[21] In the preparation of this part the following publications have
been utilized extensively: “United States Department of Labor
Description of Occupations--Water Transportation,” Reisenberg’s “The
Men on Deck,” and “United Spates Shipping Board Emergency Fleet
Corporation Hearings before the Committee on Commerce, United States
Senate, 1918.”
Water transportation may be considered from two standpoints, terminal
and interterminal. Terminal transportation does not differ materially
from transportation upon the rivers and canals. Interterminal
transportation, whether on the Great Lakes or on the sea, is
practically the same. In this place we shall, accordingly, deal with
only terminal and ocean transportation.
PLAN No. 1013. TERMINAL TRANSPORTATION
Terminal transportation has to do with the loading and unloading of
cargoes, and is usually heavy work that requires men with strong backs
and little training. The men who supervise the laborers on the boats
must have executive ability and a knowledge of boats, equipment, and
harbors. The chief qualification of a captain of a barge, a scow, a
lighter, or a covered barge, is ability to direct other men at the work
of loading and unloading the vessel, of handling lines, and of shifting
the boat, and ability to make minor repairs. On lighters and covered
barges the captain tallies and signs up for the cargo received. The
master steers the boat, gives orders to the crew, and signals the
engineer for movement of the boat. He is responsible for the safety of
the passengers and the crew. He must have keen eyesight and the ability
to act quickly and efficiently in an emergency. He must be thoroughly
familiar with the harbor and with harbor conditions. He supervises the
pilot, if one is carried on the boat. On smaller boats, the pilot acts
as master, and then his duties are the same as the master’s. The
wheelsman is an assistant to the master, and performs part of the
latter’s duties. Deckhands sometimes act as wheelsmen, and may advance
to that position, or higher--to pilot, captain, or master. The engineer
is usually a man of considerable skill and experience and possesses a
thorough knowledge of the machinery of the boat. He sees that the engine
is properly cared for, oiled and kept in good working condition. He
directs the work of his assistant, of the oiler who oils the machinery,
and of the firemen. He receives his orders for the movement of the boat
from the master.
DISABILITIES
Of these men, only those who supervise other men could have sustained
serious injuries. None of them may have either defective eyesight or
hearing. The loss of an arm would usually be a serious handicap, and
also the loss of a leg would be such an inconvenience for most men in
climbing on and about the boat as to be a serious handicap. In these
occupations good opportunities for men seriously disabled are
comparatively few.
OCEAN TRANSPORTATION
On board a large ocean liner is to be found a complete organization of
officers, supervisors, clerks, and skilled and unskilled laborers. As a
general rule, all of these men must be physically sound, and about the
only disabilities allowable are the loss of fingers, of a foot, and
perhaps of one eye if the remaining eye is very good. For men so
disabled there is some slight opportunity for advancement. Only the
clerical positions such as the purser, assistant purser, or freight
clerk, can be filled by men who have lost a hand or leg, or who are
otherwise physically unfit for climbing about on slippery decks in a
rolling sea. Wages paid during the war have been abnormally high.
OCEAN VESSELS VARY GREATLY
There are two general classes of ocean vessels--sail and steam, steam
vessels being in many instances equipped for sailing. In these two
general classes there are, however, all sorts and types of boats and
ships.
PLAN No. 1014. CREW AND DUTIES LIKEWISE VARY
The crew of a steam vessel has three departments--deck, engineer’s, and
steward’s.[22]
[22] The United States Shipping Board has made the following
announcement of free training for deck officers and engineers: “The
United States Shipping Board is creating a new national fleet of
merchantmen, controlled by the United States Government. The Shipping
Board needs for these ships 4,000 new watch officers and 4,000 new
engineers. Men of proper experience will be trained free of charge to
take examinations for licenses in either branch of the service to fill
these positions.” The experience required ranges from two to three
years at certain maritime occupations. You can learn more about this
opportunity to get training by conferring with representatives of the
Federal Board for Vocational Education.
The deck crew of a steamer depends upon the size and type of the vessel,
and ranges from as low as nine on a small steamer to 972 on the
_Olympic_, officers included. The average number of able seamen is about
seven for ocean-carrying vessels. The others are officers, ordinary
seamen, deck boys, etc. It has been charged that boats frequently ship
without any able seamen, and depend upon ordinary seamen and deck boys
in emergencies.
Deck duty is varied and crowded with emergencies. “The sailor’s daily
work in all kinds of vessels and weather, at the wheel, on the lookout,
and on deck, teaches him to know the sea and how to work with it. His
work with tackles, lines, and cables, in hoisting and lowering, trains
his judgment of strains and distances.”[23] “The amount of gear and
equipment used in the deck department on different classes of steamships
varies greatly, but the difference is one of degree rather than of the
kind.”[24]
[23] International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 119.
[24] International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 121.
PLAN No. 1015. NAVAL VERSUS MERCHANT MARINE CREWS
The crew and the work done on a merchant vessel are so different from
those on a naval vessel that the disabled sailor would have much to
learn in going from a naval vessel to a merchant vessel. One fundamental
difference is this: The merchant vessel carries generally only about
one-third the crew--ton for ton--that the naval vessel does. On a naval
vessel the men work in groups; on a merchant vessel the man works as an
individual and not in a group.
The crew of a large merchant vessel consists more or less of the
following officers, seamen, and attendants: Master, chief mate, second
mate, third officer, fourth officer, senior quartermaster,
quartermaster, master-at-arms, chief steward, chief second-class
steward, chief third-class steward, chief engineer, first assistant
engineer, second assistant engineer, third assistant engineer, junior
engineer, deck engineer, leading fireman, oiler, electrician, carpenter,
boatswain, able seamen, ordinary seamen, deck boy, water tender,
lookout, purser, assistant purser, freight clerk, and bakers, chefs,
cooks, buglers, butchers, cadets, storekeeper, and watchman.
PLAN No. 1016. THE MASTER OR CAPTAIN
The master has general supervision over the vessel, crew, and
passengers. He has complete charge of the vessel at all times, but
during a severe storm or other emergency he stands on the watch
continuously day and night and issues the necessary orders. He is
responsible for the safe navigation of his vessel. His responsibility
extends to the management of the various departments as well as to the
vessel and its care as a whole--for the safety of the lives of
passengers and crew, and for the safe storage, carriage, and unloading
of cargo. He must have a thorough knowledge of navigation, which subject
he must have studied thoroughly, and in which he must have passed a
rigid examination before he received his license as a master. He must
likewise possess a legal knowledge of the laws governing right upon the
sea and determining his duties as regards the ship and its passengers,
crew, and cargo. Among his other duties are to keep the log properly and
to inspect the ship regularly as to ventilation, warmth, and
cleanliness. He must be the last man to leave the ship in case of
disaster, and must do everything within his power for the safety of the
passengers and crew. He must have received much of his training in lower
positions upon the sea, but he must also have studied navigation in some
school or under some able master. He must have executive ability of a
high order and be able to act efficiently in an emergency.
PLAN No. 1017. THE CHIEF MATE
Next to the master in authority and responsibility comes the chief mate.
He shares with the master responsibility for safe and proper navigation
of the ship. He is the chief executive officer and must organize and
supervise the routine work of keeping order throughout the ship. He is
held responsible for discipline. Under him is the master-at-arms, the
ship’s policeman, who keeps order among the crew and steerage
passengers. His knowledge of the vessel, its equipment, stores, and
complement of men must be thorough. He supervises the preparation and
care of the holds, and the loading, stowing, and unloading of cargo.
This is done under his personal direction or under another officer to
whom he has delegated the duty. He sees that the cargo-handling gear is
kept in proper working condition. It is his duty to inspect the
lifeboats and have them kept properly equipped and in working order, and
to hold regular lifeboat drills. The firefighting equipment is likewise
in his care, and he must also hold fire drills regularly. His training
and knowledge is very similar to that required of the master. Ordinarily
he takes his turn with the third and fourth officers at a watch on the
bridge.
PLAN No. 1018. THE SECOND MATE
The second mate stands his watch on the bridge, takes various
observations, and gives orders to the quartermasters. On large liners he
has complete charge of the navigating equipment, and is known as the
navigating officer. When the vessel docks he supervises matters at the
after end of the boat. In general, he has charge of the after holds, the
after cargo, and the after gears. Only in experience and degree of
training do his qualifications differ from those of the chief mate.
PLAN No. 1019. WATCH OFFICERS
The third and fourth officers are watch officers. The fourth officer is
frequently left in charge of the bridge in fair weather and under good
conditions, and like the third officer takes observations, and gives
orders to the quartermaster. The third officer has general charge of the
forward holds, under the supervision of the chief mate. On some vessels,
he is the signal officer and has charge of the care and use of the
signal flag and other signaling equipment. Frequently he supervises the
placing of the gangway and the embarkation of the passengers when the
vessel docks. Both of these officers must have had instruction in
navigation, and must be alert and attentive to duty.
PLAN No. 1020. THE CHIEF ENGINEER AND HIS ASSISTANTS
The chief engineer, the assistant engineers, the junior engineers, the
deck engineers, the firemen, oilers, and electricians care for all
machinery of the ship. The chief engineer stands no watch, but the
assistant engineers do, and are responsible for all that takes place in
the engine room and fireroom during their watch at sea. Under these
assistant engineers are the junior engineers, one of whom is in direct
charge during each watch of each of the firerooms, the engine room, and
the auxiliaries. In port the junior engineers help the other engineers,
the firemen, and the oilers in the repair, packing and overhauling of
the machinery. The chief engineer is held responsible for the proper
functioning of the engines and boilers, the deck machinery, the
electrical, refrigerating and sanitary equipment, and for all steam
connections on the ship. He must see that the regulations of his
department are carried out, that the engine and fireroom crews are
qualified and conduct themselves with sobriety. At the end of each
voyage he reports on these matters, and on the working of the
machinery--its breakdowns and repairs, especially any exceptional one
made away from port--the miles traveled, temperatures, and consumption
of fuel. It is his duty to have the steamer properly coaled, both as to
quality and quantity of coal. He must possess executive ability, and
must have studied engineering in a nautical school or under a competent
engineer for a period of years. The first assistant engineer has as his
special duty the general charge of all boilers and machinery in the
engine department. The second assistant engineer usually employs the
fireroom crew and reports to the chief engineer on their qualifications
and conduct. He has charge of the repairs and overhauling of the main
engines and auxiliaries on the starboard side. The deck engineer
supervises and keeps in repair the deck machinery, the steering gear,
windlass engine, capstans, and the sanitary systems. The leading fireman
has supervision over the firing of the boilers, the keeping of water in
the boilers, and over the firemen, coal passers and water tenders. He
personally tends a set of fires. On some boats he acts as interpreter of
the orders of superior officers to the firemen who are foreigners and
can not understand the orders in English. The oiler must keep all the
engines clean and well oiled, and see that they are running smoothly and
without undue heat. The electrician supervises and keeps in repair the
dynamo engines, the electric motors, and other electrical apparatus on
the ship. The work of keeping the ship in working condition is usually
done by the engineering department. There is, however, some work of
repairing that is done by the carpenter, whose duties depend greatly
upon the character of the ship. He is generally charged with the upkeep
of masts and booms, the repair of wooden decks, and the opening and
covering of the hatches.
PLAN No. 1021. THE BOATSWAIN
The boatswain, under the supervision of the chief mate, has active
charge of the deck crew, and works the seamen at washing, repairing, and
painting decks.
PLAN No. 1022. ABLE SEAMEN
Since all officers must have served as able seamen, the required duties
of the able seamen are worth noting in detail. “While on board ship in
port, the able seaman is occupied with cleaning, painting, repairing,
and overhauling. When the vessel is at sea, the able seaman washes decks
and the outside of deckhouses, slacks off exposed gear when shrinking
too tight in damp weather, and tightens it again when it becomes too
lose in dry weather. When a storm comes on the able seaman closes all
open hatches, ports, etc., and lashes down all movables on deck or stows
them away.” The ordinary seaman does the same work as the able seaman,
so far as his training and ability will permit. The deck boy is simply
an apprentice seaman.
“The man who expects to be known as an able seaman on a steamship must
know the use of rigging screws, fids, marlinspikes, serving mallets, the
palm and needle, calking tools, and most of the carpenter tools; the
mixing of paints and colors; how to obtain strong leverages with bars,
ropes, tackles; how to brace with wedges and shores; besides knowing the
various knots and splices; and to worm, parcel, serve, and seize, with
rope and wire; and must be able to hold up his end of a job when it
comes to climbing and working in places where both armhold and foothold
is difficult. He must know the lead line, not only its marks but how to
use it to get correct sounding when the ship is in close quarters, the
night dark, and the sea heavy, whether he stands in a smother of sea on
a low freighter or far up the side of an immense liner. The compass, of
course, is a familiar object to him, but he must know how to use it, how
to steer the ship under all conditions, what to expect and how to meet
it when he is steering across a current as well as with it or against
it, through the swift rush of a narrows, passing at close quarters in
and out of the suction of another heavy ship under speed, with the wind
light or strong from any direction, heading into a heavy sea, taking it
on either bow or quarter or abeam, under check or full speed, rolling
and pitching heavily, or running before it, when a blunder may mean
total loss of ship with lives and cargo. The man at the wheel must know
his work, what to expect and how to meet it instantly, in calm or storm,
daylight or dark, in clear weather or in fog. The man who learns to be a
reasonably good helmsman in even three years is an exception, because,
regardless of the aptitude of the individual, the personal knowledge of
varying conditions, different ships and how they act under differing
circumstances, familiarity with the various steering gears, can only be
gained through experience necessarily covering a good deal of time. The
steam steering gear, rendering less physical strength necessary and
making possible the handling of larger ships, requires greater skill
than the old hand method, which permitted the man at the wheel to feel
the increasing or decreasing rudder pressure and thus warned him of just
how the ship was acting.
“Prepared paint is seldom brought on board ship. The raw material is put
on board and is mixed according to needs by the able seaman. Graining,
filling, varnishing, and lettering is done as well as ordinary flat
painting. Sailors become sufficiently skilled at this work to qualify as
journeymen painters on shore. The deck crew cleans all outside parts of
the ship, except the funnel, from the masts and booms to the deck
houses, decks, and sides of the ship.”[25]
[25] International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, pp. 124-125.
HOURS OF LABOR
The hours of labor for workmen are: On deck, two shifts (watch and
watch) 12 hours each; in the engine room three shifts of 8 hours each.
In emergencies the hours are greatly lengthened.
WAGES
Following is the wage scale which has been established during the war.
In 1915 wages were about half the amounts here given:
Sailors and firemen, $60 per month; coal passers, $50 per month; oilers
and water tenders, $65 per month; boatswain, $70 per month; carpenters,
$75 per month; overtime pay for cargo work 50 cents per hour, and for
ship work 40 cents per hour. The bonus for going into the war zone was
50 per cent of the wages, the wages and bonus to continue until crew
arrive back in the United States; $100 compensation was paid for loss
of effects caused by war conditions. Board and quarters are of course
provided in addition to the wages.[26]
[26] United States Emergency Fleet Corporation Hearing before the
Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, pp. 854-857.
TRAINING
Seamen are required to have three years’ experience at sea to receive
able seamen’s certificates. Vessels differ greatly to-day and conditions
and duties abroad are so radically different, while the voyages to
various parts of the globe subject seamen to so many varied emergencies,
that a long training at sea is necessary to make an able seamen. It is
the rule for seaman to change from ship to ship.
There are training schools for seamen. During the war the school at
Boston gave intensified training for six to eight weeks, then placed the
learner on a boat at sea, and after about six weeks he qualified as an
ordinary seaman. For a man to get his “sea legs” requires this long a
period. “It takes some time for a man to get himself so accustomed to
the sea he can walk along the deck without holding himself fast to
something when the vessel is rolling and pitching.”
SAFETY
The seaman is exposed to bad weather conditions, accidents, and disease.
The mortality rate among seamen is very high--much higher than among
some occupations commonly thought to be extra hazardous to life and
health. English mortality statistics show that the death rate among
seamen is far greater than among miners and railroad trainmen. Since it
is a dangerous calling for men sound in limb and body, it is,
accordingly, very undesirable in general for disabled men.
PLAN No. 1023. THE LOOKOUT
The lookout has a position of responsibility. Stationed in the crow’s
nest or on the forecastle, he watches for everything that comes in
sight, and especially for things that might damage the ship, such as
derelicts, icebergs, submarines, and on-coming steamships. When he
sights anything, he reports it immediately to the bridge, either by
shouting, speaking tube, telephone, or telegraph. He must have keen
eyesight and attend strictly to duty. A disabled soldier or sailor with
these qualifications, and whose disabilities do not prevent his climbing
readily, or holding himself in position in stormy weather might qualify
for this position.
PLAN No. 1024. THE PURSER--A POSITION FOR DISABLED SOLDIERS
A far better position for the disabled man is that of the purser, or
assistant purser. The purser is a treasurer, accountant, and chief clerk
on the ship. Money and valuables may be deposited with him by the
passengers for safety. He acts as a sort of cashier for the passengers
and crew in changing money and cashing traveler’s checks, etc. He keeps
the wages account of the crew, and is present when the crew is paid off.
He collects or supervises the collection of all tickets, and checks
these against the passenger list as soon as practicable after the vessel
has sailed. He is responsible for the manifests, bills of health,
clearance papers, and cargo. He should know everything about the
passengers and cargo. Although the master must record in his log any
death aboard, the purser must get the details for his own report and for
the master’s log. He supplies information and encourages entertainments
among the passengers. He should be able to speak the languages of the
countries at which his ship comes to port. He should possess tact and be
courteous to the passengers.
The freight clerk has a position, that for the freight is somewhat
similar to that of the assistant purser for the passengers.
PLAN No. 1025. CHIEF STEWARDS
Chief stewards have positions corresponding closely to those of a large
hotel, sanitarium or similar institution. They must have business and
executive ability, and are held responsible for the comfort and service
of passengers in matters of sleeping quarters, food, heat, and
ventilation. Under them are the chef, cooks, and numerous other
attendants. Each of these occupations has the characteristics of the
same occupation as followed on the land. Upon chief stewards devolves
the further duty of purchasing in advance of a voyage in proper
quantities the supplies needed.
It should be added that if a disabled soldier or sailor is qualified for
any of these positions, he will generally find work on land preferable
to work on board a ship.
OTHER POSITIONS IN WATER TRANSPORTATION
A large number of office positions corresponding to those in railway
service exist at the leading ports. Disabled sailors could qualify for
these and find their former experience of value.
PLAN No. 1026. OCCUPATIONS IN NAVY YARDS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Charles R. Allen, special agent of the
Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr.
John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
Perhaps you have been on a ship when she was in the yard. In that case
you have some notion of the various jobs that are carried on. Perhaps
you have seen in one part of the yard a ship under construction on the
ways, and have seen and heard the riveters, bolters up, chippers, and
calkers at work. Perhaps you have been in the shops and have seen the
boiler makers, the sheet-metal men, the machinists, the jointers at
work. In short, perhaps you already have a pretty good idea of the
different kinds of work that are carried on in a navy yard, but would
like to know more about it.
Perhaps you never were in a navy yard, or if you were, you were too busy
to notice what went on. In that case you may be still interested in
knowing how many different trades are carried on in a navy yard, and how
they are carried on. In either case if you followed a trade before you
entered the service, if you learned a trade while you were in the
service, or if you intend to take advantage of the opportunity offered
to you by the Federal Board for Vocational Education to take further
training in your trade or to take training for some new trade after your
discharge, you may be interested in finding out what a navy yard is,
what trades are carried on, how they are carried on, what their
requirements are, what a man must do to qualify for a navy-yard job,
what sort of working conditions he would work under, what the chances of
promotion would be, how much pay he could get, and, in general, whether
there is anything in navy-yard employment that appeals to you and that
you would want to try to get into.
This pamphlet gives you some general information about navy-yard
employments, and tells you how you can get more detailed information if
you are interested in finding out more about opportunities for navy-yard
employment.
GENERAL WORKING CONDITIONS
If you go to work in a navy-yard you get an eight-hour day, with
Saturday half holidays from June 15 to September 15. You can be granted
30 working days leave of absence each year without loss of pay during
such leave, but it would be lawful to allow you pro rata leave only
after you have served 12 months or more. During the second year of
service you could be allowed 60 days leave with pay, 30 days at any time
during the year and 30 days at the rate of 2¹⁄₂ days a month as earned
from the beginning of the service year. After two years of service you
could get 30 days’ leave per year, at the rate of 2¹⁄₂ days per month.
Should you be injured in the usual course of employment you would be
entitled to receive compensation under certain conditions.
STABILITY OF EMPLOYMENT
Of course, during the war navy-yard work has been rushed and a large
number of extra men have been taken on, but under ordinary conditions,
such as existed before the war and will exist after the war, navy-yard
work is pretty steady, and if you are a good man when you are once
employed you are likely to hold a steady job. Should you be laid off on
account of lack of work, you can get your name on a furlough list for
reinstatement.
As a civil-service employee, you can not be discharged at the whim of
your superior, but only for cause.
Rates of pay will average well with those paid for similar work in
private concerns, and there is little danger of loss of employment
through the concern going out of business.
All of these conditions make employment in navy yards desirable from the
standpoint of holding a steady job when you are once employed.
WHAT ARE THE HEALTH CONDITIONS IN NAVY-YARD EMPLOYMENT?
The list of navy yard trades and occupations show you that the general
health conditions in the different shop trades are about the same as in
the same trades anywhere. Since most navy yards have been established
for a good many years many of the shop buildings are not up to
modern-shop standards, especially as regards lighting, but new buildings
are constantly being erected that are much better than the old ones. The
yard trades are mostly carried on in the open air, which might be a very
desirable thing if you need outside work for your health, and could
stand the heat in summer and the cold in winter.
As a general rule few if any of the navy yard trades and occupations
would be rated as extra dangerous to health on account of dust,
dangerous gases, etc.
CHANCES FOR PROMOTION
If you are employed as a laborer or at work that requires no mechanical
skill or trade knowledge you can not be promoted, but you can, as can
any one else enter open competitive examination for higher positions.
With the trade and technical knowledge that you now have, or that you
can secure through training with the help of the Federal Board for
Vocational Education you will not have to take jobs of that kind.
Without such knowledge and training, however, these are the only sort of
jobs that you could get.
If you start in a position that requires some mechanical skill or trade
knowledge, such as an apprentice or helper, you can secure promotion in
several ways. If you have rendered six months’ satisfactory service you
may, if the head of your department requests it and the commanding
officer approves, be promoted to a position in the artisan group, upon
passing the tests of fitness required by the Civil Service Commission.
If you are employed as an artisan promotion to such positions as
foreman, leading man, quarterman, etc., is open to you if you possess
the necessary qualifications.
HOW TO APPLY FOR WORK IN A NAVY YARD
In applying for a job in a navy yard you do not “go to the gate” or to a
superintendent or a boss, as you would if applying for work in a private
concern. All employees in navy yards are employed under the civil
service rules. Under these rules when there is a vacancy it is filled by
offering the job to the individual whose name stands highest on what is
called the eligible list. The way to get in line for a navy yard job is,
therefore, to get on the eligible list with as high a rating as
possible. As a disabled sailor or marine you have a special advantage
here as is explained later.
GETTING ON THE ELIGIBLE LIST
For detailed official information as to just what your qualifications
must be and just how you must proceed to secure a place on the eligible
list for employment in navy yards you should secure a copy of
Instructions to Applicants for Employment at Navy Yards and Naval
Stations. Probably you can get a copy from your vocational adviser, or
you can write to the United States Civil Service Commission, Washington,
D. C. Probably you will want to get some explanations from your
vocational adviser and you should take the matter up with him.
The following will give you a general idea of how individuals for navy
yard appointments may proceed to get their names on the eligible list
for their trade or occupation. Your first step is to apply for
examination for a civil-service rating. At nearly all yards and naval
stations there are labor boards that receive applications for employment
in the yards to which they are attached. (The “instructions” already
referred to will give you exact information on this point.) If men are
needed or are likely to be needed, arrangements will be made to
determine your qualifications and rate you. In general, if you are
applying for examination and rating as an artisan (as you probably would
be), you would be rated on your experience, your training, and your
physical ability. If your physical ability is affected by your services
in the Navy or the Marine Corps, it is the understanding of the office
of the Federal Board for Vocational Education that wherever a soldier,
sailor, or marine has been disabled in the war and desires employment in
any occupation in a navy yard or shipyard under the jurisdiction of the
United States Government, the question of his physical ability to
discharge the duties of the position properly will be passed upon
individually for each case. Should the Civil Service Commission
determine that, notwithstanding his handicap, he is able to do the work
of the position in a satisfactory way, any general rule or regulation
regarding disability now in operation under the rules of the commission
will not apply.
Therefore, if you are a disabled soldier, sailor, or marine interested
in navy yard occupations, you should first communicate with
representatives of the Federal Board for Vocational Education regarding
your case. These representatives are to be found at the central office
at Washington, D. C., or in one of the district offices given at the
back of this pamphlet. You do not have to pass written examinations, but
your rating is determined by the values given to your training, physical
ability, and experience as stated by you under oath and verified by the
examining board.
If your rating is over a certain number your name is placed on the
eligible list. The higher your rating the nearer your name to the top of
the list. When vacancies occur appointments are made from the top of the
list down, and appointees are notified when and where to report for
work.
HOW PREVIOUS TRAINING, EXPERIENCE, AND EDUCATION HELP
If you have already had some experience in a navy yard occupation that
you wish to follow you are at a great advantage. For example, if you
worked in a machine shop or in an office before you entered the service,
the time that you would need for training for similar work in a navy
yard would be greatly reduced--the more you know the more time you can
save. If you learned something about the job during your service, this
experience, also, will enable you to shorten your training.
The more education you have the better off you are--in the first place a
man with a good education stands a better chance for promotion, and the
better his education the better man he is on his job. A high-school
education, for example, would help you very much in office work and in
the shop trades. If you can read drawings and blue prints, you can
easily learn to read the special sort of blue prints that are used in
navy yard work, and this will enable you to shorten your training
period. A knowledge of geometry will help you very much in a number of
shop trades, such as sheet-metal work and mold-loft work. If you know
how to make mechanical drawings you can greatly shorten your training
time for work in the drafting rooms. The more mathematics and drawing
you know the better your chance of securing promotion to some form of
supervisory work.
If you have followed an occupation that is somewhat like one of those
carried on in navy yards you have a great advantage. Suppose, for
example, you were a structural-steel man, or an electrician, or a house
plumber, or house carpenter, or stenographer, you already know a great
deal about these occupations, and you have only to learn what you do not
know about these jobs as they are carried on in navy yards. In order to
do this you will not need to take as much time for training as you would
if you were entirely green.
In all these ways and in many others any education, training, or
experience you may have had in trades or occupations will help you very
much, either in shortening the time that you would have to take for a
training, or in enabling you to train yourself for a higher grade of
work.
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR NAVY YARD TRADES
You have some education and you will naturally be interested in knowing
how much general education a good man must have in the different navy
yard trades and occupations. Through your vocational adviser you can get
a copy of Aids to Employment Managers and Interviewers on Shipyard
Occupations with Descriptions of Such Occupations issued by the United
States Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation, which will give you
considerable information along this line. The following may give you
some general ideas of the amount of education that a man would need in
the different sorts of trades and occupations.
In general you can not have too much education for any navy yard jobs.
The more education you have the better workman you will be, the better
your chances for promotion and, in general, the greater your
opportunities. So do not be afraid of knowing too much. On the other
hand, if you have had only a common-school education, or even less than
that, you need not feel discouraged, not only because many of the men
now making good on their jobs have had only a limited school training,
but because, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational
Education, you can secure such additional general education as you may
need to equip you for the work that you wish to do.
Most navy yard occupations require only a common-school education. That
is, if you can read, write, and speak English, and can do ordinary work
in arithmetic, you probably have as much general education as most men
in these occupations were able to secure before they went to work. Such
occupations as draftsman, tracer, electrician, patternmaker, and a few
others, especially office work, call for some high-school education.
In addition to the general educational requirements the different trades
vary in the amount of technical training required. In many trades, such
as, for example, that of the machinist, patternmaker, coppersmith,
boilermaker, or plumber, a man must be able to read drawings and blue
prints, and to follow specifications. This is true of many of the shop
trades. In many of these trades a man must be able to make necessary
calculations in connection with his work. In some cases a man must have
special knowledge about the particular kinds of material that he works
on, such as brass, steel, copper, and so on.
You should consider carefully what technical training you require for
the sort of work you intend to follow, remembering that the opportunity
to secure this technical training is a part of the offer for training
made to you by the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
HOW MAY TRAINING FOR NAVY YARD OCCUPATIONS BE SECURED?
Suppose that you have decided that navy yard work looks good to you and
you intend to take training for some sort of navy yard work. You have
consulted with your vocational adviser, have “taken stock” of yourself,
and have selected the particular sort of work that you would like and
think you can do best; and have your application approved. How can you
secure the training that you need? There are several ways:
1. The Federal Board for Vocational Education can arrange for you to
take your training in a navy yard or in a shop, under the instructions
of a competent employee who knows that occupation. This man will train
you on the job.
2. If you want training in such work as drawing or mathematics, you can
be placed in a school where these subjects are taught as they apply to
the work for which you are taking training.
3. It may be possible for you to put part of your time into shop
training and part into school training.
4. If you need more general education, the Federal Board for Vocational
Education will arrange for you to get it, either in day or evening
schools, or will even provide a special instructor to teach you.
No matter what your handicap or disability may be or what training you
lack for the navy-yard occupation that you wish to follow, the Federal
Board for Vocational Education will stand behind you and do all that it
can to help you to make good. Other men in your situation have made
good. You can. Let the Federal Board for Vocational Education help you
to be a better man on the job than you were before, or a good man on a
better job than you had before.
WHAT TRAINING CAN DO FOR YOU IN NAVY-YARD OCCUPATIONS
If you wish to take up any navy-yard occupation you can, by taking
advantage of the opportunities for taking training that are offered by
the Federal Board for Vocational Education, decidedly better your
chances of getting a job and of getting a better job.
In the first place, if you are handicapped, you can, by taking special
training, equip yourself so that you can hold down a great many
navy-yard jobs that, without training you could not do at all. A great
many jobs like those carried on in the shops and offices of navy yards
have been successfully held down by men who had lost a hand, an arm, or
a leg, and who had taken special training so that they could overcome
their handicap.
Aside from this special training, if you are interested in navy-yard
employment, the training that you can secure will enable you to get a
better job than you otherwise could. For example, perhaps you followed
some trade similar to some navy-yard trade before you entered the
service. You did not know all about that trade--there are always some
things that a fellow does not know about his trade. For example, you
might have worked in a shop where the foreman could read the blue prints
and you could not; you can take training in blue-print reading. Perhaps
you could not lay off work; you can learn to do it. Perhaps there were
some machines that you did not know how to run, or certain jobs that you
did not know how to do; you can take training on these machines and on
those special jobs. Perhaps you are well up in your trade, and would
like to become a quarterman or leading man but need to know certain
things about the job; you can take training for that, so that you can
get yourself in line for promotion.
If you did not know anything about a trade before you entered the
service, but learned something about some trade or occupation while in
the service, you can complete your trade training. For example, suppose
that you learned something about pipe fitting, or electrical work, or
machine-shop work, or sail making, or yeoman’s work while you were in
the service; you can complete your training so that you will have the
entire trade at your command; and you can not only get the shop
training, but you can also get whatever drawing or other technical
training a first-class man in that trade needs to know.
If you never had any trade or think that some navy-yard trade would suit
you better than the one you followed before you entered the service, you
can take training for that new trade.
In any case, if, in order to take the training that you desire, you need
to take some general school training, such as arithmetic or English, you
can take that training in addition to the training for the work itself.
These are only a few examples of the possibilities for training for
navy-yard jobs that are open to you through the Federal Board for
Vocational Education.
_If you are interested you should, of course, take your plans up with
your vocational adviser and secure the necessary approval._
In any case carefully consider if, through training, you can not either
hold down a job that you could not hold down now, or fit yourself for a
better job than you could hold down with your present knowledge and
skill; that is, see if you do not think that out of all the different
kinds of training open to you, there is some training that will help you
to secure or hold down a better job in a navy yard than you could
without the training.
If you can secure the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational
Education for the particular sort of training that you desire, almost
any sort of training is open to you.
HANDICAPS AND HOW TO OVERCOME THEM
If you have a certain kind of disability, what is your chance in
navy-yard occupations? Perhaps you have lost a leg or an arm or an eye;
does this cut you out of any chance to work in a navy yard? It certainly
does not. For example: if you have lost an arm, the number of jobs that
you can do with one arm and an artificial arm are surprising; you can
take training so that you can do almost any sort of clerical work or
work in the drafting room. You can operate almost all machine tools in
the machine shop. You can do shorthand or typewriting work.
_If you have lost a leg_ you can learn to fill almost any position in a
navy yard that does not require climbing or too much standing and
walking. You can do almost any sort of clerical work as well as anybody
else; you can operate almost all sorts of machine tools; you can do all
sorts of assembling work, pattern making, and work in the drafting room.
_If you have lost both legs_, with artificial legs you can learn to fill
almost any position where you can sit at your work. You can do this in
the drafting room; in nearly all clerical positions; in many inspection
jobs. There are many other jobs, such as work in the sail and rigging
loft, in the tailor shop, and in the machine shop, where you can sit at
the work.
_If you have lost one leg and one arm_ you can still fill a number of
positions; with an artificial arm and leg you can take training so that
you can do about as well as a man with both legs and one arm. If you
were right-handed and lost your right arm, you can be trained to use
your left arm just as well. Even with one arm and both legs gone you can
learn to fill almost all clerical positions, many jobs in the machine
shop, many inspection jobs, and work in the drafting room.
The loss of an eye will not bother you at all; and if your hearing is
partially or wholly destroyed, you can still learn to fill many
positions in the shops where instructions come to you in the form of
drawings.
Of course, the particular positions that you can fill depend on just the
sort of an injury that you have sustained, and you should consult your
vocational adviser about your own particular case; but if you are
interested in navy-yard employment, you are not necessarily out of it on
account of such injuries as are mentioned above.
WHAT SORT OF WORK IS DONE IN NAVY YARDS?
As a part of the work of the Navy, ships must be refitted, repaired, and
overhauled, new ships must be built, and all sorts of material,
equipment, and supplies must be manufactured and kept ready for use.
To provide for this work Congress has established navy yards and naval
stations at various points on the coast which are a part of the Navy and
are operated under its control.
These navy yards do a great many different sorts of work. Ships are sent
to them for overhauling, alterations, and repairs. They serve as supply
depots for all sorts of equipment, much of which is often made in the
yard shops. In a number of the larger yards various sorts of naval
vessels are built.
A navy yard carries on so many different kinds of work that it offers
opportunities for employment in a great many trades and occupations.
Some of these occupations are carried on in the open air. Some call for
the operation of various machines turning out a standard product, while
others deal with alteration or repair jobs. In some lines of work a man
can sit or stand at this job, while in others he is continually moving
about.
Besides the trades themselves a navy yard carries on a certain amount of
office work, offering opportunities for employment in such work as
stenography, typewriting, various kinds of clerical work, storekeeping,
and mechanical, ordnance, and structural drafting.
OCCUPATIONS IN NAVY YARDS
If you are interested in looking into opportunities for employment in
navy yards, you naturally want to know about the different occupations
and something about the conditions under which they are carried on. The
following descriptions of the more important kinds of work will give
you a general idea of the different jobs and if you wish to secure
further details about any particular line of work you can get them
through your vocational adviser.
A navy yard operates a number of shops in which different trades are
carried on. These “shop” trades are carried on in the same general way
as in the same sort of shops anywhere. The same processes, tools, and
machines are used.
In addition to the “shop” trades there are a number of occupations that
are carried on outside of the shops and are shipbuilding trades, engaged
in building ships and repairing them.
There are, speaking in a rough way, “shop” trades and “yard” trades.
There are also, of course, certain office occupations as in any
business, and a number of special occupations such as those of
timekeepers, truck drivers, and tool-room keepers.
In addition to the trades and occupations mentioned above, navy yards
employ a number of men in general maintenance and construction work, and
in keeping up the plant and equipment, such as tracklayers, pile
drivers, masons, and bricklayers.
PLAN No. 1028. SHOP TRADES
THE DRAFTING ROOM
Drawings and blue prints are prepared here. Drafting rooms are usually
well lighted and heated. The work is carried on at drawing tables and
men can either sit or stand. As a rule work in the drafting room does
not require a great deal of walking or standing at the work. The force
usually consists of draftsmen of various grades, tracers, detail
draftsmen. A blue-print room is usually connected with the drafting room
where attendants on the blue-printing machine are employed. A few
stenographers and clerks may be employed in connection with the work of
this department.
PLAN No. 1029. POWER PLANT
Here steam and electrical power are developed for the general use of the
yard. Work in a navy-yard power plant is no different from work in any
power plant. Among the men employed are engineers of different grades,
switchboard attendants, dynamo tenders, firemen, and water tenders.
Engine and dynamo rooms are usually well lighted and heated and give
comfortable working conditions. The fireroom is usually very hot, and
the work is more or less hard and uncomfortable. Steam engineers are
highly trained men and usually have to hold a license. They usually have
served an apprenticeship in the fireroom.
PLAN No. 1030. MACHINE SHOP
Here all sorts of metals are worked, largely with machine tools. Machine
shops are generally closed in so that the workmen are protected from the
weather and are usually more or less heated. Much of the work requires
standing, though workmen can often sit down at intervals while watching
a piece of work on the machine. Since most of the work is done on
power-driven machines and shops are usually provided with lifting and
handling devices for heavy parts, work in the machine shop requires
skill and intelligence but does not, as a rule, require heavy physical
exercise.
Men employed include bench hands, machine hands, men who are familiar
with the operation of one or more machine tools, machinist helpers and
machine fitters (the latter put together machine parts and are able to
fit, scrape, and ream, where necessary to secure tight, loose, and
running fits), and all-around machinists or men who can operate all
kinds of machine tools, fit parts on the bench, and erect or assemble
all parts on the floor. A good machinist must be able to read all sorts
of blue prints and drawings and must be able to make the necessary
calculations for the various jobs.
Among the chief machine tools used are planers, boring mills, shapers,
lathes, millers, drill presses, so-called “automatic machines” of
various kinds, wet and dry grinders, and radial drills. These machines
are of different sizes, according to the work to be done on them. In
navy-yard machine shops some of the work is very heavy and the machines
are very large.
PLAN No. 1031. BOILER SHOP
Here such fittings as boilers, condensers, smokestacks, and feed,
filter, and fresh-water tanks are constructed from plates of sheet steel
riveted together. These plates are got out from patterns or templates.
A boiler shop is usually closed in from the weather.
Among the men employed are blacksmiths, acetylene and oxy-hydrogen
operators, layout men, men to operate various special machines for
bending and flanging the plates, machinists, riveters, shippers, and
calkers, drillers and reamers.
A good boiler maker must be able to read blue prints and lay out his
work either on paper or metal.
PLAN No. 1032. BLACKSMITH SHOP
Here all sorts of blacksmith work is carried on. The shop is usually
inclosed, but owing to smoke from the forges is generally kept more or
less open, so that it is not usually warmer than the weather outside.
Among the tools used are steam or compressed air hammers, oil furnaces,
large coal furnaces, forges (coal or gas), cranes for handling heavy
work, dies, sledges, and hammers.
Much of the work is generally carried on by angle smiths who work angle
iron, usually from wooden patterns called templates, and blacksmiths who
work on all sorts of light machine and hand forgings. Smiths are aided
by helpers. Much of the work is heavy and calls for considerable
physical exertion and requires practically continuous standing. Some of
the lighter work in a blacksmith shop is of a higher grade and calls for
wide experience, good judgment, and close observation. Such work is that
of the tool dressers, the spring makers, and the die hardeners or
temperers.
PLAN No. 1033. PATTERN SHOP
Here are constructed wooden patterns from which castings are to be made.
Pattern shops are usually well protected from the weather and afford
comfortable working conditions. The men employed are pattern makers and
pattern makers’ helpers.
As a rule, each pattern is completely made by one pattern maker. Much of
the work is done with hand tools and often requires very fine and
accurate work. A pattern maker must not only be able to do good work at
the bench, but must be able to read blue prints and make his own
“layout.”
Among the machines commonly found in a pattern shop are wood-turning
lathes, band saws, circular saws, jig saws, planers, sanders, and
drills.
Work in the pattern shop requires considerable walking and standing. It
is generally light, since only infrequently is it necessary to handle
heavy pieces.
PLAN No. 1034. JOINER SHOP
In the joiner shop are constructed all sorts of high-grade wood fittings
such as desks, instrument cases, and companion ladders. The work does
not differ from that in any joiner shop.
Employees include joiners and helpers. A good joiner must be able to
read drawings and blue prints and when necessary he must be able to lay
out his work on paper.
Among the common machines used are planers, handsaws, circular saws,
mortisers, and tenoners.
As a rule the joiner shop is protected from the weather and the work is
not heavy. The work often requires considerable standing and walking.
PLAN No. 1035. PIPE SHOP
Here all plumbing and pipe-fitting work is done. The shop is usually
inclosed and protected from the weather. The work requires considerable
walking and standing, much bending, reaching, and stooping. In repair
and construction work a great deal of work has to be done on the ship in
all sorts of places and often under very difficult working conditions.
Plumbers, pipe fitters, and helpers are employed. A good pipe fitter
must be able to read blue prints and drawings and must know how to make
various calculations such as figuring out lengths of pipe on various
jobs.
PLAN No. 1036. FOUNDRY
All castings are made in the foundry. The shop is usually more or less
open to the weather, and the work requires a good deal of walking and
standing.
Among the men employed are molders, who place the patterns in the sand,
and make the sand molds into which the melted metal is poured; cupola
furnace tenders, who operate the furnace in which the iron is melted;
and foundry shippers, who clean up castings. In addition, helpers and
laborers are employed.
PLAN No. 1037. COPPER SHOP
All sorts of fittings made of sheet copper, as well as a great variety
of copper pipes and connections are constructed in the copper shop. In
much of the work the copper has to be shaped by hammering. There is also
much work in the bending of copper pipes of all sizes. The shop is
usually protected from the weather. In many cases men who work in this
shop also install the fittings in the ship. Coppersmiths and helpers are
employed. In some shops most of the work is done by hand and in others a
number of machines are used. A good coppersmith must be able to read
blue prints.
The work requires considerable walking about and much of it is hard, as
it requires the use of heavy hammers.
PLAN No. 1038. SHEET-METAL SHOP
Products of the sheet-metal shop include such articles made from
sheet-iron as tanks, lockers, ventilating cowls, and wire work. The shop
is usually well protected from the weather. The work requires
considerable standing and walking. A number of machines are usually
included in the equipment. Sheet-metal workers of different grades are
employed and also helpers. A good sheet-metal man must be able to read
blue prints and must be able to lay out all sorts of work.
PLAN No. 1039. GALVANIZING SHOP
Metal fittings are covered with zinc to prevent rusting. As a rule but
few skilled men are employed for this work which is done mostly by
laborers. Work is practically carried on out of doors on account of
fumes due to the acid used. It requires walking and standing.
PLAN No. 1040. ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT
This department installs and repairs all electrically operated
equipment, including light and power lines. It also installs and repairs
the electrical equipment on the ships that are built or are under
repair. The work must be done all over the yard and everywhere on the
ship. It requires much walking and climbing, much of it exposed to
weather conditions. Very few machines are used, practically all the work
being done with hand tools. A good electrician must be able to read all
sorts of drawings and wiring diagrams.
Different grades of electricians, such as armature winders,
storage-battery electricians, and men who make a specialty as, for
example, of some special part of the work on telephones, are employed
with helpers.
PLAN No. 1041. RIGGING LOFT
Here work on steel and manila rope and cables is carried on. Cables are
spliced and all sorts of servings and fancy rope work are got out, such
as man ropes, tiller ropes, and hammock clews. The rigging loft is
usually protected from the weather. Much of the work, such as knotting
and splicing, can be done sitting down. Practically all the work is done
with hand tools.
PLAN No. 1042. MOLD LOFT
Here the plans of a ship under construction are laid out from the blue
prints and patterns and wooden patterns, or “templates” for bending,
cutting, and punching the steel parts of the ship are prepared. It
usually is an inclosed building with a special floor large enough to lay
out any part of a ship full size. The work in the mold loft requires
almost constant standing, and kneeling or sitting on the floor. Loftsmen
of different grades are employed. Loftsmen must be able to read all
sorts of drawings and blue prints as they come from the drafting room
and lay out the different parts on the mold-loft floor with great
accuracy.
OUTSIDE TRADES, OFFICE WORK, AND MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS
In addition to the regular shop trades there are a number of trades
carried on in the yards and on ships in the open air and other
employments in navy yard supply departments and offices. These
employments have to do mainly with the construction of ships, repair
work on hulls, maintenance of the plant, distribution of supplies, and
other miscellaneous services.
Following is a brief description of the more important of these
occupations.
PLAN No. 1043. SHAPING, BENDING, AND CUTTING STEEL FRAMES AND PLATES
This includes the work of shaping and bending steel beams (frames),
cutting plates to proper sizes, bending them, and punching them for the
rivet holes. The work is generally carried on in shops that are roofed
over, but sometimes open on all sides. It is hard and requires standing
practically all the time. Heavy machines, furnaces, and hammers are
used. Among the men employed are angle-smiths, furnace men, frame
benders, punchers, shearers, drillers, countersinkers, and sometimes
acetylene operators.
PLAN No. 1044. RIVETING, CHIPPING AND CALKING, DRILLING, AND REAMING
On construction and repair work these occupations are all carried on in
the open air. Riveting is usually carried on by gangs, consisting of a
riveter, a holder-on, a heater, and sometimes a fourth man called a
passer. The steel plates of a ship overlap and are held together by
rivets which are passed through holes in both plates and headed up while
hot. Riveting is usually done with pneumatic riveters or “guns” operated
by compressed air. The riveter operates the gun on one side while the
rivet is held in the hole by the holder-on, who has various tools that
he uses for this purpose. The heater tends a small portable furnace in
which the rivets are heated, picks them out as needed and sticks them in
the holes or gives them to the passer. Sometimes he tosses the hot rivet
directly to the holder-on. This work must be carried on out of doors in
all weathers. The work of the riveter is hard, as he must handle the gun
with from 100 to 150 pounds of air pressure in it and must work in all
sorts of positions. The holder-on works under about the same conditions.
Both jobs require men of strong physique. The heater has a somewhat
easier job and boys are often employed for this work. Before the plates
and other parts can be riveted or drilled and reamed they must be held
fast in place. This is done by the use of bolts and nuts set up hard
with a wrench. This work is also hard, and the working conditions are
the same as in riveting and drilling and reaming.
Sometimes holes have not been punched where they are required, and they
must be drilled. Holes as punched are often not exactly in line and must
be reamed out before the rivets can be driven. This work is commonly
done with machines driven by compressed air or electricity, handled by
one man and a helper. It takes considerable strength to control the
machine, and the general working conditions are about the same as in
riveting.
There are many parts of a ship where joints must be made tight--that is,
they must be calked. It is also often necessary to cut plates and other
steel parts. This work is done with an air machine very similar to the
air gun used by the riveter and is known as chipping and calking.
PLAN No. 1045. SHIP FITTING
The ship fitter gets out all sorts of wooden patterns (templates) for
steel plates and other parts. Sometimes he makes his pattern directly
from measurements taken on the ship, especially in repair work. A fitter
may lay out the work directly from the drawing (blue print). The work is
carried on mainly out of doors, calls for much walking and climbing,
especially in repair work on ships. Ship fitters of different ratings
and helpers are employed.
Among other navy-yard occupations are those of outside machinists, who
install and adjust machinery on the ships; painters, who paint the
woodwork and the steel; ship carpenters, who do all the work around the
ways on which ships are built and launched; crane operators, who handle
the steel and carry it from place to place; and locomotive firemen and
engineers, who operate the small locomotives used for hauling material
inside of the yard.
PLAN No. 1046. SUPPLY DEPARTMENT SERVICE
In order that ships and shops may be supplied, a navy yard operates what
amounts to a huge department store--the supply department. Every
conceivable article that goes to the general equipment of a ship, from
drinking glasses to launch engines, is kept in stock and given out on
order. For the shops great quantities of all sorts of stock, pipe,
fittings, copper, lead, bronze, steel and so on, are carried, ready for
distribution. In one yard alone the stock is valued at $50,000,000.
Since the supply department buys, fills orders, and delivers, it offers
opportunity for employment in practically the same occupations as any
large department store.
For each class of stock storekeepers are employed. A storekeeper must
know every article by sight, stock marks, and the location of the bin or
shelf where it is stored. He must keep track of the stock on hand and
see that it is kept up. A storekeeper may be promoted to assistant
manager and possibly to manager of a division.
The supply department offers employment also in such clerical
occupations as checking, billing, and accounting, and, as in any large
department store, truck drivers, packers, box makers, and other workers
are employed in the delivery department.
PLAN No. 1047. OFFICE WORK
In addition to the trades and occupations carried on in the
construction, repair, and maintenance work of the navy yard, there are a
number of office and clerical occupations. In general, these occupations
are carried on in the same manner as in the office of any business
concern. The special forms and methods of doing the office work that are
followed in the navy yard must, of course, be learned. These occupations
include stenography, typewriting, filing, bookkeeping, cataloguing,
general clerical work, library work, messenger work, telegraph and
telephone operating, and various lines of special work.
MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS
The navy-yard list of occupations includes, also, a considerable number
of miscellaneous occupations not mentioned among the regular mechanical
“shop” and “yard” trades. Among these are glassworkers, glass molders,
lens grinders, and instrument makers. In connection with work in the
yard and on the buildings, a certain number of brick and stonemasons,
pavers, house carpenters, dock builders, cranemen, house plumbers,
stonecutters, and gardeners are employed.
PLAN No. 1048. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT IN NAVY YARDS
If you are interested in the possibility of working in a navy yard you
will want to know something about the demand for men in each line of
work done in the different yards, the wages paid to each class of
workers, and other conditions of employment.
DEMAND FOR LABOR
Navy yards and naval stations vary greatly in the amount and kind of
work done and so vary in the number of men employed and in the different
occupations carried on. The yards at Boston (Charleston), Mass.;
Brooklyn, N. Y.; Norfolk, Va.; League Island, Philadelphia; Bremerton,
Wash.; and Mare Island, Cal.; do all sorts of construction and repair
work, and employ the largest working force in the greatest variety of
occupations. The Washington Navy Yard, or Naval Gun Factory, does no
shipbuilding and not much repair work. Its equipment and labor are
practically entirely employed in making naval guns and all sorts of
ordnance supplies so that it employs no men in shipbuilding and but few
on repair occupations. The naval torpedo station at Newport, R. I., is
almost wholly confined to the manufacture and assembly of torpedoes and
torpedo appliances. Most of the other yards generally carry on only
repair work and refitting, and employ men in most of the ordinary trades
and occupations. At present there is little or no demand for regular
navy-yard occupations at Pensacola, Fla. Of course, in all yards the
working force is increased or decreased according to the amount of work
that is going on in the yard. Naval stations employ fewer men and offer
chances in fewer trades than do the navy yards proper.
In general, navy yards employ in the shops more men in the metal trades
than in the woodworking trades. In the shops more machinists are likely
to be employed than any other class of workers. Relatively few persons
are employed in the offices in clerical work. The Norfolk, Boston, and
Philadelphia Navy Yards offer more opportunity in these lines than any
of the other yards.
In the yard trades the number of men employed depends largely on the
amount of shipbuilding going on. Where shipbuilding is going on the
greatest demand is for riveters, bolters up, chippers, and calkers, and
drillers and reamers. Compared with the number of men employed in these
trades relatively few men are employed in the mold loft, and in such
occupations as crane operators, locomotive crane operators, firemen, and
locomotive engineers.
As already stated, in addition to men employed in the regular yard,
shop, and office trades, navy yards employ men in a number of other
trades, such as those of stone and brick masons, house plumbers, stone
cutters, switchmen, pavers, and upholsterers. Under ordinary conditions
the demand for men in such occupations is small. Glassworkers, lens
grinders, instrument makers, and other special classes of workers would
only be called for in a yard where instruments were made and repaired,
such as the Washington Navy Yard or the naval torpedo station at
Newport, R. I.
PLAN No. 1049. INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WORK
If you are interested in securing employment in a navy yard or in taking
training for a navy-yard trade, you may want to consider the condition
under which you would work. You may feel that you would wish to work
entirely under cover, or you may prefer to work more or less in the open
air. Different navy-yard occupations vary greatly as to whether they are
carried on entirely in shops, partly in shops and partly in the open
air, or entirely in the open air. In some trades and occupations a man’s
work is located at one definite place, and in others it may be anywhere
in the yard. The following statement will give you an idea as to
ordinary working conditions in a number of the more important navy-yard
trades:
_Inside, under the best conditions._--Such occupations as all sorts of
office work, stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, clerical work, work
in the drafting room.
_Inside, under good conditions._--Such occupations as machine shop,
pattern shop, jointer shop, rigging loft, mold loft, power plant work,
and inside jointing and finishing.
_Inside, under some protection._--Such occupations as blacksmith shop,
foundry work, plate-shop work, galvanizing, and frame bending.
_Occupations requiring both inside and outside work._--Such occupations
as boiler shop, general outside painting, outside machinist, carpenter
shop, electrical work, outside rigger, pipe shop, sheet-metal shop,
copper shop, and ship fitting.
_Occupations carried on entirely outside._--Such operations as reaming,
riveting, bolting up, chipping, and calking, ship carpentry, stone
masonry, and bricklaying.
TOOLS AND MACHINES USED
In the regular trades such as jointer work, sheet-metal work,
coppersmithing, boiler making, pattern making, etc., the tools and
machines used are practically the same as would be used in these trades
anywhere. A man who had earned these trades in any good shop would have
no particular trouble in working in a navy yard shop so far as tools and
machines go.
In the machine shop the tools and machines are about the same as in any
large shop, but since a navy yard machine shop often has to handle large
parts, there are usually a number of very heavy machines included in the
equipment. Much of the work must be got out with great accuracy. In a
general way it may be said that a navy yard machine shop does more work
in brass, bronze, aluminum, etc., than is common in the ordinary run of
machine shops.
In the trades carried on outside the shop, especially those connected
with hull construction and repair, a number of special tools are used.
These tools are in general easily moved about. Many are operated by
compressed air, but some of them are sometimes operated by electricity.
For this purpose most yards have a compressed-air system through that
part of the yard where work of this kind is carried on, so arranged that
the different machines can be readily connected up by hose lines. A few
examples of the sort of tools used in these trades may be given:
Riveting gangs use compressed-air tools for heading up the rivet (air
guns), and often for holding it while it is driven (air jambs).
Reaming and drilling machines are usually operated by compressed air,
chipping and calking tools work in the same way. In all these machines
the operators hold the machine so as to guide the tool, but the
compressed air furnishes the actual power.
For such jobs as acetylene welding and cutting, a special outfit is
required.
In mold loft work and ship fitting, only the simplest woodworking tools
are used, such as hammers, saws, prick punches, and light air or
electrically driven drills.
In punching, shearing, and bending plates, special heavy power-driven
machines are used which the operators control.
In office work the equipment does not vary from that of any office.
According to the sort of work called for, there are typewriters, adding
machines, filing cabinets, etc.
PLAN No. 1050. CLASSES OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN NAVY YARD
The work of a navy yard is carried on by a civilian force under the
general direction of naval officers. Excluding office and clerical
occupations, this force is graded into the following classes: Foremen,
quartermen, leading men, artisans of different grades, helpers,
apprentices, laborers. A brief description of each of these classes
follows:
_Foreman._--A foreman is usually the head of a division or of a shop. He
usually has under his jurisdiction groups of men generally working in
different occupations.
_Quarterman._--A quarterman usually has under his supervision more than
one group in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to
foreman.
_Leading man._--A leading man usually has under his supervision only a
few men in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to
quarterman.
_Artisans._--These are skilled workmen in the various trades. They are
graded according to their knowledge and skill in several classes, such
as first, second, and third class.
_Helpers._--Men who work with artisans to assist them in their work are
classed as helpers. Their work is such as may give some training in the
trade with which they are associated.
_Apprentices._--Young persons are employed as apprentices to learn
trades. After sufficient training they may become artisans.
Laborers.--This class of workers are not supposed to possess any special
skill or trade knowledge, and except under certain special conditions
they are not eligible for promotion.
WAGES FOR DIFFERENT GRADES
On the whole, higher wages are paid on the west coast than elsewhere.
Foremen are paid according to the character and amount of work that they
supervise. According to the present regulations a quarterman draws $2.88
per day more than the maximum pay of his occupation or trade. A leading
man draws $1.44 per day extra pay over the highest pay of his trade. The
wages of a man in the artisan group will vary according to his class and
his particular trade or occupation. One of the highest paid trades is
heavy forging at $11.84 per day. One of the lowest paid trades is that
of glass workers, who receive $3.04 per day. On an average, a
first-class artisan’s pay will run from $5 to $7 per day.
Helpers get from $4.32 to $5.12 per day. Apprentices in trade from $2.88
to $4.32, according to their class. Mechanics detailed for certain
special work, such as inspecting or planning, get certain additional
allowances.
In the unskilled occupations (laborers, stevedores, janitors, etc.),
wages range from about $3 to $5.50 per day.
PAY ON ENTRANCE AND AFTERWARDS
When a man starts in the head of his department causes such tests to be
made as he deems necessary to determine his status in his trade or
occupation, and rates him provisionally as to pay. The final rating as
to pay is made within two weeks from the date of appointment. All
mechanics who are rated as first-class are carried at the maximum rate
of pay.
The following list gives the more important trades and occupations for
which men are employed in navy yards (except office occupations), and
also gives the maximum rates of pay according to the latest
information:
DAILY WAGE SCHEDULES
_Schedules of daily wages for navy yards and naval stations effective
first pay period practicable after receipt._
==================================================
East West
coast. coast.
GROUP I.
Attendants, battery $4.64 ...
Attendants, powder factory 5.36 ...
Hodcarriers ... $4.40
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.92 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 3.12 ...
Janitors ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Laborers, common ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Stable keepers ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Stevedores 4.32 4.64
GROUP II.
Apprentices:
First class 4.32 4.32
Second class 3.84 3.84
Third class 3.36 3.36
Fourth class 2.88 2.88
Sewers, first class 2.40 2.40
Sewers, second class 2.08 2.08
Sewers, third class 1.76 1.76
Sewers, fourth class 1.44 1.44
Boys or girls 2.32 2.32
Hammer runners:
Heavy 5.12 5.12
Others 4.64 4.64
Helpers:
Blacksmiths’, heavy fires 5.12 5.12
Blacksmiths’, other fires 4.32 4.64
Boilermakers’ 4.32 4.64
Coppersmiths’ 4.32 4.64
Electricians’ 4.32 4.64
Flange turners’ 5.12 5.12
Forgers’, heavy 5.12 5.12
General 4.32 4.64
Laboratory 4.32 4.64
Machinists’ 4.32 4.64
Molders’ 4.32 4.64
Ordnance 4.32 4.64
Painters’ 4.32 4.64
Pipefitters’ 4.32 4.64
Riggers’ 4.32 4.64
Ropemakers’ 4.32 ...
Sheet-metal workers’ 4.32 4.64
Shipfitters’ 4.32 4.64
Shipsmiths’, heavy fires 5.12 5.12
Shipsmiths’, other fires 4.32 4.64
Woodworkers’ 4.32 4.64
Holders on 4.80 5.12
Oilers 4.64 4.96
Primer workers 3.68 ...
Rivet heaters 4.00 4.48
GROUP III.
Angle smiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Armature winders 6.40 6.40
Blacksmiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Boatbuilders 6.40 6.88
Boilermakers 6.40 6.40
Bolters 4.64 4.64
Boxmakers 4.80 4.80
Brakemen 4.96 5.28
Butchers 4.48 4.48
Cable splicers 6.40 6.40
Calkers, wood 6.40 7.52
Calkers and chippers, iron 6.40 6.40
Canvas workers 6.08 6.08
Carpenters, house 6.40 6.88
Casting cleaners 4.64 4.64
Cementers 4.80 4.80
Chainmakers 7.04 ...
Chauffeurs 4.40 4.40
Coopers 5.60 5.60
Coppersmiths 6.88 6.88
Cranemen, electric 6.40 6.40
Cupola tenders 6.40 6.40
Die sinkers 7.04 7.04
Divers 12.00 12.00
Drillers, pneumatic 5.44 5.44
Drillers, Press 5.12 5.12
Electricians 6.40 6.40
Chronograph 6.72 ...
Radio 7.44 7.44
Storage battery 6.88 6.88
Engineers 6.40 6.40
Locomotive 5.76 5.76
Nonhoisting donkeys and
winches 5.60 5.60
Farriers 5.44 5.44
Firemen 4.64 4.64
Locomotives 4.00 4.16
Flange turners 6.88 6.88
Forgers:
Drop 6.40 6.40
Heavy 11.84 11.84
Foundry chippers 4.64 4.64
Frame benders 7.20 7.20
Furnacemen:
Angle work 5.12 5.44
Foundry 5.12 5.44
Heaters 5.12 5.44
Heavy forge 6.08 6.08
Other forge 5.12 6.08
Open hearth 5.12 5.44
Galvanizers 5.04 5.04
Gardeners 4.16 4.16
Glass molders, optical 4.80 ...
Glass workers, optical:
Fine 4.32 ...
Rough 3.04 ...
Handymen 4.96 ...
Instrument makers 6.88 6.88
Joiners 6.40 6.88
Ship 6.40 6.88
Ladlemen, foundry 5.12 5.44
Leather workers 5.52 5.52
Lens grinders, telescope 6.40 ...
Letterers and grainers 6.16 6.16
Levelers 4.64 4.64
Loftsmen 7.20 7.20
Machine operators 4.96 4.96
Machinists 6.40 6.40
All around 6.40 6.40
Electrical 6.40 6.40
Floor or vise hand 6.40 6.40
Masons:
Brick 6.88 6.88
Stone 6.88 6.88
Mattress makers 4.88 4.88
Melters 5.52 5.52
Electric 8.56 8.56
Open hearth 8.56 8.56
Metallic cartridge case makers 5.76 ...
Millmen 6.40 6.88
Modelmakers, wood 6.40 6.40
Model testers 5.44 5.44
Molders 6.40 6.40
Steel casting 6.40 6.40
Oakum spinners 3.76 3.76
Operators, gas torch 6.08 6.08
Ordnancemen 5.60 5.60
Painters 5.92 5.92
Applying bitumastic compositions 6.40 6.88
Patternmakers 6.88 7.52
Pavers 5.76 5.76
Pile drivers 6.40 6.40
Pipe coverers 6.40 6.40
Pipe fitters 6.40 6.40
Plasterers 6.88 6.88
Plumbers:
House 6.40 6.40
Ship 6.40 6.40
Polisher, buffers, and platers 6.40 6.40
Pressmen, armor plate 8.56 ...
Punchers and shearers 5.12 5.44
Railroad conductors 5.12 5.44
Riggers 5.92 5.92
Riveters 6.40 6.40
Rodmen 4.40 4.40
Ropemakers 5.12 ...
Sailmakers 6.08 6.08
Sandblasters 4.96 4.96
Saw filers 6.40 6.40
Sheet-metal workers 6.40 6.88
Shipfitters 6.40 6.40
Shipsmiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Shipwrights 6.40 6.88
Steelworkers 6.40 ...
Stonecutters 5.76 5.76
Switchmen 4.96 5.28
Tank testers 6.88 6.88
Toolmakers 6.88 6.88
Trackmen 4.56 4.56
Upholsterers 5.44 5.44
Water tenders 4.64 4.96
Welders:
Electric 6.56 6.56
Gas 6.40 6.40
Wharf builders 5.76 5.76
Wheelwrights 5.28 5.28
Wire workers 5.04 5.04
--------------------------------------------------
WHERE NAVY YARDS AND NAVAL STATIONS ARE LOCATED
Navy yards are located as follows: The Portsmouth Navy Yard, at
Portsmouth, N. H.; the Brooklyn Navy Yard, at Brooklyn, N. Y.; the
Boston Navy Yard, at Charlestown (a part of the city of Boston, Mass.);
the League Island Navy Yard, at Philadelphia, Pa.; the Washington Navy
Yard or Naval Gun Factory, at Washington, D. C.; the Portsmouth Navy
Yard, at Portsmouth, Va. (close to Norfolk); the Mare Island Navy Yard,
at Vallejo, Cal. (on San Francisco Bay); the Charleston Navy Yard, at
Charleston, S. C.; the Bremerton Navy Yard, on Puget Sound, Wash. (near
Seattle), and the Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. (aeronautic
station at present).
Naval stations are located at Newport, R. I.; Key West, Fla.; and New
Orleans, La.
Other naval establishments are: Naval proving grounds, at Indian Head,
Md.; naval training station, at North Chicago, Ill.; the Naval Academy,
at Annapolis, Md.; the naval magazines at Iona Island, N. Y., and Lake
Denmark, N. Y.; and the depot of supplies, United States Marine Corps,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Naval stations are also maintained at the Philippine Islands, Cuba,
Guam, and Samoa, but no attempt has been made to give any information
about them in this monograph.
LEATHER WORKING TRADES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, Special Agent of the
Federal Board. Much of the material used herein was obtained from
Bulletin No. 232 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Wages
and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1907 to 1916.”
Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division,
for editorial assistance.
PLAN No. 1051. SHOEMAKING
MODERN SHOEMAKING A MACHINE PROCESS
Modern shoemaking is practically a machine process. There are machines
for cutting the various parts of the shoe, for sewing together the upper
and the lining, for lasting the upper, for channeling the insole and the
outsole, for sewing together the insole upper and welt, and for sewing
the outsole to the welt. There are also machines for leveling the sole,
for placing a smooth edge on the sole and heel, and for burnishing the
sole, its edges and the heel.
Many of these machines are leased out to shoe manufacturers on a royalty
basis. Patterns, lasts, and similar equipment may be made in the factory
or purchased from factories that make a special business of producing
these articles. A few hand tools are used in the factory, such as knives
for cutting leather and threads, pinchers for pulling nails, and brushes
for pasting certain parts. Ordinarily the workers who use these tools
are not highly skilled, the only noted exception being that of the
cutter who cuts by hand the vamps or other upper parts of the shoe.
MACHINE SHOEMAKING HIGHLY SPECIALIZED
In the shoemaking industry, there is great division of labor, and
accordingly, the amount of skill or technical knowledge required of the
workers in many of the shoemaking operations is so little that it may be
acquired in a few days or weeks at the most.
However, a few of the occupations require both manipulative skill and
technical knowledge, and call for the quick exercise of sound judgment.
These are the occupations that pay well. Training for them is necessary.
The period of training, of course, depends in any case, partly upon the
person taking it. But in general, there are two groups in which the
skilled occupations fall, namely, those requiring less than a year’s
training and experience to make a thoroughly competent operator, and
those necessitating a year or over. Roughly, those who receive less than
50 cents and more than 40 cents an hour fall in the first group, while
those receiving 50 cents or more an hour come in the second group.
WAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS
In 1918, according to unpublished figures of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, for the highly skilled operators the hourly wage ranged from
43 to 62 cents. In this range, the following occupations were
covered--Goodyear welters receiving the highest, channelers the lowest,
and the others in a descending scale intermediate wages: Goodyear
welters, rough rounders, edge trimmers, heel trimmers, Goodyear
stitchers, edge setters, machine pullers-over, heelers, turn sewers,
bed-machine operators, hand vamp cutters, hand-method-lasting-machine
operators, hand pullers-over, machine side lasters, hand turn lasters,
McKay sewers, machine vamp cutters, vampers, hand side lasters, heel
scourers, channelers.
The hours of labor are somewhat dependent upon the occupation, with the
general average for the whole country about 55 hours per week, which
usually means a 10-hour day with a Saturday half holiday. For some
factories, hours in a few occupations are nine per day for six days in
the week, which makes a 54-hour week.
For the highly skilled operator, the shoe industry is a desirable
occupation in peace times and will continue to be so in the future. With
the growth of population and the higher standards of living comes an
increased demand for shoes of the better sort, which means that greater
skill must be employed in their production than in those of the coarser
sort. While the work in the shoe factory is somewhat seasonal, the slack
season comes in the summer time, when other occupations are open, and
when the worker may frequently engage in gardening during the time he is
not busy in the factory. The busy season comes in the fall and winter.
The work is all performed indoors.
DISABILITIES
The shoe industry can not use all classes of disabled men, but those it
can use, if well trained, will find in it a desirable occupation. In
general the disabilities that will bar a man from engaging in this
occupation are the loss of eyesight, the loss of both legs, or of both
arms, nervous afflictions, and weaknesses that prevent a man from
standing at his work or from doing it rapidly. For some of the work, the
use of both hands is highly desirable, and the loss of certain fingers
from a hand would tend to be a handicap. Good eyesight, steady nerves
and dexterity of motion are essentials in shoe workers. Good hearing is
not highly important to the well trained. For the man who has lost a
hand, there are devices, such as certain forms of hooks that could be
used, for instance, by the machine cutter to operate the arm to the
machine. Pincer-like devices may be used for other work. An artificial
leg of a certain type may be obtained for a man who has lost a leg, and
this will enable him to stand without undue fatigue.
PROMOTION
There are two ways in which advancement in these occupations may be
secured. A worker who learns rapidly may advance from a less skilled to
a more highly skilled occupation. For instance, he may advance from a
position as a turn sewer to one as a Goodyear welter, and thus receive
approximately a 25 per cent advance in wages. Or a workman with the
ability to direct others may become a foreman and thus obtain higher
wages. With this ability and a general knowledge of the industry, or
high skill at some of the occupations, he might become an instructor,
or, with sufficient ability and education, he might go into the office.
TRAINING FOR OFFICE POSITIONS
A knowledge of the processes in the shoe factory is a highly desirable
qualification for the office force, and even for the clerical force of a
factory. In the offices are found about 15 to 20 per cent of all the
employees of the entire factory. A disabled soldier or sailor who has
previously worked in a shoe factory, could, by taking the training
offered by the Federal Board, qualify for a position in the business
offices. Or he could take a course in salesmanship, and go “out on the
road” to sell the shoes. Thus he could turn his past experience in the
former occupation to profit, and make of his disability the means of
promotion instead of a handicap.
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING
If a disabled soldier has had some experience in the shoe factory, he
will find this of value. He might, for example, take training to become
a designer. The change in fashions in shoes necessitates new lasts and
patterns, and every new style means work for the designer. The work
requires training, but does not call for much physical exertion. To do
this work, one must have some facility in mechanical drawing, and so
must understand the principles of geometry. Such work is stimulating.
Not all factories do their own designing and pattern making, but in such
cases designs and patterns must be obtained from concerns that
specialize in such work. This profession, however, can absorb only a
limited number of additional men.
SCHOOLS AND TRAINING
There are now well-established schools for teaching the shoemaking
operations. Until recently the schools were private, but there are now
schools in Massachusetts maintained at the public expense. Some
factories, especially the nonunion ones, train the workers in the
factories at the work, or in factory schools. In some cases, the workers
in a factory “pick up” the knowledge and training required for the
better-paying positions. For such workers the unskilled occupations
serve as an apprenticeship to the skilled ones. This method, however, is
not the most desirable one, since it does not always present
opportunities to get the best and quickest training.
PLAN No. 1052. OCCUPATIONS THAT PAY WELL REQUIRE TRAINING
There are two general classes of workers in shoe factories--one made up
of machine workers, who must use judgment and skill in their work, and
are therefore the better paid; and the other made up of machine tenders
whose main requirement is speed in doing some routine task. Since we are
concerned only with the occupations that require training and which pay
more than the wages of unskilled workmen, we shall discuss only the
skilled occupations. Workers in these occupations may be grouped into
three general classes: First, those who sew together difficult parts of
the shoe; second, those who cut the leather to form; and, third, those
who last the shoe.
PLAN No. 1053. OPERATORS WHO SEW TOGETHER DIFFICULT PARTS OF THE SHOES
The Goodyear welter receives the shoe on the last; the upper has been
tacked temporarily to the insole and trimmed smoothly, and the insole
has been channeled or lipped for the stitches. He takes a long narrow
strip of leather--the welt--and places the shoe in the welting machine
so that the insole, upper, and welt are sewed through at one operation
by means of a curved needle. The stitch is made almost horizontal to the
bottom of the shoe, and the welt lies closely to the upper nearly all
around the shoe in front of the heel seat. The welt is also somewhat
irregular, but the welt beater straightens out the welt so that is
stands out properly for the outsole.
The work of the welter is not so simple as it may seem. He works with a
very complicated machine, and he must be able to make readily all the
necessary adjustments. He must know almost by intuition that the thread
is working properly. He must be able to tell at a glance that the shoe
has been lasted correctly. He must know at once whether the welt
furnished is suitable for the type of shoe he is to place it on. He must
guide the welt on accurately. If he does otherwise, not only is time
lost, but a leather part or parts are ruined. He must be so skilled that
he can place the welts on a pair of shoes at the rate of a pair a
minute.[27]
[27] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The Goodyear stitcher receives the shoe with the outsole cemented on the
shoe, the channel cut, and the lip of the channel turned back. He places
the shoe to his machine so that the welt and outsole are sewed together
all around the shoe in front of the heel. The seams are made in the
channel of the outsole, so they may later be covered by the lip. The
stitcher must be able to stitch about 37 pairs of shoes, on the average,
per hour for the working day. At this speed, considerable skill is
required to hold the shoe so that the curved parts are sewed around
properly.[28]
[28] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The turn sewer performs a task somewhat similar to that of the Goodyear
welter, but he does not attach a welt. He receives the shoe lasted,
wrong side out. The outsole is, of course, now in the position of the
insole on the Goodyear shoe. As in the Goodyear shoe, the channeling for
the stitch is the same, but in addition, the outsole has been grooved,
or a recess cut, so that a shoulder is formed around the outer edge of
the sole in which the lower edge of the upper rests. The turn sewer sews
through the lower edge of the upper and the shoulder on the outsole. The
seam is buried in the inside channel. The process of sewing is performed
on a machine that sews with a curved needle and nearly horizontal to the
sole. Historically, the Goodyear welting process was a modification of
the turn-shoe process of sewing the sole and upper together.
The McKay sewer receives a McKay shoe with the sole cemented on and
channeled and the last withdrawn from the shoe. He sews through the
sole, the lower edge of the upper, and through the insole. The seams
thus appear on the inside of the shoe. This is clearly a simpler
operation than that of the Goodyear welter.
The vamper sews the vamp to the quarters, or upper part of the upper.
Since the vamp is curved and must be fitted to a rounding form, this
operation is not so simple as flat sewing and so is paid for at a higher
rate per piece.
PLAN No. 1054. OPERATORS WHO SKILLFULLY CUT THE LEATHER TO FORM
The rough rounder receives the shoe with the outsole cemented or tacked
on to the upper part. He places the edge of the sole to the machine so
that the edge of the outside and welt is cut to a uniform distance from
the upper all round the outsole. In the same process his machine cuts an
oblique channel in the outsole for the seam which is to bind the welt
and outsole together. The work of the rough rounder requires strength
and steady nerves, since he must hold the edge of the shoe against the
cutting parts. He must know how to adjust his machine quickly for the
various sorts of shoes, and must be able to place a uniform edge on over
900 pairs of shoes in a ten hour day.
The edge trimmer receives the shoe in the rough finished form. He holds
the sole against a set of revolving cutters which trim the sole smoothly
to the desired shape all around the sole. He must do this work carefully
and not cut the upper or the stitches and at the rate of thirty-five
pairs an hour.[29]
[29] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The heel trimmer receives the shoe with the heel nailed on firmly and
the top lift in place. First, he holds the heel against a set of rapidly
revolving cutters, which cut away the heel so that is has a smooth even
contour from the sole to the top lift and all around the outside. Then
he holds the sole part of the heel against another set of revolving
cutters which trim the sole part off to conform in outline with the
upper. He must exercise great care in this operation so as not to cut
the upper. He must handle shoes at an average rate per minute of nearly
three pairs, or 1,500 pairs or more in a nine hour day.
The heel scourer receives the shoe after the heel has been trimmed to
shape. He holds the heel against a rapidly revolving wheel covered with
sandpaper. This process gives the heel a smooth finish. A heel scourer
must be able to smooth the heels of nearly 1,500 pairs of shoes in a ten
hour day.[30]
[30] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The channelers cut the channels in the outsoles of McKay and turn shoes
and in the insoles of welt shoes, so that the seams may be buried in the
leather. The channeler holds the shoe to the machine and guides the sole
so that all but the heel is channeled.
The vamp cutter cuts out the vamp--the lower and most important part of
the upper. It must be cut out of the best leather and be free from
defects or flaws. Accordingly, the cutter must lay the pattern or die on
the side of leather so as to avoid any imperfections in the hide. If he
is a hand cutter, he draws a keen-edged knife closely around the outer
edge of the pattern and thus cuts out the vamp. If he is a machine
cutter, he brings the arm of the cutting or dinking machine down on the
die, which cuts out the vamp. The vamp cutter must judge quickly and
accurately as to the quality of the leather and how to place the pattern
or die, so as to obtain the greatest number of good parts from a side of
leather.
PLAN No. 1055. LASTING THE SHOE REQUIRES SKILL
The machine puller-over receives the assembled upper part of the shoe on
the last. The insole, counter, and toe box are in place, but the edges
of the upper have not been drawn over the insole and fastened. This is
the operation that he must perform. He must watch that the upper is
properly centered on the last, and that the machine pincers pull the
leather in evenly over the last, and if not even, he must make
adjustments by means of levers until it is even. Then he presses a foot
lever that causes the machine to tack the upper to the insole at various
points.
The bed-machine operator is also known as the toe and heel laster. He
usually works on welt shoes. He lasts the upper in around the toe so
that the leather is smooth on the outside. His machine draws a series of
wipers or friction pullers over the edge of the upper until the toe
conforms smoothly to the last. He then tacks and wires the edges at the
toe so that they will be held temporarily until they can be sewed by the
welter. He performs a similar process with the heel, but he tacks the
edges of the upper to the heel permanently. Both the heel and toe are
tacked down permanently in a McKay shoe. The bed-machine operator
handles on the average nearly a shoe every minute during the day’s work.
The hand-method lasting-machine operator usually works on a McKay-made
shoe. The upper has already been tacked on the insole by the
puller-over, but is now drawn around the last and insole, a part at a
time, by means of pincers on the machine. As each part is drawn evenly
and closely to the last and insole, a tack is driven into the insole and
clinched by means of a metal plate on the bottom of the last. This
process is carried on around the entire insole of the shoe. This work is
similar to a combination of the processes performed by the side laster
and bed-machine operator on welt shoes.
The work of the hand puller-over is to put the counter and toe box in
place and pull the lower edge of the upper over the last and insole so
that the upper is in the proper position on the last. He does a
combination of the work of the assembler for the pulling-over machine
and of the machine puller-over.
The turn laster lasts the turn shoe either by hand or machine, and in a
manner similar to the methods by which a welt shoe is lasted, except
that the parts are placed so that when the shoe is turned, they will be
in their proper position. For instance, the counter is placed on the
outside of the upper, but inside the lining. The lining at the heel is
not lasted, but is cut off and turned back. The shoe is then sewed by
the turn sewer. The turn laster now pulls the lasts and turns the shoe
right side out. He fills the depressions in the central fore part of the
shoe and the shank by inserting fillers coated on the under side with
glue. He then returns the lasts to the shoes, reversing the right for
the left--since the shoes have been turned--and pounds the shoe until it
has the proper shape and is entirely smooth.
The side laster, by means of hand pincers, draws the upper leather to
the last at the outside and instep and over the insole, so that it is
tight and no wrinkles are left. He then fastens the edge with tacks. He
does this at the rate of about a pair of shoes to the minute.[31]
[31] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The heeler takes the shoe and a heel already built up but lacking the
top lift, and places the shoes on a metal last or jack. He sets the heel
in place and presses a foot lever that causes his machine to drive the
nails into the heel and clinch them in the insole. The nails on the
outside of the heel are left protruding to a height of about half the
thickness of the top lift. On these nails, he sets the top lift, which
has received a coating of cement, and the machine presses this down over
the projecting nails. He must be skillful enough to perform this
operation accurately at the rate of over 100 pairs of shoes per
hour.[32]
[32] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The edge setter holds the sole to a machine which polishes the edge by
means of a series of hot vibrating irons which fit the edge of the sole.
He must handle shoes at the rate of about a pair every minute during the
working day.[33]
[33] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
PLAN No. 1056. SHOE REPAIRING
In shoe repairing to-day we find all stages of development, from the
purely hand methods to the factory methods. The shops that use the old
hand methods are usually small and the owner is generally the only
worker, although a few shops have two or three workmen. The shops that
use machinery extensively are larger and frequently employ a number of
workmen. Between the two extremes are shops of varying equipment and
size. This variation of conditions makes it possible for a disabled man
to fit into this business by taking a training and choosing the machines
and methods adapted to his disabilities. Some man in a shop that uses
machines must have considerable mechanical ability. In the shop that
utilizes hand methods, some one must know much of hand shoemaking--in
fact, be able to perform all the processes. In either shop there is
opportunity for profit for the man who can make, either by hand or
machine or by the two methods combined, an entire shoe for those persons
whose feet are deformed or crippled, so that they can not wear
factory-made shoes.
MACHINERY, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The outlay for a shop in any case is not large. The machines are leased
as a rule. The number of tools needed for a workman in either the shop
that uses hand methods or the shop that utilizes machinery is not large.
The principal tools found in any type of shop are hammers, knives,
chisels, lasts, pincers, awls, and needles. No great quantity of
supplies need be kept on hand. Practically all shops have machines for
sewing uppers. Many have the machinery for sewing on soles. These are
probably the most frequently used machines. Practically all of the
machine repairing is sewing rips and placing on new outsoles. Heels are
largely rebuilt by hand, or replaced by new rubber heels put on by hand.
REPAIRING SHOES A PAYING BUSINESS
In shoe repairing, there are slack and busy seasons. Slack seasons come
in fair weather and busy seasons in bad weather. If certain work can be
allowed to accumulate in the busy seasons, the work may be distributed
throughout the year, since there are rarely long intervals of unbroken
fair weather. The busy shoe repairer has a remunerative business. If he
is able to do a high class of work, he can charge accordingly, and can
take other work as a sort of “filler” for slack times.
A DESIRABLE OCCUPATION FOR A DISABLED MAN
As a rule, the repair shop offers the disabled man better working
conditions than the factory. There is not the monotony of the single
process. He can adapt his speed of work better to his physical
condition, one day with another, in the repair shop than in the factory
where he must not delay or check the regular progress of the shoes
through the different processes. The disabled man can usually work at
several things in the repair shop. For instance, the one-armed man could
nail on heels or soles by hand or sew rips in uppers. By means of
certain appliances, the man who has lost a hand could do practically any
process in the shop. The man who had lost both legs could work on hand
work at a shoemaker’s bench. He could nail on rubber heels, or build up
run-down heels, make hand patches, and do similar work.
PLAN No. 1057. OTHER LEATHER-WORKING TRADES
Other articles than shoes are made of leather, but these are usually
more simple than shoes, and require less skill in their making. Some of
these articles are hand made, and others are machine made. A few of the
processes necessitate both technical knowledge and skill, but the number
of men employed in such occupations is comparatively small.
In the making of leather itself, few if any of the occupations are
suitable for a seriously disabled man, since work in the tannery is
usually wet and heavy.
In the leather industry there are, however, a few skilled occupations
other than those discussed above. These include expert harness makers
and saddlers, harness repairers, trunk and bag workers, and belt men.
PLAN No. 1058. THE HARNESS MAKER AND SADDLER
The harness maker and saddler must have a thorough knowledge of leathers
and of their treatment. He must know how to lay out leather and cut it
economically with due regard to the purpose for which it is to be used.
For instance, where flexibility is more important than mere thickness or
weight, he must select the proper piece. He must be able to adjust and
repair the machinery with which he works. As a saddlemaker, he must be
able to read blue prints or understand drawings or sketches, and to make
patterns or cut the leather according to the specifications.
PLAN No. 1059. THE HARNESS AND SADDLE REPAIRER
The harness and saddle repairer must have a general knowledge of both
harness and saddle making. He must be able to make the leather parts of
the harness or saddle by hand, and be able to sew by hand as well as by
machine. He must be able to take care of his machine and make all
adjustments and minor repairs. He must understand the various sorts of
leather, and how to cut leather economically. He must be skilled in the
use of the tools of the trade.
OTHER SKILLED OCCUPATIONS IN THE LEATHER INDUSTRY
Of the other skilled workers, the belt man must know especially how to
cement leather and how to treat it so that water or steam will not
affect its use as belting. The trunk and bag workers must have the
necessary knowledge of how to cut leather economically, its nature and
uses according to grades, and how to sew and shape it for the various
articles.
DISABILITIES NOT A BAR TO SUCCESS TO THESE SOLDIERS
A former porter, who suffered from varicose veins below both knees, and
a bricklayer, troubled with rheumatism and lumbago, as the result of
exposure, were trained in shoe repairing and are now successfully
engaged in that work. A former farm hand, who was afflicted with
epilepsy, took a course in shoe repairing and is now employed in a shop
at higher wages than he formerly received as a farm hand. A teamster who
sustained an injury to his spine, overcame that handicap through a
course in shoe repairing, which enabled him to become a partner in a
shoe-repairing business. A farm hand, who suffered from pleurisy and
pneumonia, a farmer, who had his tonsils injured, and a carpenter, who
received a shrapnel wound in the chest, were all enabled to go into
business for themselves and make a financial success of it, through a
retraining course in shoe repairing. A blacksmith, with diabetes
mellitus, took a combined course in shoe and harness repairing and has
now a successful business of his own. If you like to handle leather, you
will like to make or repair shoes, to make or repair harness, or to make
other leather goods. Surely some of these offer you an occupation where
retraining will enable you to overcome your handicap, if not afford you
advancement.
PLAN No. 1060. GENERAL FARMING
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Dr. Walter J. Quick, Special Agent of the
Federal Board for Vocational Education, under direction of Charles H.
Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board.
Acknowledgment is due to E. H. Thomson, Acting Chief, and Dr. E. V.
Wilcox, Agriculturist of the Office of Farm Management, United States
Department of Agriculture, for suggestions and data, also to Dr. John
Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.