incident in a pleasant
business transaction. Much of the work may be done while seated, and the
work as a whole requires but little strength.
Photography, photo-engraving, or three-color work may be practiced as an
art, as a business, as a profession, or as a science, and one has a wide
range of choice in electing just the kind of work suitable to one’s
condition, preferences, and past experience.
PLAN No. 945. AIR BRUSH WORK
Air brush work pertains to the working-up of enlargements and contact
prints in black and white, sepia, or color. Expert operation of the air
brush is little less than magical in its delicate shading and color
effects. Operators of the air brush command high salaries and are in
great demand.
PLAN No. 946. BROMIDE PRINTING
This is a trade in itself, and numerous houses make a specialty of
bromide enlargements for the trade.
PLAN No. 947. COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Photographing machinery, furniture, fixtures, fabrics, glassware, and
manufactured products is a distinct branch of trade, and the commercial
photographer often builds up an enviable business, conducted with but
little overhead expense. He is moreover, much in the open, and he can
choose practically his own time to do his work. Some commercial
photography is commonly done also by the regular portrait photographer,
and much of this work can be done in the studio under cover. But little
equipment is required, and the compensation is fair.
PLAN No. 948. COPYING, COLORING PHOTOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES, SLIDE
MAKING, WORKING IN BACKGROUNDS, MOUNTING, SPOTTING AND FINISHING,
RETOUCHING AND ETCHING
All of these special services are embraced in regular studio practice.
Good workmen in any one of the lines indicated command good pay and
steady employment. The demand for experts generally exceeds the supply,
especially for retouchers and etchers, who can improve negatives
artistically, and correct the seeming exaggerations of the camera. Good
retouchers may establish retouch studios in the larger cities and secure
work from local photographers at from 30 cents to $1 per negative,
depending upon the amount of work required per negative. A good
retoucher can do up to 20 negatives a day, piece-work.
PLAN No. 949. LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY
This work takes one out into the open; is very healthful; and quite a
body builder. One with a knowledge or liking for building and
construction work may fairly expect to succeed well. Practically all
railroads employ view photographers, and their work is exceedingly
interesting on account of the travel from place to place.
PLAN No. 950. PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY
The press photographer leads an exciting life and the man with a “nose”
for news items finds himself ideally located at a good salary. Many of
the best men recently engaged in war photography were formerly press
photographers.
PLAN No. 951. AMATEUR FINISHING
Amateur finishing offers a good field for profit, and many
establishments in large cities, and even in smaller communities, provide
amateur finishing in sufficient amount to keep a photographer busy long
into the night in the busy season. The busy season may, in fact, be
practically all the year around, as almost everyone now has a hand
camera or kodak, and depends nearly altogether on the amateur finisher
to develop and print films.
PLAN No. 952. MAKING HOME PORTRAITS
The home portrait worker photographs his patrons in their own home
surroundings. He need have no studio. Hence his expenses are light and
his profits relatively large. Home portraiture is one of the most
delightful branches of photography, and the highest prices are obtained
for work in this line. Equipment will cost about $200; there is no
overhead; and the worker may work either during the day, or at night by
the aid of artificial lighting installations, such as flashlight or
electric light.
PLAN No. 953. MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY
Motion picture photography is becoming more and more popular, and
appeals strongly to the man who has a liking for the stage and for
things emotional. Good operators make perhaps the highest salaries paid
photographers. Here again one can specialize as a camera man, a
laboratory man, or a printer. The laboratory work is chiefly that of
developing the negative and positive films.
PLAN No. 954. PORTRAIT PHOTOGRAPHY
The portrait photographer must maintain more of an establishment than is
required for some other lines of work, and may perhaps have to invest
more money, since his place of business should be in some degree an art
gallery. His is a busy and interesting life, and the maker of
portraiture by photography should be a real artist, comparable with the
artist who works with brushes and pigments. The artist-photographer’s
work is just enough varied, in artistic lighting of the subject,
development of the negative, retouching, mounting and finishing of the
photograph, to stimulate interest. Every portrait is just a little bit
different, and presents new problems for the photographer. Many studios
employ 5 to 50 workers, and the incomes of some of our best studio
owners amount up into five figures. Some workers specialize in portrait
operating, printing and finishing, and developing and laboratory
work--all highly paid branches.
PLAN No. 955. PHOTO ENGRAVING AND THREE-COLOR WORK
Photo-engraving in halftone, line, and three-color work seems bound to
take its place along with its great ally, the art of printing. All sorts
of texts are being more profusely illustrated, and the demand for good
photo-engravers keeps pace with the demand for good printers. The
following subjects may be listed as indicating specialty branches in
this field, each of which provides subject matter for a systematic
course of training.
SUBJECTS TAUGHT
_Line operating._--Making the negative without the use of the screen for
a literally exact reproduction of pen and ink work, etc.
_Line printing._--Printing the line negative onto the coated metal.
_Line etching._--Corroding the metal with etching solutions after it has
been printed upon, thereby producing a printing surface.
_Halftone operating._--The process of making screen negatives ready in
every respect for the printer.
_Halftone printing._--Printing of the stipple negative on the coated
zinc or copper plate.
_Halftone etching._--Etching the metal plate with the different
solutions to produce a relief printing surface that will take the ink in
the proper relations.
_Finishing._--Working with tools upon the etched metal plates to improve
them in various ways, remove defects, etc.
_Routing._--Removing with the routing machines undesirable surface from
the etched metal plates.
_Blocking._--Mounting the metal and making it ready for the hands of the
printer.
_Proofing._--Inking the finished cut and printing on paper duly
prepared.
_Three-color work._--Making of color separation negatives color plates,
selection of inks, order of printing, etc.
In photo-engraving, and three-color work, one may be an all around
workman or a specialist. In shop practice one is usually employed at a
single operation, and being highly skilled in that, one obtains
correspondingly high remuneration.
Employment in these several occupations may be had in commercial
workshops, studios, engraving plants, newspaper plants, printing
establishments, manufacturing establishments, homes, colleges, or in the
open, and employment is not restricted to any one locality, but may be
secured in the small town as well as in the great city. The practice of
these arts is in fact very widespread. All tools are provided by the
employer, and but little capital is needed to become established in a
paying profession. A camera and lens and a halftone screen are the
principal essentials.
WHY TRAINING IS NECESSARY
The photographer or photo-engraver who has “picked up” his profession in
the ordinary manner will generally do his work but indifferently, and in
consequence his success also will be only indifferent. He may have
learned to do things simply by rule of thumb. To become an expert
workman he must study and practice under competent instructors, and must
follow some systematic course of training under such instruction. In a
short time he may expect to become fitted to enter into his life work
100 per cent proficient, and he may expect to secure a good position
immediately upon completion of his course. One can hardly expect to
receive explicit and accurate instruction while working as an apprentice
in busy shop or studio, and moreover, one rarely finds a worker that can
even, if he has leisure, impart his knowledge to others as effectively
as can the professional teacher. The practice in large institutions and
organizations generally now is to require some systematic training as a
qualification for employment.
After training one is enabled to take a paying position or to enter into
business for oneself. The opportunities are good and the field is large
for really good workmen. The hours are not long, and the work is not
confining. The pay is better than in many other trades or professions
and employment is fairly constant, as there is really no well-defined
slack period.
PLAN No. 956. GENERAL INFORMATION--QUESTIONS ANSWERED
Q. What education is required to learn photography, photo-engraving, or
three-color work?--A. Anyone with natural aptitude for the work who will
make an earnest effort can succeed, whatever his previous education may
have been.
Q. At what age is it best to learn photography or photo-engraving?--A.
Any age over 18. It is never to late to learn.
Q. Can one learn to be a first-class up-to-date photographer by working
in an ordinary studio?--A. Generally a student will learn more rapidly
and acquire greater proficiency by taking a systematic course of
training in some school of photography--even a short course.
Q. Is retouching a strain on the eyes?--A. Not if it is properly taught.
Q. Is a previous knowledge of photography necessary for those who would
learn photo-engraving?--A. Not at all. All the photographic knowledge
pertaining to the work is taught in the regular engraving courses.
Q. Is photo-engraving unhealthful?--A. Not in the least.
Q. Can one by taking employment in an ordinary plant acquire facility in
all the up-to-date processes of photo-engraving?--A. A student will
learn more in a shorter time by taking a systematic course in the
subject.
Q. Do students generally take training in all three of the branches
which have been described?--A. Very seldom; usually enrollments are for
one of the three--i. e., either photography, photo-engraving, or
three-color work.
PLAN No. 957. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN THE JEWELRY TRADE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
This monograph was prepared by Miss Eleanor Adler, under direction of
Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board
for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of
the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
The disabled soldier, sailor, or marine during the days of waiting in
the hospital will naturally ask himself, “What is the best way for me to
earn a living with my handicap?”
He may find one of the many answers to that question in some of the
opportunities of the jewelry trade. If he has two good hands and good
eyesight, and if he has any mechanical bent, he may become in this trade
the equal of any worker in it. One artificial leg or even two
constitutes no serious handicap in this line of work. If, in addition to
mechanical aptitude, he has any artistic creative capacity, he can
become very expert and earn an assured income permanently.
Jewelry making is an old trade with a pedigree reaching back into
medieval and ancient times. In those days it was more an art than an
industry. Its master craftsmen were known by name and were famous for
their particular skills. In recent times the installation of machinery
has made it possible to produce some standardized articles by the gross
instead of by the piece, thus greatly cheapening output. Fine-grade
factories working chiefly in platinum still use hand processes and make
their necklaces, brooches, and other pieces from individual designs and
patterns. Cheaper-grade factories work more in gold and make many of
their articles, such as cuff links, bracelets, and rings, of a standard
pattern, which is stamped out by machines, the articles being turned out
by the gross or dozen.
PLAN No. 958. WORKING IN PLATINUM
Processes in the platinum jewelry trade--the hammering, drawing, and
soldering of the precious metal--require skilled craftsmanship.
The designer first makes the original picture or pattern of the brooch,
necklace, or other piece, and if the details of the design and general
character are approved he then makes an accurate pen-and-ink line
drawing. He is paid from $35 to $75, possibly $100 a week.
The modeler makes a model in wax in the same way that the designer makes
the picture. His wages are the same as the designer’s. Designers who are
also modelers are much in demand.
The sketch or wax model then goes to the engraver, who transfers the
design from the picture or wax to a flat piece of metal, engraving it
lightly, in order to make a permanent record of the design. Engravers
have to be very skilled and are paid from $40 to $60 per week.
The metal next goes to the jeweler, who “makes the piece”--that is,
takes the flat piece of metal and hammers and models it--“using a soft
lead block, upon which he rests his platinum plate, face downward, and
modeling from the reverse side with various-sized blunt-nosed punches
and a mallet whose head is made of rawhide.”[17] He then cuts out the
design by following the engraved outline with a saw about the thickness
of a coarse thread. All the leaf and so-called demelle decoration and
other piercings are made in this way. The work is skilled and requires a
steady hand and long practice, but can be developed from any good
mechanic. It is paid by the hour, 75 cents to $1.25.[18]
[17] “Jewelry,” by De Witt A. Davidson, in “An Exhibition of American
Industrial Art.”
[18] Unions claim that the wage ranges from 85 cents to $2.50 per
hour.
Next the piece goes to the polisher, who polishes the back and attaches
it to a frame or catch. Polishers in platinum factories are usually
girls and are paid from $20 to $25 per week.
The stone setter then puts the piece into a bed of shellac to hold it
firmly and mounts the diamonds, working up platinum beads out of the
flat metal to hold the stones in place. Setting a row of diamonds so
that they seem an uninterrupted line of brilliancy is called “pave work”
and requires great skill. Stone setters are paid by the piece and make
$40 to $125 per week.[19]
[19] Unions claim that the wage for this work ranges from $60 to $125
per week.
The metal is then taken off the shellac, goes once more to the polisher,
and then to the finisher, who is merely a jeweler doing the particularly
skilled work of final inspection and adjustment.
The number of processes in a platinum factory varies. In some cases they
are so combined that one man performs several different processes. One
expert may even make a whole piece from beginning to end. The tendency
in this line is in fact back to the old Guild conditions at a time when
the value of a jewel setting lay in its uniqueness. Very beautiful work
is sometimes done in the homes of workmen. The material is called for,
and the article is designed, wrought, and returned completely finished.
In cheaper-grade factories, on the other hand, processes are more
subdivided, machine work being substituted for handwork. For instance,
the engraver may be eliminated by stamping work out by dies instead of
engraving it by hand. In this way platinum jewelry can be turned out
faster, and in larger quantities than when engraved in single pieces,
and of course the same skill is not required. The average wage is $25
per week. Cheaper grade factories all subdivide their processes more in
this way, use more machines, and turn out work by the dozen in platinum
and by the gross in gold, instead of by the piece.
PLAN No. 959. WORKING IN GOLD
A factory that works with gold employs designers in the same way as does
the platinum factory.
The metal itself first goes to a melter and roller, who puts it into
crucibles, then into the furnace, and then rolls it into ingots. The
work is heavy, and necessitates standing and the use of both arms and
feet. Wages are $25 per week.
In the cheaper-grade factories the gold, instead of going to the
engraver for piecework, goes directly to the press and stamping room,
where it is pierced by machines, stamped and pressed into patterns by
the gross. Conditions of work are the same as in the first department,
except the presswork, which is fairly light, but necessitates the use of
one leg. Wages range from $18 to $25 per week.
The article then goes to the jeweler, who assembles the parts, solders
them in the center, and shapes them by the aid of small machines and
blowpipes, according to samples shown him. Wages are from $18 to $40 per
week.
The work next goes to the polisher, either a man or a girl, who does the
polishing seated at a buffing wheel. The polisher earns from $18 to $35
per week.
If the article is to be dipped in a solution to change its color, it
then goes to the colorer, who is often also a polisher, and earns the
same wages.
When fine work is done by an engraver, his work is much the same as in a
platinum factory. Very expert work is paid from $40 to $60 per week. The
same statement applies to the stone setter, who is paid by the piece,
and often makes from $70 to $100 per week.
The article lastly goes to the finisher, who is here again merely an
ordinary jeweler who inspects the completed work.
The toolmaker has charge of making the stamping dies, at 75 cents an
hour.
ADVANTAGES OF THE JEWELRY TRADE
The advantages of the jewelry trade for men with disabled legs are many.
First of all the work is seated and requires little physical strength.
Most of the processes are carried on at long tables near windows, with
articles laid on a sort of easel in front of the men and manipulated
with small instruments. The trade itself is such as to insure good
working conditions--good light, sanitary workrooms, fair precautions
against fire (the sprinkler system is in many factories) and space
sufficient to avoid overcrowding. There are no unpleasant odors or
unsanitary by-products such as are found in many industries, and there
is little noise. Hours have been shortened in the past 10 years from 55
to 44 per week in New York City and Newark and to 48 throughout the rest
of the country. Employment is stable, and the fairly skilled mechanic
finds work all the year round. The busy season is in summer and fall;
but the spring, which is light, is utilized for developing new ideas for
quality production later and stock taking for the holiday season.
As an old stone setter put it, “Training in jewelry work is a good
investment, and never leaves a man with a trade on his hands and no
value in the market for it.”
Another important advantage of the jewelry trade is its demand for man
labor. The industry is a steady, probably a developing one, with
possibilities of extended export trade. It can probably absorb a large
number of men. Jewelers find it hard to get apprentice boys, chiefly
because the apprenticeship is long and poorly paid, but that difficulty
is done away with for soldiers, who are paid by the Government while in
training. Platinum factories employ on an average 70 to 80 men, gold
factories from 400 to 500. There are nearly 150 factories in Newark and
about 300 in New York, who assert that they need labor and will pay good
prices to get it. Employees start at some such process as soldering, at
$10 to $15 per week, and can work up to $20 to $30, and in the better
class work later to $60 and $75, or even $125.
PLAN No. 960. AREA OF EMPLOYMENT
The area of employment in the trade is largely in the East, about 75 per
cent in New York, Newark, and the cheaper-grade factories in New
England. There are some jewelry factories in Chicago and other large
cities in the West.
TOOLS AND MACHINES USED
The tools and machines used in the trade are chiefly the following:
Drop hammer up to 200 pounds to a large degree power lifted.
Punch and cutter presses.
Lathes, machine and speed.
Power, plate, and wire rolls.
Power drawbenches.
Welding and soldering outfits.
Polishing lathes, lapping lathes (to polish metal.)
Blowers (to supply air in connection with soldering.)
Melting furnaces of various sizes.
Annealing furnaces.
Hand tools, such as workbenches, files, saws, hammers, drills,
alcohol, ammonia, emery paper, various shellacs and acids.
UNIONS
Local unions are fairly strong in New York City, but are not officially
recognized by manufacturers. They have, however, enforced competitive
bidding, which has driven prices up very high, and has made conditions
practically those of the closed shop. They claim a membership in New
York City of 3,500. In Newark they are not so strongly organized.
BONUSES
There is no recognized system of benefit funds. A few factories have
individual associations for sick benefits, which are rather discouraged
by the unions. Some distribute bonuses on the 1st of January.
TRAINING
There are at present no adequate courses of training for the jewelry
trade. A jeweler is put at the bench and starts in with the simpler
processes. He is usually broken in at so-called jewelry work, chiefly at
soldering processes. If he is quick, he can be promoted in time to the
more expert departments. There is a fixed system of apprenticeship in
each factory, covering one, two, or even three years, with a bonus at
the end of the period, and limiting the number of apprentices allowed by
the unions to 1 apprentice to every 10 employees. The jewelers have for
some time been considering starting training classes in New York or
Newark, similar to a small professional class recently successfully
started by a manufacturing jeweler in Chicago. They are also taking up
the question of training classes in their own factories. According to
their suggestion, courses ought to last anywhere from six months to two
or three years, according to the ability of the worker “to catch on.”
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
There are no essential educational requirements, though a good school
education helps and a knowledge of mechanical drawing is “a leg up,” and
puts a worker immediately at the more expert and highly paid processes.
Any man who has had experience at delicate work of any kind, who has
perhaps liked the finer handwork in occupational therapy at the
hospitals, who has two good hands and good eyesight, and is not too
disabled to reach the shop, will find no handicap in this trade. If he
has a mechanical bent and flexible fingers he can become an efficient
jeweler. If, in addition, he has any artistic, creative capacity, he can
develop into a stone setter, engraver, or designer. His work then
becomes of a personal nature, commands a comfortable salary, and can
bring him, despite disablement, to the top in the industry.
PLAN No. 961. TRANSPORTATION--INTRODUCTORY
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, under the direction
of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal
Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Percy R. Todd,
General Manager, Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., and to Dr.
John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.
WHAT TRANSPORTATION INVOLVES
In transportation men are concerned with the moving of persons and goods
from one place to another. Transportation requires, however, many other
operations than simply loading, hauling, and unloading passengers and
freight. Charges must be determined and collected, records must be kept,
movements of trains, cars, boats, and other vehicles must be directed,
repairs to equipment must be made, and numerous other matters must be
handled. These numerous operations call for hundreds of thousands of
employees in many different trades and occupations.
OCCUPATIONS VARIED BUT OF GREAT RESPONSIBILITY
Thus in transportation there are so many different sorts of occupations
that nearly any individual who likes responsibility can become
interested in some part of the great field. There are occupations in
which responsibility rests upon the employee for insuring the safety of
property, and this responsibility is not by any means inconsiderable. In
other occupations employees are responsible for lives as well as
property, and risk their own lives in the service. There is office work
for those who like it and plenty of traveling for those who enjoy that.
If a life out of doors appeals to you, transportation can give you a job
of that sort. In short, if you have a liking for responsibility you can
find a job in transportation service that will suit you.
DISABILITIES AND RETRAINING
If you were engaged in transportation before you were disabled, you are
probably still interested in this work, and would return to it if you
did not feel that your disabilities unfitted you for your old job. If
you wish to go back into transportation and can not take up your old job
or a new one in that field without retraining, you want to know how to
get retraining and how retraining will help you. Retraining and devices
may help you to get your old job again. Retraining ought to do more than
simply this. It ought to get you a better job than you had before. It is
to help you to analyze and see your own possibilities as they are
related to the various transportation occupations that this booklet is
written.
DIVISIONS OF TRANSPORTATION
In general, transportation is performed by steam railroads, by street
railways, by wagons and automobiles, and by boats. Of these agencies,
steam railroads employ the largest number of men in so far as regular
occupations are concerned. We shall, therefore, consider first the
occupations and trades connected with the operation of steam railroads.
PLAN No. 962. PART I. STEAM RAILROADS
Railroading in the United States is a gigantic enterprise. In 1916, a
prewar year, our railroads possessed about 65,000 locomotives, 2,342,000
freight cars, 55,000 passenger cars, and 98,000 company service cars.
There were 259,000 miles of single track and enough of double track to
raise this figure to 293,000 miles of main track. In addition there were
102,000 miles of sidings. Employees of railroads numbered 1,654,000 and
were paid $1,403,968,000 as their compensation for the year 1916.
Obviously, among so large a number of employees operating so varied an
equipment are found many different trades and occupations.
SAFETY ON RAILROADS
Railroading is attended with personal risk for many of the employees,
but only in a small number of cases is a man who is disabled in the
service of a railroad rendered unfit for further service. Many of the
older railroad men have suffered injuries of some sort, since the use of
safety devices is relatively recent. Quite a number of injured men have
in the past been given office, clerical, or watchmen’s work, since there
is a vast amount of such work to be done, and it involves comparatively
little personal risk.
FACTORS CONTROLLING PROMOTION
For the man who lacks a technical or college education there is almost a
dead line to promotion into the higher offices. For instance, the
wide-awake section hand can become a section foreman, then a
construction gang foreman, a supervisor, and perhaps a roadmaster. But
he can hardly ever hope to become an engineer of maintenance of way
unless he acquires in the meanwhile an extended knowledge of civil
engineering especially as applied to railroading. The disabled soldier
or sailor, if unfitted to pursue his old occupation, can secure this
very desirable training through the Federal Board for Vocational
Education. He can thus secure an advancement that he might not otherwise
have obtained.
There have been three conflicting forces governing promotions in
railroading--favoritism, seniority, and efficiency. At one time
favoritism was so strong that graft and toadyism gave inexperienced men
promotion over men with long experience. The seniority rule was
introduced by the labor organizations to offset the old evil, and for
two men of equal intelligence and native ability selection by seniority
is a fair method of giving promotion. In such a case seniority coincides
with efficiency. But seniority of itself does not necessarily in all
cases give the higher position to the man best fitted for it, since long
years in the service will not train the thoughtless, careless man as
well as a few years will the alert man. Railroad employees in all
branches of the service strongly contend as a group for their seniority
rights. This means that an outsider usually has a long waiting period
for advancement into the best positions. Efficiency is becoming more the
rule, but the old influences still prevail in some departments, partly
because standards of efficiency are rather indeterminate, largely
because changes in a widespread system can not be wrought in a day. If
favoritism could be abolished employees would not insist so strenuously
upon their seniority rights.
Since the railroads have been subjected to public regulation they have
appreciated the value of courteous treatment of the public. Accordingly
they reward the courteous employees by promotion, and no longer tolerate
a grossly uncivil one as they did in the early days.
Loyalty to the railroad organization is regarded to-day by railroad
officials as the foremost requisite for those wishing promotion--a
loyalty that places the railroad organization first, whether it be a
question of public regulation or of labor unionization. Fairfax
Harrison, president of the Southern Railway Co., has thus stated the
case:
“There are three requisites for advancement in railroad
service--loyalty, efficiency in your present job, and preparedness for
larger responsibilities. Efficiency and preparedness for higher place go
together, for that man will be most efficient in his present job who is
not content with mere mechanical performance of his duties, but who has
an intelligent understanding of them in their relation to the service as
a whole and who has qualified to take over the duties and
responsibilities of his immediate superior on a moment’s notice.”
WHY TAKE THE TRAINING?
It is however, a generally known fact among railroaders that few men in
the lower positions have the chance to learn efficiently all the duties
required of them in the next higher position. For example, a track
workman rarely has the opportunity to make out reports and payrolls, or
even to do alignment sighting, unless he is favored by his foreman. By
taking the training provided by the Federal Board he can learn to do
this and other highly skilled work, and thus have an unusual opportunity
for advancement. He could study civil engineering and become an
engineer-maintenance-of-way.
CLASSES OF RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS
There are various ways of classifying railroad employees, but we shall
use here a grouping suited to our purposes, based largely on physical
and mental requirements and the training involved. We are not so much
concerned with the several administrative departments--accounting,
operating, traffic, etc.--as with the work done in different
occupations. There is obviously a marked difference between the physical
requirements for an office position and those for a position as railroad
brakeman. On a basis of the requirements made upon the employee,
railroad occupations may be grouped as follows:
1. Office or clerical work.
2. Shop work--repairing equipment.
3. Track work--repairing track and structures.
4. Train work--operating the trains.
5. Work conducing directly to train operation.
PLAN No. 963. OFFICE AND CLERICAL WORK
In railroad office and clerical work the requirements upon the
employee are mainly mental. In this group we find the general and
divisional officers--financial, legal, surgical, engineering,
managing--telegraphers, train dispatchers and train directors, telephone
operators, station agents, passengers and freight agents, station
masters, and all sorts of clerks--accountants, rate clerks, traffic
clerks, etc. For these positions a man may qualify although he may have
suffered from considerable physical disabilities, providing he is
mentally alert and has some knowledge of railroading. The knowledge that
a man should acquire or the training that he should take will, of
course, depend upon the particular position he wishes to fill.
Let us consider some of the principal office and clerical occupations,
so that you may be able to select the one that appeals to you. We may
well begin with the telegraph operator.
PLAN No. 964. TELEGRAPHY AS AN OCCUPATION FOR THE DISABLED
Few physical disabilities will debar an intelligent man from becoming a
telegraph operator. Poor hearing, the loss of both arms or of both eyes
are handicaps that can not be overcome, but nearly any other disability
can be overcome. The occupation rarely subjects a man to exposure to bad
weather. Telegrapher’s cramp and electric shocks are the chief
occupational hazards to be guarded against.
The position of the operator is stimulating, even at a small station on
a through line, since much of the important news of the day goes over
the wires. Of course, he is bound to keep secret all such news, and
there are through wires on which he can not listen in.
TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS
The instruments used consist of a key for sending messages and a relay
or sounder for receiving messages. To install an outfit is a simple
matter for anyone who is at all familiar with the action of an electric
current, for the principle of operation is merely that of breaking up
the flow of current into dots and dashes in various combinations.
TRAINING FOR TELEGRAPHY
However, facility in transferring letters into dots and dashes and
translating dots and dashes into letters is not so easily acquired. Only
after much practice does the beginner form the habit of doing this
readily. He must of course memorize the Morse alphabet, but, further
than that, he must become so familiar with the dots and dashes that when
he hears them in combination he thinks that he is actually hearing a
word, not a certain number of dots and dashes. He must form the habit of
thinking words in dots and dashes without thinking of the clicks, just
as one reads a page without thinking of the separate printed letters
that go to make up the words.
The operator needs further to acquire a rapid legible handwriting, so
that he can write down rapidly the message as he receives it and never
get very far behind the sender. Since, however, it is difficult for one
to write as fast as an experienced sender can send, the operator must
learn to retain in mind a number of words and phrases, so that when he
is receiving messages sent rapidly he can copy behind the sender and
catch up at breaks for new sentences and paragraphs, or at the end. Some
operators have learned to receive messages, writing them out on the
typewriter as they come over the wire. This is an accomplishment worth
striving to attain, especially if one can not write legibly and at the
same time rapidly.
THE TELEGRAPHER MUST LEARN MORE THAN MERE TELEGRAPHY
There are a number of other things that the telegraph operator needs to
learn, especially if he holds a position at a small station. He must
learn a large number of abbreviations, so that he knows immediately what
they mean. Some of these abbreviations are made up of the main
consonants in the word, while others are simply arbitrary numbers.
Sometimes these numbers refer to a printed form which he must use
repeatedly. A knowledge of switchboards and cut-outs, of installation
and renewal of batteries, and of care and adjustment of instruments is
highly desirable and usually necessary. All operators must know the
rules and regulations of the company and govern themselves accordingly,
and they must be fully acquainted with signaling systems and appliances.
If the operator is located at a small station, he probably has part or
all the work of the station agent to perform at some time. If he is
located at a large station, there are emergencies when he may be called
upon to do such work, so that he should become familiar with the work of
the station agent. This, of course, means that he must become familiar
with rates, both freight and passenger, must sell tickets, make out
freight bills, and do railroad bookkeeping. The complaint most
frequently made against schools teaching telegraphy is that the student
is taught telegraphy and nothing else, so that when he takes employment
he has to learn at once nearly everything connected with station work.
HOURS AND WAGES OF TELEGRAPHERS
Hours are generally eight per day, and wages are good, averaging around
$1,100 or $1,200 per year for all operators, which means that the
efficient employee who works regularly gets much more than $1,200.
Employment is regular throughout the year. Rarely does an operator send
or receive for a long period of time without a break to rest. Most
messages are ten-word ones, which means the transmission of probably not
over twenty words, including names, addresses, and office data.
WILL TELEGRAPHERS BE NEEDED?
As to the permanency of the occupation, there is only the telephone that
in any way threatens to make the telegrapher unnecessary. The
limitations of the telephone are such, however, as to make that
instrument supplemental to the telegraph. The telephone is, for example,
more liable to get out of order, because the apparatus is more
complicated, and when out of order it can not easily be put in
commission again by the average operator. The telegraph lends itself
readily to codes and a written record is usually made of messages sent
by telegraph, while the telephone lends itself readily to conversation.
Thus each has its own proper uses. The wireless seems to be better
adapted to telegraph instruments than to the telephone, especially for
long distances. There has been no practical device invented for relaying
messages mechanically with the telephone, as can be done with the
telegraph. Although the telephone has proved to be satisfactory in the
direction of trains, and is being installed on the railroads rather
generally, it is hardly probable that it will entirely displace the
telegraph. However, it is to be noted that there is some possibility
that the service may be flooded with telegraphers only partially
qualified to do their work. Radio operators trained in the war can
readily become telegraph operators and during the war many women have
learned telegraphy. A disabled soldier or sailor entering this
occupation should take supplementary training for the position of
station agent, so that he may in some measure avoid the competition of
radio and women operators.
DISABLED SOLDIERS WHO HAVE LEARNED TELEGRAPHY
By way of illustration a few cases may be cited of disabled Canadian
soldiers who have taken training as telegraphers and entered
successfully into this work. Returned soldiers whose former occupations
had been that of farmer or farm hand have taken the training courses
offered them by their Government, and have thus fitted themselves for
this, to them, entirely new line of work. One farm hand, for example,
disabled by stiffness of the left elbow, studied telegraphy and secured
a position as assistant agent on the Grand Trunk Railway. Another
disabled soldier, a former farmer, suffering from leg trouble, studied
telegraphy and now holds a position as a railroad telegrapher at a
salary of $95 per month. (Salaries paid telegraphers in the United
States are considerably higher than in Canada.) Another farmer so
disabled in the army that he had but little use of his left leg took a
course in telegraphy and now holds a position as an operator paying
$82.50 per month, with house, light, and heat free. Still another
farmer, who lost his left arm in the army, after studying telegraphy
secured a position as a wireless operator at $85 per month and board. If
you have not lost your mental equipment and ambition, you can do as well
as or better than these disabled Canadians have done.
Other disabled soldiers have taken training for telegraphy to enable
them to get into an employment paying more than their former occupation
and giving more regular employment. A waiter afflicted with heart
trouble, for example, a bricklayer who lost three fingers on his left
hand and had wrist injured, a rubber-shoe maker afflicted with stiffness
of the left elbow joint, each studied telegraphy, and each has secured a
position on Canadian railways.
Old railroad men whose disabilities prevented them from returning to
their former occupations have taken training for telegraphy, in which
branch of railroading working conditions were better than in their old
jobs. A locomotive fireman who had sustained a gunshot wound and lost
the vision of his right eye and a finger from his left hand studied
telegraphy and secured a position as a station agent. A lineman whose
legs were too weak for his old position took both the commercial and
telegraphy courses and now has a position as an operator at $88 per
month. If you have had practical experience as a railroad man, the
courses offered you by your Government will give you the training
necessary to enable you to secure that higher position which you have
often hoped you could get. Why do you not make your disability your
opportunity for advancement? Now is the time to take the training and
secure that promotion.
LINE OF PROMOTION FOR TELEGRAPHERS
An operator may be promoted to a position as train dispatcher, or as
station agent, depending upon his interest and abilities and upon the
available opportunities. Opportunities to become station agents are more
frequent, because the number of station agents employed is much larger,
and promotion in this line may be continued by transfer from a small to
a larger station. Before passing to a consideration of the occupation of
the station agent, we shall note briefly the position of the train
dispatcher.
PLAN No. 965. THE TRAIN DISPATCHER
The train dispatcher must be an expert operator and must have other
qualifications which he may have acquired while working as an operator.
He must understand the workings of the operating department; he must
know the location of sidings and telegraph offices, the distances,
grades, and track conditions between sidings and offices, and something
of engineers, engines, and train loads. He must have a clear head and
must not get confused nor trust to memory or guess as to location of
trains. He must keep a record of the progress of all trains and refer to
it constantly. He must have the ability to direct men in person or at a
distance, since the operators are subject to his orders. It is
absolutely necessary that he know thoroughly all the operating rules and
regulations of the road. The position is one of great responsibility,
especially on roads with heavy traffic on a single-track system. Since
he must direct all trains on his division, the mental strain at times is
considerable. But the hours are usually short, and the wages paid are
high--the annual average being nearly twice that for operators.
The train dispatcher may advance to the position of chief dispatcher,
whose duties include supervision of train dispatchers, and general
operation of all trains. In emergencies his duties and responsibilities
are especially exacting.
PLAN No. 966. THE STATION AGENT
In no one other position probably are working conditions so varied as in
that of the station agent. He may be located at a small village on a
branch line where he meets perhaps two trains a day and performs all the
work around the office from telegraphing to caring for the United States
mail. Or he may be located in a large city, where his work is that of
supervising a small army of employees. But whether he is in the smallest
position or in the largest, he must understand the railroad’s business
as it relates to his work. He must understand rates, both passenger and
freight; must know how to keep records and accounts correctly; how to
make out freight bills and coupon tickets, even although he himself may
not have to do this work; and he must know how to handle men. It is
through him that the public comes most closely in contact with the
railroad, and he can make or lose traffic for the railroad by the manner
in which he meets customers or would-be customers. Courtesy in station
agents is being prized more and more by railroad administrators. A
popular agent is an asset, an uncivil one, a liability. The agent at a
small station can obtain much business for the company through a
knowledge of through rates and routes, although he must allow the
shipper to choose the route. All station agents must be experienced
operators on lines where the telephone is not used. They must be
thoroughly familiar with railroad signals and with traffic rules and
regulations. Even in a small place, the agent comes more in contact with
the outside world than most of the other inhabitants of the village. His
position is one of financial responsibility, since he handles large sums
of money. Upon him devolves largely responsibility also for the safety
of travelers and freight, since he plays a part in the directing of
trains. He can save the railroad from losses in claims for lost and
damaged goods, by seeing that names and addresses are marked clearly on
packages, that goods are packed properly for shipment, and that packages
are handled carefully.
PLAN No. 967. STATION CLERKS, BAGGAGEMEN, AND OTHER WORKERS
At the larger stations, the work of the station agent is that of
supervising a large number of clerks, baggagemen, and other workers.
Among these clerks are ticket sellers whose duties are to calculate
rates and fill out coupon tickets with correct routings, and to sell
local and excursion tickets. They must be very careful to make correct
charge for the tickets sold. They make out detailed reports of the
tickets sold and money received.
The head baggageman and his assistants receive and forward all baggage
left with them, determine if there is any excess and collect the charges
for excess. They issue duplicate checks for baggage left with them when
the passenger presents his ticket and asks for the checks. They also
give out baggage arriving at the station on presentation of the
duplicate check issued at another office. The head baggageman must be
able to handle men and direct them so as to avoid making mistakes, but
he must usually be physically able himself to handle baggage.
In the freight department are rate clerks, who give information as to
rates and classifications; billing clerks, who bill freight, enter
weights, etc.; and other clerks, who attend to accounts, records,
correspondence, and claims.
Disabled soldiers or sailors with good common-school education could,
after short periods of training, fill any of these positions. Salaries
average slightly less than $1,000 per year. For ticket sellers
comparatively few disabilities are serious handicaps, except such as may
be repellant to the traveling public, which does not usually like to be
reminded of accidents. Freight clerks have not even this condition to
meet, and if they are not called upon to handle freight they will not be
seriously handicapped by physical disabilities which would bar them from
many occupations.
At important freight centers a considerable number of employees are
directly engaged in handling freight, under the supervision of a
freight-house foreman. This foreman has charge of the freight house,
directs the placing of cars at the warehouse and the loading and
unloading of freight, and is responsible for keeping records so that
freight may be readily found. He must be able to handle men, and must
know how freight should be packed and stored, both in the freight house
and in the cars. He must be able to classify freight and to file
properly all records relating to freight. He has usually been promoted
from a position as checker, warehouseman, or trucker. Any disabled man
who has held such jobs, if he is intelligent and can handle men, could
with some training become a freight-house foreman. Poor sight or hearing
would, however, usually be serious handicaps.
The freight checker has a position that pays better than that of the
trucker--who is rated as an unskilled laborer. The freight checker
checks the freight into and out of the freight house, warehouse, or car.
He must be able to check consignments accurately, and should know the
classes of freight.
At transfer points, a transfer agent performs duties similar to those
performed in the positions just considered. He sees that shipments are
properly transferred. He makes the necessary notations on waybills, and
keeps a complete record of the transfer and of the cost incurred. He
must understand loading and unloading freight and must be able to handle
laborers. Not infrequently he has been promoted from a position as agent
at a small station. A disabled man with good sight and hearing, who can
write, might be trained for this position.
PLAN No. 968. DIVISION SUPERVISORS
At division points on the railroads, there are a number of station and
yard employees whose duties are supervisory. Among these employees are
the station master with his assistant, the supervising agent, the
yardmaster, with his assistant, and the train director.
PLAN No. 969. THE STATION MASTER AND HIS ASSISTANT
The station master directs the making up and dispatching of local
passenger trains, receives and dispatches through passenger trains, and
looks after the necessary shifting of cars in such trains. He sees that
all these trains are provided with crews ready to take prompt charge of
the train. He has general supervision over all employees about the
station, and reports on neglect of duty by any of these.
The assistant station master has the same general duties as the station
master and must have the same qualifications. The assistant works when
the station master is off duty, or in the larger stations relieves the
station master of part of his work.
These men must be courteous to the traveling public, and must have had
experience in the operation of trains in the yards, so as to be able to
direct train movements efficiently. They must have the ability to handle
men and to make sound decisions quickly. The physical requirements are
good health, sight, and hearing. Disabilities which would not prevent
quick movement from place to place would not be serious handicaps to
well qualified men.
PLAN No. 970. THE SUPERVISING AGENT
The supervising agent has general charge of passenger, baggage, freight,
and scale agents. He employs and supervises the employees who take care
of the station grounds and buildings. He must possess executive ability,
and must have had experience in the positions he supervises, to enable
him to select properly qualified men, and to direct their work
intelligently.
PLAN No. 971. THE YARDMASTER AND HIS ASSISTANT
The yardmaster has immediate supervision over yard employees and yard
operation. On some railroads he has also supervision over the calling of
train crews and the train seniority list. He is aided in his work by
assistant yardmasters and by yard clerks. The assistant yardmasters’
duties and qualifications are of the same general character as those of
the yardmaster.
These men must see that cars are not unnecessarily delayed in passing
through their yard. They must receive the waybills for cars arriving,
and deliver these to the conductors taking charge of the cars when they
depart. They must make records of all the transactions and fill out
reports. They must be thoroughly familiar with the rules governing train
operation and defining the duties of employees connected with train
service. The yardmaster must see that all orders are properly given and
executed. He must have good color eyesight and hearing, and be able to
stand exposure to weather. He would not be seriously handicapped by the
loss of limbs, provided he could write out reports and make records and
move quickly from place to place. A disabled trainman could take
training for the position of assistant yardmaster and thus be in line
for promotion to the position of yardmaster, although the seniority rule
might prevent him from getting this promotion quickly.
PLAN No. 972. THE TRAIN DIRECTOR
The duties of the train director are to receive and transmit train
orders for the movement of trains, from the train dispatcher to the
train crews. Accordingly he must be an expert telegrapher or telephoner,
have good color eyesight and good hearing, and be thoroughly familiar
with the rules and regulations relating to the movement and signaling of
trains.
PLAN No. 973. OTHER STATION AND YARD WORKERS
Under the station masters, yardmasters, and supervisors are a number of
minor clerks, attendants, and laborers. But little skill is required of
the laborers, whose work is largely physical and the wages paid them are
the usual wages for unskilled labor. The duties of minor clerks vary so
from station to station and so overlap that any detailed account of
their services would be confusing. Some of these clerical positions
might be suitable for some disabled men, and the training necessary is
usually short. It must in fact generally be taken in the position itself
for the special duties assigned in the given case.
PLAN No. 974. TRAIN CALLERS AND TICKET EXAMINERS
A disabled man with a good voice and memory might become a train caller
at a large station. A disabled passenger conductor might become a ticket
examiner, since his knowledge of tickets and of the various stations
would be the sort of information required for this position; but the pay
would probably be lower than that of conductors.
PLAN No. 975. OFFICE WORK
In the divisional or general offices the reports, accounts, and similar
matters that come in from station agents are handled. There is the
accounting division concerned with receipts and expenditures, most of
which are for small amounts, and all of which must be totaled in various
ways--a considerable task of itself. Expenditures must frequently be
analyzed according to different regulations, and reports must be
compiled for State and Federal commissions. Because of these
requirements the railroad accountant must learn many things about
railroad systems and the public regulation of railroads that another
accountant does not need to know.
In the divisional and general offices a great deal of statistical work
must be done. A number of clerks are employed in preparing exhibits for
the rate or wage hearings, of which there are usually one or more in
progress in some part of the country. Much of this statistical work is
done in the traffic department.
PLAN No. 976. THE TRAFFIC DEPARTMENT
The traffic department is the rate-making and traffic-getting department
of the railroad. In this department much correspondence is carried on;
many letters are received, answered, and filed, especially in obtaining
traffic. The answering of inquiries of all sorts is in itself a big
task. The traffic department considers the revision of old rates and
classifications and the issue of new rates or special rates. Here is
where individual rates, rate structures, and classifications are first
formulated. The change of a rate structure is usually made only after an
extended study of traffic conditions and of the probable effect of the
proposed rate structure. The traffic department presents such matters to
the various classification committees for action, and jointly with the
traffic departments of other railroads in the territory covered it forms
the traffic association and classification committees. It thus operates
to affect rates on other railroads and it presents new rates and
classifications to the Interstate Commerce Commission or to State
commissions for approval. It must frequently prepare for hearings upon
changes in rates and classifications. It draws upon the auditing and
operating departments for much of the information upon which new rates
are formulated.
There are two divisions to the traffic department, namely, the freight
and the passenger divisions. The freight division makes studies of the
commodities to be moved, of the competition the railroad has to meet,
and of the charges that the traffic will bear without being diverted to
other lines or routes. It adjusts claims for lost or damaged freight. It
solicits business by keeping in touch with the shipping interests along
its line or those who could be induced to use its line in connection
with another road. For this purpose traveling freight agents are
employed. These men must know rates, routes, commodities, and men. Their
employment depends upon their knowledge of their business and their
ability to meet and convince, for instance, the manufacturer that he
should ship over their line. In other words, they are salesmen of
railroad service.
WHO ARE ELIGIBLE FOR TRAFFIC DEPARTMENT SERVICE
Former railroad conductors or brakemen of a high degree of intelligence,
who have been disabled in the war, may in some cases wisely elect to
take training for service in the traffic department. Much of the
information that a conductor or brakeman has learned in his old position
will be of value to him. In the traffic department both officers and
clerks must know how properly to bill freight, how to calculate both
local and through freight rates, and how to route through freight over
connecting lines. They must know the junctions where cars can be
transferred and where they can not, and where less-than-car load
shipments can be transferred without drayage. They must be familiar with
the seasonal movement of freight and must know what commodities come
from certain districts and with what regularity, in order to anticipate
heavy freight movements, and have cars at points where they are most
needed. The intelligent conductor or brakeman has already acquired much
of this information. Freight conductors are well qualified for training
as traffic men, traveling freight agents, terminal traffic men,
assistant traffic managers, or even traffic managers. Former clerks in
the traffic department also could take training and qualify for better
positions.
The passenger division of the traffic department attempts to obtain
extensive travel over its lines. Conventions, circuses, and all such
attractions for crowds are noted and excursions provided whenever they
seem to promise to be profitable. Such excursions must be advertised,
and this demands an advertising man in the department.
In large cities where many competing railroads center, city ticket
offices are maintained from which solicitors are sent out to induce
persons known to be planning a trip to travel on their respective lines.
A disabled passenger conductor might qualify by training for a position
in this division, and find that his past experience would be very
helpful in the new position.
Those formerly in purely clerical positions, who have been disabled, may
advantageously take courses in rates and rate making, and thus qualify
for higher positions.
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE OF VALUE FOR OTHER OFFICE AND CLERICAL WORK
In other departments of railroad service, there are a large number of
positions that former train, station, or track men who have been
disabled could advantageously fill, utilizing their railroading
experience, and taking training for the new positions. These disabled
men would have to be men of intelligence and not too old to take up a
somewhat different line of work.
Such men could, for example, learn accounting and would find their
knowledge of train matters, track affairs, and station duties of value
in helping them to understanding certain accounts. Auditors could do
their work more efficiently if they understood more of the work in the
various branches of railroad service.
Again, top-heavy engines would not be placed on tracks made up largely
of curves, in the hope that the high drivers would give greater speed
than could be developed from lower-wheeled engines, had the responsible
officials or their advisers understood more of track maintenance,
especially in cuts in rainy weather. In one instance when high-wheeled
engines were placed in service on a road the track men complained
immediately, but it took a series of wrecks on curves to induce a change
to safer engines.
The claim department could utilize men who have been “out on the road.”
Actual railroad experience would be of value to a young man about to
enter the legal department of a railroad. A young railroad man inclined
to legal affairs could take the training provided by the Federal Board,
and thus make his disability a means of advancement to one of the
highest paid positions on railroads.
The purchasing agent and his assistants could undoubtedly gain in
efficiency by having in their offices men who have had actual experience
in handling the materials that these agents must purchase. When to
insist upon strict compliance with all specifications, and when in the
case of certain specifications to make concessions, are matters that may
involve large sums of money and in such matters the advice of men with
actual experience in using the materials would be very helpful.
PLAN No. 977. AN ESTIMATE OF A RAILROAD GENERAL MANAGER
Percy R. Todd, Assistant to District Director and General Manager,
Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., says:
“There always has been, and, in my judgment, always will be a demand in
excess of the supply for the following classes of employees,
particularly relating to office work, viz.:
“Stenographers.
“Tariff clerks (trained in the framing and publication of freight and
passenger tariffs in accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission
rules).
“Freight claim clerks (trained in the handling of both overcharge and
loss and damage freight claims).
“Waybill clerks (there has always been great difficulty in obtaining
trained men to make waybills at stations).
“Telegraph operators.
“Expert railroad accountants.
“Clerks trained in valuation of railroads.
“In all of the above-mentioned lines, so far as my personal experience
goes, there has always been a shortage and probably always will be.
“As to stenography, I consider it the very best medium through which any
young man can make progress on a railroad, as it lifts him at once above
the mass of clerks and gives him an individuality and a touch with
executive officers which almost invariably leads to his promotion.
“In this connection I might add that the traffic manager of the New York
Central Railroad, * * *, was at one time my stenographer when I was
connected with the New York Central System, and rose from that position
to be traffic manager of all their lines; the president of the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad, who died three or four years ago, started
as a stenographer with the Michigan Central Railroad at Chicago.
“The general manager to-day of one of the New England railroads started
as a stenographer with the same company, and I could give a great many
more instances of what stenography has done for men who had the brains
to back it up.”
PLAN No. 978. SHOPWORK
For the second group of employments designated, shopwork, the physical
requirements are higher than for office and clerical work, since
shopwork generally calls for at least ordinary strength and eyesight.
Shopworkers include general foremen, gang and other foremen, machinists,
boiler makers, blacksmiths, carpenters, painters, upholsterers,
electricians, air brake men, car inspectors, car repairmen, mechanics
helpers, and apprentices. A number of men now employed in these
occupations have suffered injuries to hands or feet, or have defective
hearing. Foremen can perform their duties under disabilities that would
be serious handicaps for workmen, but a foreman needs good eyesight.
SKILL REQUIRED FOR SHOPWORK
Practically all of these occupations require considerable skill and
general knowledge of railroad equipment. While the workmen have machines
with which to perform many operations in the shop, still much handwork
must be done. This is the case because repair work is varied, and the
work must usually be done partly on the car or engine, sometimes out on
the road. The machinist’s work is generally heavy and greasy. Some of
the carpentering and paint work is rough, as is that on box cars, while
some, such as the cabinet making and varnishing of passenger coaches, is
highly skilled.
TRAINING
A skilled machinist or mechanic can learn to do railroad work very
quickly after he gets on the job. Others must spend a period of
apprenticeship to learn the trade. Quite a number of railroads have
regular apprenticeship courses. Wood-working and metal-trade schools
also give much of the training required for railroad shop work. We give
below a description of the occupations to suggest to the disabled
soldier the training he will probably need, and to enable him to decide
whether the occupations are suited to his disabilities.
GREAT DEMAND FOR SHOPWORKERS
For the disabled soldier or sailor who is mechanically inclined, the
railroad shop offers an opportunity for good wages and advancement. The
depreciation of the great amount of mechanical equipment of a modern
railroad is very large and railroads have not had in the shops for a
number of years sufficient men to keep the rolling stock in good
condition. The number of bad-order cars and locomotives has been large,
and they have not moved out of the shops as rapidly as they should. The
automobile industry has undoubtedly been a strong competitor for the
mechanics who otherwise might have gone into railroad shops. Some
railroads have attempted to provide themselves with sufficient
machinists by training apprentices in considerable numbers.
PLAN No. 979. THE HEADS OF THE TWO DEPARTMENTS
The master mechanic has charge of the machine shop and the employees
therein. Under him, are usually, shop foremen, roundhouse foremen, road
foremen, and sometimes other supervisors. He may himself be under a
superintendent of motive power, or directly under the division
superintendent.
Usually on a par with the master mechanic is the superintendent of the
car department, sometimes called a master carpenter, who has charge of
car builders and painters, repairmen and inspectors, cleaners and
oilers.
The work of the two departments is not clearly differentiated to-day,
since the introduction of the steel car has required mechanics for its
upkeep rather than carpenters. Previously, the line was drawn at the
wood and metal parts. The two departments attempt to keep the railroad
equipment in running order.
PLAN No. 980. CLERICAL POSITIONS
In these departments are found also clerks who keep records and help in
making reports and in correspondence. The storekeeper and his assistants
are usually under the supervision of the master mechanic. Since none of
the positions are essentially manual ones, they could be filled by
disabled men having the necessary ability, training and experience.
Experience in the lower positions is required to fit for any of the
higher ones. For executive positions ability to handle men as well as
the other qualifications are essential. For clerical positions the
qualifications are chiefly educational.
In the railroad shops we find generally the following skilled workmen:
Machinists, blacksmiths, boilermakers, sheet metal mechanics, pipe
fitters, electricians, molders, and inspectors.
PLAN No. 981. MACHINISTS
Railroad machinists in small shops do all sorts of repair work, but in
large shops they are frequently assigned to special work. A machinist
may, for instance, work only at a large lathe truing up “flat” wheels or
journals. Since power cranes are now used to set the work in place in
the lathe, no heavy lifting is required. A disabled man can do the work
if he knows how to adjust the lathe so that the wheels or journals are
machined properly. If he has good eyesight in one eye, one good hand,
and can stand at the machine during working hours, his disabilities will
not seriously handicap him. Another machinist may work on engine
parts--for example, on cylinders, pistons, or cut-off valves. Use of
power cranes for placing most of this work has reduced greatly the need
for great physical strength on the part of the railroad machinist.
However, those who are sent out on the road to help clear up wrecks must
occasionally do heavy lifting.
PLAN No. 982. AIR-BRAKE MECHANICS
The air-brake man is a mechanic who installs and repairs the air-brake
equipment of locomotives and cars. Much of his work consists in removing
defective parts and replacing them with new properly fitted parts. As he
must frequently work under cars and do a certain amount of rather heavy
lifting, he needs both arms, good eyesight, and good hearing. He must
also have good health. The loss of a leg would be a considerable
handicap for installation work. A disabled air-brake man could easily
train himself to become an air-brake test-room inspector. In such a
position his knowledge and skill would count more than his physical
condition. For this position he must be thoroughly familiar with all the
parts and functions of the air brake; and be able to adjust valves and
other parts quickly.
PLAN No. 983. THE BLACKSMITH
The railroad blacksmith must forge or weld light and heavy pieces for
all sorts of railroad equipment. He may forge a steeple bolt for a hand
car, cut and fit the parts for a crossing frog, set the steel tires on
the drive wheels of a locomotive, or straighten a bent driving rod. He
must be able to read blue prints, and to take old, worn, and broken
pieces as a guide to construct a new piece. He must be able also to do
all sorts of welding and to heat large pieces properly. He must
understand how to temper steel for the use to which it is to be put. His
work thus requires technical knowledge and manipulative skill. But since
power hammers and cranes are used on heavy pieces his work is not so
heavy as formerly. The loss of one or two fingers, or of a leg, or of
the sight of one eye, would not handicap a well-trained man. Poor
hearing would not ordinarily be a serious handicap.
PLAN No. 984. THE BOILERMAKER
The boilermaker keeps in repair the locomotive and stationary boilers of
the railroad. He must be able to retube, patch, overhaul, and construct
boilers. Ordinarily his heaviest duties are to remove old leaky tubes
from boilers and place in new ones, and to patch up or even renew the
fireboxes. However, wrecks frequently cause him to take boilers apart
and put in new pieces, so that he almost reconstructs the boiler. He
must be able to read blue prints and use templates in laying off plates
and angles. He must know how to punch, shear, and rivet the parts, and
calk the boilers, and how to weld or cut pieces with an oxy-acetylene
torch. The work is heavy and dirty, but good hearing is not essential
and the loss of an eye is not a serious handicap. The boilermaker must,
however, have strength and the use of both hands, although he may have
lost a finger or two from either hand.
The work and qualifications of the steel-car repairer are not radically
different from those of the boiler maker. The metal-car repair man also
must be able to drill or punch holes, to cut out broken parts of metal,
replace them with new ones, and rivet them in, but his work is not so
technical as that of the boiler-maker.
PLAN No. 985. THE ELECTRICIAN
With the installation of electric headlights and electrically lighted
passenger cars the electrician’s duties in repair shops have increased
greatly in recent years. He must keep in repair the dynamos on
locomotives and the dynamos and storage batteries on passenger cars. The
growing use of the electric locomotive means that the demand for railway
electricians is sure to increase. Repair of motors for these as well as
for electric cranes used in a number of shops calls for armature winders
in increasing numbers. Both technical knowledge and manipulative skill
are required, but ordinarily the work is not heavy. Disabled men with
good eyesight in one eye, with two arms and one good hand, who are able
to move about easily, could do the work.
PLAN No. 986. INSPECTORS
Inspectors of boilers and of other parts of locomotives, and of the
metal parts of cars, must know thoroughly the parts to be inspected.
Usually they have had considerable experience in the repair of these
parts. Frequently they must help to make the repair or must supervise
the work when they find a minor defect in railway equipment at a
location not convenient to the shop.
PLAN No. 987. CAR REPAIRMEN
Repairing or rebuilding of wooden cars is done by car builders or
repairmen and painters. It is largely carpenter work. These men must be
able to remove any broken or damaged piece of a car, replace it with a
new piece, and paint or varnish it. The builders or repairmen must be
thoroughly skilled in the use of all hand carpentry tools and be able to
use readily any of the woodworking machinery necessary to produce car
parts. On passenger-car work, the repaired part must be finished nicely,
and the whole painted or varnished so that the repair is not obvious. No
such care is required for work on freight cars.
In addition to the men who work regularly in the shop, there are a
number of men who must travel over the road and keep mechanical or
electrical equipment in working order. These men must all have
mechanical ability. Ordinarily, they must be physically sound, since
they are exposed to weather and to danger from trains. Among these men
are signal and interlocking maintainers, and signal inspectors. They
must have both mechanical and electrical knowledge.
PLAN No. 988. TRACK WORK
In the third group of employments, included under the heading track
work, a man needs physical strength and agility, good health, good
eyesight, and good hearing. Without these, he is constantly in danger
himself and may endanger the lives of others. Only the foremen may have
physical disabilities, such as the loss of a hand or arm. All must have
good health, since they are exposed regularly to all sorts of weather.
All must have good eyesight, in order that they may do their work
properly and avoid danger. Poor hearing would continually subject the
man to danger from passing trains, from falling objects, or other
sources of danger, since one who has poor hearing would not generally
hear or would misunderstand warnings of danger. A man on the track must
be agile in order to avoid danger.
WORK REQUIRES SKILL
Men in this group are frequently classed as unskilled, largely because
railroads have employed for the work unskilled foreign laborers, but to
do the work properly considerable skill is nevertheless required. Poorly
tamped ties, “goosenecks,” maul dents on the rails, and similar defects
are evidences that may be found on many roads of unskilled work. Ability
to drive a spike properly, so that the rail is held securely to the
ties, is not quickly acquired.
Fence work, bridge work, cement work, and similar work, often performed
by special gangs, require skill to be done rapidly and well.
OCCUPATIONS
The main occupations in this group are track laborers, foremen and
supervisors, bridge carpenters and foremen, fence-gang men and foremen,
and other extra gang men and foremen, linemen and repairers, painters of
sign posts and structures, structural iron workers and foremen, and
concrete workers and foremen.
CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT UNSUITED TO DISABLED MEN
In track work, only the positions of foremen or supervisors pay good
wages, and only these could be suitably undertaken by disabled men.
The track laborer in the eastern and northern section of the country has
to compete with the immigrant from Europe, in the South with the Negro,
in the West with the Mexican, and in the far West with the Oriental.
Only a few workers on construction gangs do not have to meet this
competition directly, because their work requires a skill that the
foreigner does not acquire easily. But such work is very seasonal, being
done for the most part during the summer and early fall. Wages are not
high and working conditions usually are poor if not bad. Extra gang
work, in this respect, is very little different. Section work, while
allowing the men to have home life and thus have better living
conditions, usually is seasonal and pays lower wages than is paid to
other gangs upon track construction work. Bridge construction or repair
work requires some skill and the wages are good, but the danger is
considerable for even a physically strong and sound man. The painters of
structures receive good wages, but their work requires climbing into
dangerous positions. The lineman must frequently do climbing to repair
wires, or to cut away limbs of trees thrown upon the wires by storms.
Evidently, these positions are not suitable for the disabled soldier
from three standpoints, namely, the seasonal character of the work, the
danger to which it subjects him, and the relatively low wages paid on
the average for the year. The position of timekeeper for large extra
gangs is, of course, mainly clerical, but is undesirable since it is
very seasonal. All track occupations are hazardous and accidents are
frequent.
PLAN No. 989. THE TRACK FOREMAN
The duties of the track foreman are to supervise workmen, to teach green
hands how to do the various sorts of work, and to make out reports on
various matters ranging from the pay roll to a report of live stock
killed by a train. He must be familiar with the time of all trains at
various points on his section, with the signals, with the degree of
curves and the needed elevation, and with the use of the various
appliances and tools used on a modern railroad. The section gang uses a
large number of tools, and these must be kept in proper condition.
Railway appliances are numerous, and the section foreman has supervision
over these. Introduction of the motor car to take the place of the old
hand car, has called for more mechanical skill on the part of the
foreman. A disabled man could perform the usual duties of a foreman, if
his disabilities did not affect his eyesight, hearing or health, but
loss of an arm or a leg might increase the accident hazard, as, for
example, in case an extra train caught the gang in a cut or out on a
high dump with the hand or motor car.
PLAN No. 990. THE TRACK SUPERVISOR
The track supervisor usually supervises a number of section foremen. He
must be an able trackman, so that he can recognize immediately the
nature of a defect in the track as he rides over it on a train. He
issues orders to track foremen for changes in location or character of
work, handles reports from foremen on certain subjects, and himself
makes out various reports. He portions out supplies and materials for
the track under his supervision, and is held responsible for the
condition of this track by the engineer of the maintenance of way. A
disabled section foreman could with training qualify himself for a
position as supervisor, but the vacancies in this position are not
numerous, and railroads usually give preference to the physically sound
men.
PLAN No. 991. TRAIN WORK
The occupations in group four--train work--are engineers, firemen,
baggagemen, porters, brakemen, conductors, hostlers, switchmen, and
motormen. For this fourth group there are many limitations upon
disabilities which a man may have suffered and undertake work without
endangering himself and others. In none of these jobs can a man’s
hearing or eyesight, or nerves, or heart be defective, and no one who is
color blind can hold any of them. The loss of an arm would usually debar
a man--even passenger conductors who have lost an arm are now
infrequent. There are a few firemen and engineers successfully holding
their jobs who have lost a leg, but a freight brakeman could hardly do
his work if he were thus disabled. The loss of a hand generally unfits a
man to be brakeman, fireman, or engineer.
THE OCCUPATIONS
There are three classes of engineers, firemen, brakemen, and conductors
namely, those working in the yards, those on freight trains, and those
on passenger trains. A yard engineer, fireman, or conductor may have
suffered disabilities that the men in the freight and passenger service
can not have without being handicapped in competition with normal men.
In none of the positions do the duties permit of a large number of
disabilities, or of very serious ones. All must pass rigid physical
examinations--eyes are tested for color blindness as well as for other
defects, and hearing must be excellent. All must pass a rigid
examination in the rules and regulations, signals, schedules, and the
road conditions.
PLAN No. 992. THE ENGINEER
The duties of an engineer are exacting. He drives his engine over the
track where there are curves, crossings, switches, and signals that he
must constantly watch. He must recognize instantly the color of the
numerous signals displayed at various points along the line. He must
sound the whistle as he approaches crossings and other points. He must
also note the running condition of his engine--for instance, whether the
bearings are becoming too hot. When the engine stops for water he
usually oils certain bearings. He must learn to apply the steam and
adjust the reverse lever so as to give the maximum pulling power to the
engine at one time, and to attain considerable speed at another time, in
either case with due regard to the load he is pulling and the track he
is running upon. He must, accordingly, learn where the track is good and
he can make speed and where it is bad, so that he must slow down. In
emergencies he must be able to close the throttle and apply the air
almost instantly, or to reverse the engine. For this he needs both
hands. His eyesight must be excellent and his arms, heart, and nerves
good. Wages paid to engineers are high, averaging $2,000 a year, but the
position is one of great responsibility, and it is one that few disabled
men would be allowed to undertake.
PLAN No. 993. THE FIREMAN
The fireman must be physically strong. He must shovel coal into the
firebox so that the steam pressure will be sufficient at all times for
the pulling power of the engine, and yet not be “blowing off”
frequently. He must watch the water level in the boiler and see that it
does not get low. He must climb back over the tender when the engine
takes water. He takes on coal at the coal chutes. On occasions he has to
go forward to flag to protect the train from in front. Where automatic
bell ringers are not installed he usually keeps the bell ringing when
the engine is doing work in yards near a crossing or where other men may
be endangered by the engine. When the engine is running and he is not
busy shoveling coal he is watching the track along with the engineer,
but on the other side of the cab. He must especially watch when his side
of the cab is on the inside of a curve. Since the fireman may in an
emergency be called upon to perform the duties of an engineer, he is
under the same limitations as regards disabilities as the engineer. The
accident rate among firemen is high.
PLAN No. 994. THE BRAKEMAN ON PASSENGER TRAINS
The brakeman has various duties, somewhat depending upon the sort of a
train on which he works. On a passenger train he calls stations, helps
passengers on and off the trains, regulates the heating and lighting of
cars, and sets switches. Sometimes this work is done by a porter. As a
crippled brakeman would tend to give timid passengers a concrete example
of what might result from a wreck or an accident upon the road,
railroads have not wished to have disabled men fill this position. How
they might deal with the disabled soldier is uncertain.
PLAN No. 995. THE THROUGH-FREIGHT BRAKEMAN
The through-freight brakeman sets switches when his train goes on a
siding for another train, or his train picks up a car at a junction
point, or sets out one. In such a case, he uncouples the train, air
brakes, etc., throws the switches, and after the car has been picked up
or set out, couples up the train, makes the air brake connections, and
tests them. He watches the train for hot boxes, and transmits signals
from the conductor to the engineer. He must climb on and over freight
cars, cross bridges, tracks, and switches. He needs to be sound
physically.
PLAN No. 996. THE BRAKEMAN ON LOCAL-FREIGHT TRAINS
The brakeman on a local-freight train has no end of switching to do, or
loading and unloading less-than-carload freight at small stations along
the entire run. The physical demands made upon him are even greater than
those made upon a through-freight brakeman. Disabled men should not
undertake this job.
PLAN No. 997. THE CONDUCTOR ON FREIGHT TRAINS
The duties of the freight conductor, while lighter from the physical
standpoint than those of the freight brakemen, are nevertheless so heavy
that a disabled man is not usually wanted by railroads. At certain times
he must do the same work as the brakeman does. He must walk over trains
or tracks to get orders, or confer with the engineer. He must direct the
picking up and the setting out of cars. He must keep a record of the
cars in his train, of the ones set out, and of those picked up. He
carries the way bills for the freight in his train. He must read and
sign for all orders received for his train. His duties, while requiring
more mental work than those of the brakeman, are still so heavy and
dangerous that any physical disability would be a handicap to him.
PLAN No. 998. THE PASSENGER CONDUCTOR
The passenger conductor collects fares and supervises the passengers and
train. He is responsible for the train orders as is the freight
conductor. The physical requirements made upon him are normally light,
but in emergencies, he needs to be physically sound. Formerly, passenger
conductors who had lost fingers or even an arm or leg were frequent, but
in recent years railroads have not wanted disabled men for this service,
since they remind passengers of accidents. The passenger conductor needs
to have a knowledge of trains and their time at meeting or crossing
points, of the various sorts of tickets and script. He must make out
various reports. If the railroads would place disabled men in this
position, providing they were old railroad men who had been wounded in
the war, this would be the best of all the positions in train work for
an intelligent disabled soldier.
PLAN No. 999. YARD OCCUPATIONS
The train work in the yards consists of switching. The work of the yard
fireman or engineer is perhaps somewhat less exacting than that of a
fireman or engineer out on the line, but for the brakeman it is more
exacting. The hostler is usually what might well be called an apprentice
fireman, and so he must be as physically sound as the fireman or
engineer. Yard conditions are so dangerous that disabled men would
usually find their disabilities a handicap.
PLAN No. 1000. THE BAGGAGEMAN
The baggageman on trains needs to be physically strong, since he has to
handle heavy trunks. He could sustain the loss of a leg or have too poor
eyesight or hearing to qualify for other train work, if in emergencies
he were not called upon to do the other train work. Since he is so
called upon he must be physically as sound as a brakeman. He has some
clerical work to do. Sometimes he is a mail clerk, express messenger,
and extra brakeman. Little knowledge or training is required to fill
this position--a strong man of ordinary intelligence could learn to fill
the position in a few days. He must know the stations and transfer
points. Wages are about the same as for brakeman.
WORK CONDUCING TO TRAIN OPERATION
In the fifth group of employments, including those conducing directly to
train operation, are found the pumpman, the men on the coal chutes, the
freight handlers, the crossing guardmen, and similar workmen. In this
group, the requirements are good health, a fair degree of strength, and
knowledge of the occupation.
PLAN No. 1001. THE PUMPMAN
The pumpman may have defective hearing, but must then have excellent
eyesight, since he should notice engine trouble quickly if he can not
hear it well. If his eyesight is poor, he should have good hearing. The
pumpman needs to have some knowledge of boilers and steam pumps, but
ordinarily his work is not heavy, even when he has to shovel all the
coal for the boiler.
PLAN No. 1002. OTHER OCCUPATIONS
For men on the coal chutes, either poor eyesight or poor hearing, one or
the other singly, is not a serious handicap, but good health is
necessary as well as ability to climb over the sides of cars. The
freight handlers need strong backs and good eyesight to read names of
boxes, etc. When motor trucks are used, the truckman ought to have some
mechanical ability. The crossing guardman needs both good eyesight and
hearing, but may have suffered the loss of an arm or a leg, even of both
an arm and a leg. On the whole, the range of permissible disabilities
for men in this group is greater than for those in groups three and
four.
TRAINING REQUIRED
Of all the jobs in this field practically the only one requiring any
considerable knowledge or skill is that of the pumpman, and even for
this position an ordinary man can learn all that he usually needs to
know in a month on the job.
PLAN No. 1003. JOBS FREQUENTLY FILLED BY DISABLED MEN
With exception of freight handling, work in these employments has been
given largely to men disabled in railroad service. For instance, a
disabled brakeman is offered the job of switchman or crossing watchman;
a fireman, that of stationary fireman, or engine watchman; conductors,
that of flagman; and so on. Crew callers and lamp-room attendants are
frequently disabled men. So generally has this policy been followed that
the crossing watchmen, flagmen, and engine watchmen are commonly men who
have been disabled. The positions are, however, not such as will appeal
to the intelligent ambitious disabled soldier or sailor.
PLAN No. 1004. PART II. URBAN TRANSPORTATION--ELECTRIC RAILWAYS
Street railway operation furnishes rather regular employment to men on
the regular force. From this standpoint it is desirable for the disabled
soldier or sailor. It is not seasonal to any marked degree, nor is it
greatly affected by industrial depressions; and bad weather only
increases the need for employees instead of lessening it as in many
out-of-doors occupations. Few of the street railway employees are
exposed to bad weather conditions, although the work is not so protected
as in an indoor occupation. They are, however, exposed to dust from the
streets and contagious diseases. All of the positions on street railways
carry with them a high degree of responsibility, but the position of
motorman is probably the one of greatest responsibility.
PLAN No. 1005. THE MOTORMAN
The occupation of the street car motorman is one that can be taken up by
disabled soldiers and sailors. Those who have suffered merely the loss
of part of the fingers on one or both hands, or of a leg, can operate a
street car. A car can be operated by those who are physically unfit for
heavy work, especially if the car is equipped with air brakes and the
working hours are not too long. But those who have defective eyesight,
poor hearing, or are subject to nervous trouble should not undertake
this work. Those who have suffered from shell shock should not attempt
to operate a car until they have fully recovered.
The work is light, but requires constant attention, especially under
conditions of heavy traffic. The motorman must constantly watch the
track to prevent collisions with automobiles or other vehicles whose
drivers take hazardous chances in crossing the track. Men, women and
children must likewise be watched and warned. The motorman must acquire
skill in operating the controller so that he can start the car off
rapidly without causing the circuit breaker to break the current. He
must learn to apply the air gradually so the car will not stop with a
jerk or the wheels slide on the track. He must learn to estimate
distances so that he can stop his car at the proper point. He must form
the habit of never starting without a signal from the conductor.
The working conditions are suitable for disabled men. Stools are usually
provided for the motorman, which he can use outside the congested
district. Most of the cars have closed vestibules for bad weather. The
working hours are irregular, but usually not over 10 in 24. Usually
there are two work periods in a day, with a rest period of two or three
hours between--the work periods come with the morning and evening rush
of people to and from their work.
PLAN No. 1006. THE CONDUCTOR
The conductor’s position makes fewer physical requirements upon him than
that of the motorman. His position is, however, one of responsibility,
and honesty is a prime essential. His duty is to collect fares, give
proper change to passengers, and issue transfers. All his receipts must
be turned over to the company. He must see that passengers are not
endangered in any way, especially by the car starting too soon or the
passenger attempting to alight before the car has stopped. Accordingly
the conductor must have good eyesight and hearing. He may, however, have
suffered some dismemberments, and he need not be physically strong.
Courteous conductors are much in demand by street railways.
TRAINING
The training for the position either of motorman or conductor is
generally conducted on the job. New men are placed on a car with an
experienced motorman and operate the car under his direction until they
are able to operate a car independently. The period of training is
usually short--a week to two weeks. Men so learning rarely receive pay.
A number of companies make charges for the training, but refund amounts
paid if the employee remains with the company a certain length of time.
WAGES
Wages for motormen and conductors are approximately the same, and in
1917 ranged from 15 to 45 cents per hour, with average between 25 and 30
cents for the entire country.[20] Advances in the past year have
probably raised this average to 30 cents or above.
[20] Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics No. 204.
PROMOTION
Men are usually promoted from the ranks of motormen and conductors to be
inspectors or supervisors. They must have a thorough knowledge of
operating conditions in the city, a knowledge that can be acquired only
by considerable experience on the job as motorman or conductor making
all routes in the city.
PLAN No. 1007. OTHER OCCUPATIONS
In electric street-railway operation, there are various other
occupations, some of which require skilled workmen. The skilled workers
include machinists, electrical workers, armature winders, carpenters,
car repairers, linemen, track foremen, and inspectors. Since the other
occupations are filled with men who are unskilled, or who are taught on
the job, we are not concerned with them, as the training is not such as
the Federal Board could easily give. With exception of inspectors, the
work of these men does not differ materially from that of the shop men
and track men on steam railroads. These have already been described
above. In the shop work there is opportunity for the disabled soldier or
sailor who has defective hearing, as well as for those who have lost a
hand or leg. The work is usually lighter than on steam railroads, but
wages are generally somewhat lower; the greater number of employees
receive from 24 to 29 cents an hour.
PLAN No. 1008. PART III. ROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION
In road and street transportation the main occupations are those of
chauffeurs; proprietors and managers of taxicab concerns, livery
stables, and transfer companies; foremen of livery and transfer
companies; draymen; teamsters and expressmen; carriage and hack drivers;
hostlers; and stable hands. The automobile is rapidly supplanting the
horse and to such a degree as to affect the demand for labor in these
several occupations, the demand declining in those dealing with the
horse and increasing in those concerned with the automobile. Work in
these occupations is not markedly seasonal, but is affected adversely by
industrial depressions.
EQUIPMENT
If a person is in business for himself, his outlay for equipment ranges
from $500 upward, but if he is an employee the equipment is furnished by
the employer.
PLAN No. 1009. CHAUFFEURS
A chauffeur may drive a taxicab, a truck, or a car for a private family.
He needs good eyesight and hearing, and must not have nervous troubles.
Loss of fingers or of a foot might not handicap a man for this work. It
does not usually require much physical strength. Men who have suffered
from chest trouble are frequently auto drivers in the Rocky Mountain
States. This occupation gives them out-of-doors work that is light, and
in a good climate in fair weather is highly beneficial and desirable for
such persons.
TRAINING
Auto drivers should have some mechanical training and aptitude so that
they may be able to make adjustments and repair minor defects in their
machines. They should learn the roads and routes in their territory and
allow a good margin of safety either in loads or speed. No great amount
of training is required, and the work is largely manipulative. There are
a number of schools in which this occupation is taught. Hours, wages,
and working conditions are far from being standardized the country over.
If you are interested in this work, you should find out what conditions
prevail in the locality in which you wish to work.
PLAN No. 1010. MANAGERS AND PROPRIETORS
Managers of taxicab companies must know the automobile thoroughly as
well as the neighborhood from which they draw their trade. Only in a
small concern does the keeper or manager need to be able to drive a car.
It will, however, be advantageous at times if he can drive or repair a
car. The greatest qualifications for success in this undertaking are
ability and skill in handling men and money. Although the rate of profit
is usually large in the business, there are many “leaks” to guard
against. The manager must know how to keep accounts accurately, or at
least understand them and be able to see that they are properly kept.
The work requires business ability rather than physical activity, and so
can be done by disabled soldiers or sailors who have this ability.
Courtesy is a valuable asset, since the manager must come in contact
with the public. It is this contact that makes deafness a handicap,
particularly where much business is done over the telephone.
Practically the same thing may be said of proprietors and managers of
livery and transfer companies. The proprietors and managers must have
business ability and know how to manage men. Disabled men with these
qualifications can undertake this business if none of their disabilities
will interfere with business dealings. The field for auto delivery is
developing rapidly, and will give a permanent occupation to the man who
has the necessary qualifications for success.
PLAN No. 1011. FOREMAN
Foremen of livery and transfer companies must have ability to handle men
under conditions where immediate supervision is possible only a small
part of the time. Accordingly, they must be able to judge what
allowances should be made for loads, roads, horses, and equipment, or
automobile in supervising drivers. Since the foremen must occasionally
do the work of drivers, they must usually not be seriously disabled by
loss of limbs, and since they must sometimes do the work of the manager
they must not suffer from deafness.
Wages and hours are good on the average, but vary greatly in the
different localities.
PLAN No. 1012. DRAYMEN
Draymen or expressmen may be either teamsters or auto drivers. In either
case, ordinarily they have a considerable amount of heavy lifting to do.
The loss of an eye, or of fingers, or of a foot need not prevent anyone
from doing this work if he is otherwise physically strong. Very little
training is required for the teamster. He must learn the streets and
business houses, and how to manage horses that are usually well broken.
All of this is best learned on the job. Wages are a little above those
of unskilled labor. For the auto driver training may be acquired largely
in a school. Wages are higher than those paid to teamsters.
Carriage and hack drivers must have good eyesight and hearing. The work
is rather unskilled, although the handling of spirited horses does
require some special skill. Courtesy is a distinct asset. It should be
noted that the demand for carriage and hack drivers is declining
rapidly, and accordingly the disabled soldier should not elect this
occupation unless he has the assurance of permanent employment from some
responsible employer.
Hostlers and stable hands are usually classed and paid as unskilled
laborers, and for most disabled men the work is unsuitable. A disabled
man should not work around vicious horses, and in large stables there
are always some vicious horses.