Washington, 1917, United States Public Health Service. 50 cents.
13. Tarbell, Ida M. New Ideals in Business. New York, 1917.
14. Tolman, William H. Social Engineering. New York, 1909.
15. Trade Specifications and Occupational Index of Professions and
Trades in the Army. Washington, 1918. War Department Document 774.
Office of The Adjutant General. Gratis.
16. Webb, S. B. Problems of Modern Industry (an English book). New
York, 1913.
PLAN No. 915. THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AS A VOCATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
For the material of this monograph the Federal Board for Vocational
Education is indebted to the J. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, Pa.,
through its publication “Training and Rewards of the Physician,” and the
Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa., through its publication
“Medicine,” School Edition, Teachers’ Auxiliary, Number One, of which
this pamphlet is largely an abstract. The monograph was prepared by Dr.
H. L. Smith under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the
Research Division of the Federal Board. Acknowledgment is due to Dr.
John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
NATURE OF THE PHYSICIAN’S WORK
The work of the physician is twofold. It is his duty to cure those who
are sick and to keep the well from becoming sick. Usually he is not
called upon until there is illness, so that the bulk of his work is with
the sick. There are two general fields of activity for a physician, that
of the general practitioner, and that of the specialist. Physicians in
rural communities and small towns and cities must be prepared to deal
with any type of accident or disease. In cities the tendency is to
specialize on some particular disease or on disturbances connected with
some particular part of the body. Some specialists in large cities are
able to confine their activities to office work altogether.
The work of the physician is difficult. There is a great mental strain
connected with his work, for often even the life of the patient is at
stake. With the general practitioner there is a great physical strain
due to irregular meals and sleep, and trips in all kinds of weather.
Particularly is this true of the practice of medicine for its curative
effects. More and more thought in medical science is being directed in
modern times to preventive medicine, that is, to ways and means of
keeping well rather than of getting well. The preventive work can be
done under conditions more nearly those that the physician himself
chooses rather than under conditions forced upon him as is usual in the
case of curative work.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS
Of all the professions the practice of medicine makes the greatest
demands along the line of a good sound body. In some professions a man
with even severe physical defects can, through careful living, be
successful. Good health, however, is essential to the physician in order
that he may successfully withstand the long periods of strain, the
irregular hours for meals and sleep, the bad weather he is often forced
to go out in, and the dangers of infection.
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS
Not only must the physician be practically fit, he must have a natural
aptitude and love for his profession. He should care more for medicine
than for any other calling in life. By natural aptitude for medicine is
meant certain foundation qualities which are essential.
It goes without saying that the physician, because of his close
relationship with his patients, must be of the highest moral character
in order to gain and retain the confidence of his patients. A kindly and
tactful manner are essential also in gaining this confidence. One must
be alert, too, particularly at the present time when rapid advances are
being made in medicine--more rapid than in many other professions.
Self-reliance is essential in medicine because unexpected situations are
constantly arising, and emergencies, too, in which the help of other
physicians can not readily be gained. To practice medicine successfully
one must be constantly learning. Because of the rapid changes in medical
science one’s apprenticeship is never completed. Each day some new
method or means of treatment must be mastered. Moreover, one’s work is
never ended. One great element of success is faithfulness to the
patients one already has. This means love for the work and enthusiasm
over the idea of service to mankind.
Among the characteristics that lead to failure in the practice of
medicine are dislike of the work, inability to decide quickly and
definitely, and lack of ability to get along well with other
practitioners and with patients.
GENERAL EDUCATION NECESSARY AS A BASIS FOR A COURSE IN MEDICINE
As a basis for a course in medicine one must have completed not only the
eight grades of common-school work, but the four years of high school.
Twenty-eight medical schools require two years of college work for
entrance, and there is some tendency to require even four years of
college work. This tendency, however, will probably not grow very fast.
Certainly if the requirement is made it can not be a hard and fast rule,
for the simple reason that it would raise the age of graduation from the
medical school to a point higher than the age at which it is wise for
one to begin practice.
The question of what subjects should be taken in premedical work is very
important also. Not long ago some 300 graduates of the Harvard Medical
School were asked to fill out answers to questions, giving their
opinions in regard to the value of their premedical education. They were
asked to state whether they thought it best in this premedical work to
have a large amount of general culture--such as history, philosophy,
economics, literature, and art--or a large amount of natural
science--such as physics, chemistry and biology. Of the 300 reporting,
120 favored a large amount of science, while 110 favored a large amount
of general culture. Seventy favored an equal amount of general science
and culture. It would seem, therefore, that according to the present
opinion there should be an equal amount of general culture and science
in one’s college education previous to taking up the special training in
medicine.
Available records show that in 1904 there were only 20 States that had
made any legal provision for preliminary education to go before the
definite education in medicine. Now 26 States have such a provision. At
that time only 10 States required four years of high school as a minimum
amount of preliminary premedical education and none required college
work. Now 30 States require the four years, or an equivalent, and 8 of
these 30 require either one or two years of college work in addition. At
that time 36 States required that all candidates for license be
graduates of legally chartered medical schools. Now 44 States make this
requirement by law. At the present time 48 States require an examination
to be taken by all those who are seeking license to practice medicine,
unless they hold a license granted by some other State.
It is necessary, therefore, that the course of instruction taken in
medicine shall include courses that will qualify the graduate to meet
the requirements of the examination for license to practice in the State
in which he wishes to locate. There is a tendency at present for the
examination to consist not only of questions and answers, but of some
practical test of one’s ability to practice medicine successfully.
THE LENGTH OF THE MEDICAL COURSE ITSELF
At the present time one can not hope to get a satisfactory medical
education without taking a full four-year course in the medical school.
The course of study in American schools of medicine at present is
definitely laid out, and one can know beforehand just what subjects will
have to be taken. Even at the end of the four-year course in medicine it
is not advisable to begin the practice of medicine immediately. Those
who are looking for good positions in the profession should add to the
theory gained in college some actual practice. The best way to get this
practical work is to serve as an interne in a hospital. Appointments to
such positions are often made on the basis of an examination. Such
positions last sometimes for one year and sometimes for two years.
During the first period of his work in the hospital an interne is
directed to some extent by other physicians, but largely by his senior
internes. During the last six months of his experience as an interne,
however, when he is usually acting as the house doctor or surgeon, he is
shown especial attention by physicians and surgeons who have patients in
the hospital. There is generally no pay given the interne aside from
board and lodging. The period in which one acts as an interne is
considered as a further educational period. It has been said that the
experience gained during the two years’ interneship in New York City’s
largest hospital is considered equal to that acquired in 10 years of
ordinary undirected practice.
But even after one actually begins the practice of medicine his
education is not complete. In order to keep up with the times he must do
a great deal of reading. He must attend district medical meetings, and
also State and national meetings. Moreover, he should visit other cities
and thus come in contact with the ideas of other practitioners in other
communities.
An ideal standard of medical education is outlined in the following
quotation:
“The American Medical Association’s ideal standard of medical education
as set forth by the Council on Medical Education, after years of
extensive study, research, and investigation, is given herewith:
“(a) Preliminary education sufficient to enable the candidate to enter
our recognized universities, such qualifications to be passed upon by
the State authorities.
“(b) A course of at least one year to be devoted to physics, chemistry,
and biology, such arrangements to be made that this year could be taken
either in a college of liberal arts or in the medical school.
“(c) Four years in pure medical work, the first two of which should be
largely spent in laboratories of anatomy, physiology, pathology,
pharmacology, etc., and the last two years in close contact with
patients in dispensaries and hospitals in the study of medicine, surgery
in its various branches, and the specialties.
“(d) A sixth year as an interne in a hospital or dispensary should then
complete the medical course. Under such procedure the majority of
students would begin the study of medicine at about 18 years and
graduate from the hospital interneship at about 25.”[15]
[15] Vocational Studies: School Edition, Teachers’ Aux. No. 1, p. 4,
Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa.
THE INCOME THAT CAN REASONABLY BE EXPECTED IN THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
The practice of medicine does not hold out the hope of any great
financial reward. There are some medical practitioners who have made
small fortunes in their practice, but such cases are few. The ordinary
practitioner can not count on much more than a comfortable living, in
accordance with the living standards in the community in which he lives.
Not only is the physician’s salary generally small, but it is uncertain
as well.
The following table gives the incomes of Harvard medical graduates, by
classes and by years of experience, according to a study recently made:
_Average Earnings of Harvard medical graduates, by classes and by years
of experience._[16]
=========+============================================================
Years in | Classes
practice +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------
| 1901| 1902| 1903| 1904| 1905| 1906| 1907| 1908| 1909| 1910
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------
First | $866| $787| $541| $362| $625| $502| $350| $533| $425|$1,237
Second | 827|1,089| 790| 995| 773| 826| 588|1,250| 874| 1,083
Third |1,181|1,539|1,412|1,295| 995|1,262|1,353|1,025|1,370| 1,578
Fourth |1,505|1,694|1,720|1,566|1,559|1,765|1,963|1,575|1,632| 1,835
Fifth |2,027|1,556|1,966|1,981|1,818|2,359|2,347|1,847|2,150|
Sixth |2,341|1,837|2,333|2,277|2,347|2,997|3,202|2,360| |
Seventh |2,527|2,161|2,654|2,967|3,043|3,650|3,545| | |
Eighth |3,003|2,491|3,155|3,043|3,337|4,332| | | |
Ninth |3,560|2,900|3,616|3,604|4,500| | | | |
Tenth |3,524|2,963|4,135|4,535| | | | | |
Eleventh |3,885|3,691|4,604| | | | | | |
Twelfth |4,422|4,130| | | | | | | |
Thir- |4,680| | | | | | | | |
teenth | | | | | | | | | |
Maximum | | | | | | | | | |
number of| | | | | | | | | |
men | 38| 39| 29| 39| 33| 26| 29| 29| 25| 26
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------
[16] Training Rewards of the Physician (Cabot), J. Lippincott Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa., v. 136.
OTHER REWARDS CONNECTED WITH THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
The fact that the physician’s work has a great effect upon the length of
life of the patient is in itself a great reward. During the past three
centuries medical science has made so great an advance that the average
working life of the English-speaking people has been almost doubled. The
things that have added to this increased length of life are physical
comfort, medicine, hygiene, and surgery. Aside from the satisfaction of
seeing length of life increased, the worthy physician enjoys the
satisfaction of holding a position of trust and leadership in his
community. As a result of this, he is in a position to teach others what
they should know. Through his work also a physician has a chance to
come in contact with all classes of people.
THE LENGTH OF TIME IT WILL TAKE TO ESTABLISH ONE’S SELF IN THE PRACTICE
OF MEDICINE
If one decides to establish one’s self as a general practitioner he must
count upon at least a year of patience and hard work with little income.
At the end of the year, however, if he has been fortunate in the choice
of location, and if he has a good personality, he can reasonably hope
soon to inspire confidence and come into public recognition. Often he
can hasten this public recognition by giving his services, free of
charge, to those whom he knows to be worthy of such assistance and
consideration. If it is necessary for the graduate from the medical
school to become an actual earner immediately, he will probably apply
for an official position in some public institution, such as health
officer, teacher, medical missionary, or research worker.
THE EXTENT OF THE NEED FOR PHYSICIANS
It has been said that in America the number of doctors, in proportion to
the number of people, is greater than in any other country. A recent
study shows that there were in the United States 151,132 practicing
physicians and surgeons, 16,920 students in medical schools, and 6,955
instructors in medical schools. Before the European war the supply of
physicians in the United States was large--so large, in fact, that the
income of physicians was being materially affected thereby. As a result
of the war, however, new fields of practice will be opening up for
American physicians in other countries, because of the fact that many
physicians in those countries were either killed or disabled, and also
because students have not been graduating from the medical schools in
those countries during the past few years. It is said that it will take
five or six years to develop or to train a new group of physicians in
England, France, and in other warring nations.
HOW MUCH IT WILL COST TO PREPARE FOR PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
If you are a soldier or a sailor discharged from the service since
October 6, 1917, with a disability for which the Bureau of War-Risk
Insurance will grant you compensation, and if a course in medicine is
approved for you by the Federal Board, your education will be furnished
free by the Government. The Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, through its
compensation, will meet a part of the expense, and the Federal Board for
Vocational Education will add to that amount to a minimum of $65 a month
with the purpose of meeting all of your expenses for living, clothing,
transportation, tuition, and incidentals.
PLAN No. 916. SAFETY AND FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by J. Albert Robinson, Special Agent for
Safety and Hygiene. Acknowledgment is due Mr. Jos. B. Finnegan,
Professor of Fire Protection Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology; to Mr. R. M. Little, Director of the American Museum of
Safety; and to Mr. F. M. Griswold for excerpts from his address entitled
“The Inspector and the Insured.” For editorial assistance acknowledgment
is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division of the Federal
Board.
You who have been under fire at the front and have come back disabled
have had an insight into life that of necessity affects your outlook on
the future. Things which once assumed importance in your mind have lost
their appeal. Positions which you held before going over may now seem
ineffectual after the vision of war which you have beheld. In the months
of facing death and later of adjustment to a new condition, your outlook
has broadened beyond a mere material view. You have been in the fight
for world peace and safety, and the impetus gained in helping the other
fellow still carries you on. This feeling is not a weak sentiment, but
an appreciation of the fact that life has more windows than the one
which looks out on material welfare.
Perhaps no form of work offers more opportunity for a combination of
success in material and altruistic lines than safety and fire protection
engineering. Especially in safety engineering, a man himself disabled
carries to everyone with whom he comes in contact a warning and an
encouragement. There is nothing more inspirational than a man who has
ignored or made use of his handicap in his own forging ahead.
Handicapped himself, he may prevent others becoming so. The safety
engineer is a guardian of the people’s happiness and future. The work
offers to those who have the insight an opportunity to join in the
general drive for world safety from an industrial point of view and for
conserving human power.
This same inner purpose holds also in the case of the fire protection
engineer. To him falls in large part the work of saving the created and
natural resources of the nation. While it is true that men disabled by
amputation can not so easily take up this profession as that of safety
engineering, the war’s statistics show a larger percentage of the
returned men to be disabled by disease and internal wounds which have
undermined their strength than by dismemberments. For these men, the
vocation of fire protection engineer is particularly suitable.
No work which is done for the material gain alone can satisfy a man’s
ambition, and these two important professions are doors which open to
service as well as to material welfare.
PLAN No. 917. SAFETY ENGINEERING
Safety engineering in a broad sense of the term is a new profession in
industry which offers good opportunities for well-qualified men. It
undoubtedly offers a broader field than fire protection engineering, yet
in many ways these two professions are analogous and they are frequently
combined. A soldier or sailor disabled in service who wishes to be
trained for this vocation may be given the opportunity. In order to
benefit by the training and be assured of a good position in an
industrial plant, certain qualifications are necessary.
EDUCATION
A high-school education or its equivalent is practically essential, and
if this education has been secured in a technical high school it will
have especial value. Men who have had more advanced training in
technical schools, colleges, or universities stands a better chance than
others of becoming leaders in the profession. A knowledge of the
fundamentals of any of the other leading engineering professions is
helpful in safety engineering as in fire protection engineering.
PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS
To become a good safety engineer one needs to have a clear mind, capable
of analysis and of constructive thinking; a pleasing personality, and
the qualities of leadership. Safety engineering has quite as much to do
with the human element as it has with mechanics. In general, it is
divided into two parts; Structural engineering and engineering revision;
and mechanical safeguarding, coupled with safety organization in
industrial plants and educational methods aiming to reach managers,
superintendents, foremen, and workmen. It is apparent, therefore, that
mechanical and engineering technique, coupled with educational ability
and leadership, are necessary qualifications in safety engineers. As he
must respond to humanitarian as well as to business interests, the
safety engineer must be a man of sterling character, or moral
enthusiasm, and of broad human sympathies.
NATURE OF WORK
Safety work proper is divided into two essential branches--safeguarding
and education, both conducted under a well-planned scheme of
organization.
In the company and rating organization field the safety engineer will
make careful inspections, reporting upon many details from which the
risk is determined and the rate made.
A careful study of working conditions, a painstaking analysis of
accidents occurring under them, a searching inquiry into potential
causes of accidents that may not have occurred is made to determine
truly the hazards to which workmen are exposed. The correct means of
overcoming them are determined upon and put into effect. In order to
overcome the unfortunate lack of safety precautions when machines are
built or plants designed, it is an essential duty of the safety engineer
to check plans and specifications for new machinery, new equipment, new
construction, and for alterations, repairs and rearrangements, in order
to see that every safety requirement is covered so far as is possible.
Safety engineers must have the personality to get the sympathetic
interest and co-operation of men and bosses, and to get them interested
in his safety propaganda; to organize committees and campaigns; to make
men get the safety habit and think safety unconsciously. Safety
engineering is related to problems of industrial management, employment
and labor turnover. It has to do with welfare work, first aid treatment,
hospital service, etc. It is really human engineering, embracing all the
broad features that are implied thereby.
OPPORTUNITIES
The opportunities for well qualified men are many and constantly
increasing. There is undoubtedly a future in safety engineering for
those who are well trained for the work.
The nature of the casualty insurance business is such that men with the
technical training and skill of safety engineers are in more demand, in
the actual details of the business, than perhaps are the fire insurance
inspectors in the fire insurance field.
There is a close connection between workmen’s compensation insurance and
safety engineering due primarily to the fact that the insurance rate is
made to depend on safety conditions. This necessitates the employment of
a large number of inspectors and safety engineers. Up to the present
time there has been a demand for safety engineers and competent
inspectors far exceeding the supply, and it is believed that these
conditions will continue to exist, as industrial plants are now
absorbing a large number of these men.
The State compensation laws are awakening all of our industries to the
necessity of prevention of accidents to wage-earners. Large industrial
corporations have safety departments, with a chief safety engineer and
many assistants.
Capable safety engineers receive good salaries, and those especially
well qualified and experienced are often advanced to executive positions
in the larger industries.
State factory inspectors and casualty insurance inspectors receive from
$1,200 to $2,000 per year. Capable safety engineers in industry receive
from $1,500 to $5,000 per year.
The following excerpts from letters received from prominent men in the
casualty insurance and engineering field show the opportunities in this
profession:
“In the field of safety engineering there is an exceptionally good
opportunity for men who are adapted to this work. Even in normal times
employers in this field of endeavor have found difficulty in securing
men with proper educational foundations and ability. There is always a
demand for men in this field and the opportunities for advancement are
exceptionally good.”
“The field of safety engineering is a rapidly extending one. As the
people awake to the tremendous economic drain of the waste of life
through accidents, more and more attention will be given to these
matters, and the demand for men who understand them will strengthen.”
“The opportunities for safety engineering are as large, or larger than
the opportunities presented in other branches of engineering work. The
field has hardly been scratched on the surface.”
“There is without question an unusual opportunity for trained men in the
field of safety engineering. The rapid spread of the safety idea, and
the recognition of the importance of human relations in general, are
leading many manufacturing organizations to install safety departments,
and properly qualified men are not available for these positions.”
“Up to the present time there has been a great demand for safety
engineers and competent inspectors that was far beyond the supply, and
these conditions will continue to exist, as industrial plants are now
absorbing a large number of these men.”
PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS
A man with one eye, one arm, or one leg can be a good safety engineer.
Likewise, a man with a weak heart or lungs may be a good safety
engineer. Disabilities which disqualify men for many industrial pursuits
do not disqualify but may partially qualify them for safety engineers.
In other words, one does not need to be 100 per cent physically fit. In
fact, men who have suffered the loss of members may precisely, on that
account be more effective in teaching the principles, habits, and
practices of safety to men in our industries.
It will be noted that the physical requirements for a safety engineer
have not been made as rigid as those for a fire protection engineer.
This is because the great field of activity for a safety engineer is
employment at a manufacturing plant and the work can become more one of
the head and less one of physical perfection.
TRAINING
Men who have been disabled in the military or naval service of the
Government and wish to be trained for safety engineers will be trained
by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. The Board will make
arrangements with the safety organizations of the country to give
special courses for them. The teachers will be experienced safety
engineers. Part of the work will be classroom lectures and assigned
readings. The study of mechanical safeguards and hazards will be given
in a well-equipped institution, with visits to industries for personal
instruction in the methods of active operations. When the course in the
institution is completed, the men will be placed in the industries
themselves, under the direction of the head safety engineer, there to be
given the benefits of a further practical instruction, in order that
when the course has been completed the students may all be assured of
positions.
The National Safety Council, through its local councils, is establishing
courses in safety engineering in various centers as fast as a suitable
demand warrants, and classes are already under way in St. Louis,
Pittsburgh, and Rochester, N. Y.
The American Museum of Safety in New York City has a similar class under
consideration.
PLAN No. 918. FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING
Fire protection engineering, or fire insurance engineering, is a
well-established line of effort which has been raised to the dignity of
a profession during the past 20 years of its development. The fire
insurance inspector belongs to this profession, as do inspectors in
municipal fire prevention bureaus such as the large cities are
organizing as an auxiliary to their fire departments. There are certain
institutions in which instruction is given, and ways whereby a disabled
man discharged from the military and naval forces of the United States
may be trained for this vocation. In order to benefit by the training
and be assured of good opportunities, certain facts should be
considered.
EDUCATION
Primarily it may be conceded that the man who has had a technical
education can generally get on in the profession more rapidly than one
who has not. When technical knowledge and scientific attainments are
secured in the hard school of experience the graduate has paid dearly
for his lack of earlier training.
A distinction may be made between the requirements for fire protection
engineering proper and those for routine inspection work.
A well-equipped fire protection engineer should have the equivalent of a
sound engineering course, with a knowledge of the fundamentals or basic
principles involved in civil, architectural, mechanical, hydraulic,
electrical, and chemical engineering. These principles can be utilized
in the problems of plan drafting, proper building construction,
occupancy equipment, public and private fire protection, and common and
manufacturing hazards. Experience has demonstrated, however, that such
foundation is not absolutely essential, and that many possessing the
requisite personal qualifications have succeeded without it. For
instance, many industrial occupations provide valuable experience as a
foundation for development of the necessary technical ability. Men who
have had experience as building inspectors, construction or factory
engineers, piping foremen, estimators for automatic sprinkler concerns,
and men who have been employed in municipal fire departments or in
fire-alarm and signal work have been successful in routine inspection
work and have risen to places of eminence in the world of fire
protection engineering.
Graduates of engineering departments other than fire protection
engineering have repeatedly shown themselves to be readily adaptable to
work in this field, after a period of readjustment to enable them to
acquire the point of view necessary to a man to whom the causes and
prevention of fire, rather than other phases of engineering problems are
significant.
PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS
Whether technical qualifications be founded on training in a technical
school or be the result of later effort the aspirant for success as an
insurance inspector should be familiar with insurance practice, and
should be endowed with a broad complement of common sense. He should
have an inquisitive and observant mind, coupled with a desire to
investigate the “why and how” of every problem, a constantly receptive
brain, a retentive memory, and should be competent as a teacher of those
less thoughtful or less well informed than he.
Above all a successful fire protection engineer must not minimize the
importance of accurate observation and faithful reporting of small
details which may have most vital import in determining the conditions
of a plant.
Finally he should be resourceful and capable in planning and carrying
out to a successful issue the details of technical propositions.
Tact and judgment must be exercised when dealing with men who may not
always appreciate the viewpoint of the inspector, and courtesy is always
a prime essential.
NATURE OF WORK
It is the work of the inspector to scrutinize closely all conditions and
materials which may in any manner create or increase the fire hazard,
including the character and nature of raw stock or material used, all
the processes of manipulation, from its reception at the plant, its
handling and storage, to the completion of the operations necessary to
produce the finished goods or article. The inspector must carefully note
and define the hazards incident to each state of progress where physical
or other changes affecting the conditions may take place. In addition to
these purely technical investigations and conclusions, he should closely
observe and study “shop practice” or management, including supervision
and discipline of employees, as related to the cleanliness and care of
hazards, which form the basis of “good housekeeping” and are important
essentials in securing safety from fire in all classes of property.
The apparatus and appliances for fire protection or fire defense need to
be very critically examined and described. This often necessitates going
into dark basements or low pits to locate automatic sprinkler valves,
etc. Water-supply tanks for automatic sprinkler systems have to be
climbed to examine their condition and to ascertain water levels, and
when the assent and co-operation of the insured can be secured, tests
for efficiency of such devices as fire pumps should be undertaken. The
nature and condition of the structure forming the plant or risk require
careful consideration and full description, and finally, the information
gained is generally embodied in a written report of such lucidity as to
convey a mental photograph of the hazards and conditions to the minds of
those who have to decide upon the acceptability of the risk from an
underwriting viewpoint.
OPPORTUNITIES
Fire protection engineers are employed at the present time largely by
insurance companies, either individually as company field engineers or
collectively in the inspection and rating organizations. Every important
geographical section in the country has somewhere within it an insurance
organization consisting either of an insurance exchange or rating board
for making insurance rates and specifying requirements for improvements,
and an engineering or inspection bureau for making surveys, inspections,
and reports to its members. Large municipalities are cared for by local
rating boards. Many large corporations are employing engineers, often
with the title of “Fire marshal,” and others combine their fire
insurance affairs, both business and engineering, in the office of a
“Superintendent of insurance.”
Insurance engineers are frequently called to a company home office,
after having had a good field experience, to take charge of the
underwriting or passing upon the business offered in special
departments, for the business requiring a technical or engineering
knowledge. These are variously known as “Improved risk departments,”
“Sprinklered risk departments,” etc., because the use of automatic
sprinklers is fundamental in fire protection and required in risks
accepted by such departments. One of the best avenues of approach to
good home office positions is through the field experience of a fire
protection engineer, employed by an inspection bureau or by an
individual company.
There is a marked tendency among the larger insurance agencies and
brokerage offices, in striving to render service to their customers, to
employ fire protection engineers as a means of obtaining and holding
business by reason of their superior technical knowledge.
Training obtained as an insurance or fire protection engineer is one of
the best means of acquiring the technical knowledge requisite for
success as a broker, by one who would become an expert buyer of
insurance, able to study the needs of his clients, advise with regard to
the kind of insurance to purchase, work out satisfactory contracts, and
negotiate with the rating authorities to secure the lowest cost.
The agency end of the business offers the greatest financial
inducements, since one may develop a clientele of his own, receiving
commission on the amount of business he can bring into the office, and
may perhaps become a partner in the business.
Trained inspectors are rarely employed for less than $1,200, and
salaries run up to $2,400 for field men. Chief engineers of
organizations, engineers in agencies, and company executives obtain much
more.
The following excerpts from letters received from prominent men in the
fire insurance and engineering field show the opportunities in this
profession:
“The opportunities in the field of fire protection engineering were
never greater that at the present time, as the public now seems to be in
a receptive mood as regards conservation of all resources.”
“There is a constant demand among fire insurance companies for practical
fire protection engineers. The number employed by any one company is not
great but the number is growing now that insurance companies as a whole
are getting to appreciate the constant dangers of conflagration areas,
poor water supply, poor fire equipment, and other kindred effects.”
“There is a splendid opportunity in what is called the inspection or
rating bureau service, as even prior to our country entering the war
there was always a shortage of competent help.”
“In the inspection and engineering branch of fire insurance a wide field
can be readily opened to disabled soldiers and sailors as well as to
other discharged service men.”
“Several months ago one inspection bureau formulated tentatively its own
employment plan, which in brief was, ‘first, to re-employ its former men
now with the colors, and to thereafter give preference to disabled
soldiers and sailors.’”
“In the field of fire protection there are comparatively so few trained
men in this vocation to-day that the opportunity is unlimited. Where
yesterday the idea was the protection of property by fire departments,
water supply, etc., to-day it is one of fire prevention, i. e., checking
the cause of fire before it may have an opportunity to do any damage.
Fire prevention to-day is confined mainly to organizations covering wide
fields. There is no question but what in the future each industrial
plant of any size will have their own fire protection or fire prevention
engineer, and probably the same will be extended to each city of any
considerable size.”
“Graduates of the Armour Institute of Technology and former students who
have not graduated have been in demand. In most cases the employment
entered into immediately after graduation has been moderately
remunerative, but advancement has been much more rapid than in the case
of untrained men. A few graduates have been employed by companies
manufacturing and installing automatic sprinkler equipments. The typical
case is that of a man who enters an inspection bureau, and after three
or four years assumes work of responsibility with a fire insurance
company. Recently several companies have shown a tendency to depart from
the traditional plan of looking to the bureaus as training schools, and
have engaged men with the Institute’s degree, but without field
experience. A large proportion of the classes of 1917 and 1918, who
entered military or naval service upon leaving school, will probably be
employed by insurance companies immediately after discharge from the
service. There are now, as at all times, in the history of the
department, applications for more graduates than are available.”
PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS
Disfigurements or physical incapacities which are not too serious need
not be a handicap for pursuing the profession of fire protection
engineering. These can be more than offset by good education, technical
training, a pleasing personality, and enthusiasm for the work.
It must be remembered, however, that this work involves a great deal of
traveling, either about the country or locally in large centers,
carrying usually two grips. While making an inspection, an engineer is
constantly called upon to climb around in unfinished buildings, and
through manholes to roofs, which ordinarily requires the use of both
hands and legs. Measurements are made, notes taken, plans drawn, and
reports written up.
Minor handicaps, such as loss of an eye, pieces of bone removed, claw
hand, stiff knee joint, or slight limp, etc., need not debar men from
the profession. Those having tubercular tendencies to a degree
necessitating an active outdoor life, should be materially benefited,
and should recover both health and strength by this line of activity.
This would apply to other cases where fresh air and activity are
desirable but it must also be borne in mind that a certain amount of
physical stamina is necessary, and that exposure to weather, walking and
climbing about for many hours at a stretch, might affect some forms of
disability adversely.
It is obvious that loss of a leg or an arm, except in unusual cases,
would be a serious handicap. Field experience is important as a means of
training for inside consulting, or executive work in this profession.
However, men who have become used to artificial limbs can best judge if
they are qualified to undertake these activities.
TRAINING
The Federal Board for Vocational Education will make arrangements with
certain institutions and insurance organizations of the country to give
special courses for men who have been disabled in the military or naval
service of the Government who wish to be trained as fire protection
engineers.
We believe that at present the only regular four-year college course in
fire protection engineering is that offered by Armour Institute of
Technology. Special courses and facilities for amplification are offered
by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Worcester Polytechnical
Institute, Columbia University, Cornell University, Stevens Institute,
Washington University, and perhaps by other institutions.
Experienced engineers believe that men who have started college courses,
especially in engineering branches, should continue them, keeping in
mind the line of work they contemplate pursuing, and should then
supplement their college work by entering the employ of an inspection
bureau.
A course of fire protection engineering is offered by the American
School of Correspondence. The Insurance Institute of America, through
its several branches in local insurance or insurance library
associations throughout the country, has offered night school lecture
courses. Plans are being considered, if there is a warrantable demand in
any given locality, to offer a more intensive bureau. In some cases
these inspection bureaus may cooperate to the extent of giving a
well-rounded training to a man who has had sufficient general technical
education or experience to justify such action.
PLAN No. 919. THE METAL TRADES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
This monograph was prepared by Eugene C. Graham, Special Agent for the
Federal Board, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the
Research Division. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the
Research Division for editorial assistance.
A METAL-WORKING AGE.
Nearly every industry depends to some extent, and most industries depend
to a very great extent, upon metal working, either by employing metal
workers directly in some processes, or by using metal products as raw
materials in the manufacture of other products, or at least by using
tools, implements, machines, and engines, which are products of
metal-working trades and industries. And, in addition, these trades and
industries produce a great variety of finished utensils and furniture
ready for consumption in households. More than any other ours is a
metal-working age.
MACHINE WORK AND HANDWORK.
Metals must be worked largely by machine processes, but they must be
worked also in many instances by hand processes. All-round machinists
and other metal workers must know how to operate machines, but they must
also be skilled artisans capable of using a variety of hand tools. Bench
hands, assemblers, and specialists in many lines are hand workers and
only incidentally if at all machine operators.
If you like machinery and tools, and working with durable
materials--working with steel and other less difficult metals as the
carpenter works with wood, you can almost certainly find some line of
metal working in which you can succeed, whatever your disability.
In the metal-working trades there is every variety of handwork and
footwork and headwork to be done, light work and heavy work, work in
shop or factory and work in the open, bench work and machine work,
highly skilled as well as simple routine work.
TRADE TRAINING FOR PROMOTION.
Promotion comes to trained men who acquire dexterity in handling tools,
in operating machines, in manipulating various metals. It comes easily
to men trained broadly, who are able to deal intelligently with any
problems that may arise in their line of work.
If you decide to enter one of the metal-working trades, you should take
training for the trade, rather than for some job in the trade. Learn the
trade rather than simply how to operate some one machine, or how to do
one simple task, and you can then accept promotion in the trade, and
make good at any job in it.
WHAT METAL WORKERS PRODUCE.
Everything in metal from a minute screw to a locomotive engine--from a
tin can to a great gun casting. They produce machines to produce
machines, and with tools and machines which they themselves produce,
they produce every sort of metal product or metal part of a product,
including machinery and equipment for the farm, the factory, and the
home.
Nearly every article of common use, whether made of metal or of other
material, is more or less a machine product, and practically the whole
machinery for producing nonmetal as well as metal products is originally
the product of the metal trades.
Specifically the product of a machine shop may be a complete machine, a
rebuilt or repaired machine or machine part sold to other firms. For
such a product raw material of cast iron, sheet iron, steel of varying
degrees of hardness, wrought iron, brass, or bronze, comes from the
foundry or from a stock department in which are kept sheets, steel bars,
castings and forgings. Much of the labor in some shops must be employed
in producing shop equipment, including formed cutters, reamers, drills,
and various metal working tools made in the shop.
PROCESSES.
Molding, which is a basic operation in the metal industries, is a
comparatively simple process especially when standardized parts are
being cast, and it is not necessarily heavy work since castings in
various metals, may be of any size and weight. Molten metal, pure or
alloyed, is poured into a mold formed by a pattern in sand or loam. In
many instances castings must be finished by machinery.
When a part is to be subjected to hard usage or to severe strains and
stresses, forging or hammering rather than casting may be the process
employed in shaping it. Drop forgings are made by means of automatic
power hammers and dies. With few exceptions forgings, also, must be
finished by machining.
Sheet-metal workers lay out work on sheet metal, cut it, shape or bend
it, and solder, rivet or weld it into various forms, such as are
required in building up ornamental cornices for buildings, or in
constructing hot-air heating apparatus, or in manufacturing filing
cases, various sorts of containers, and many other articles. Some of the
work is outside work, but an increasing number of processes are being
performed in the shop with the use of machinery. Metal stamping and
electric welding machines are used to form and weld together parts of,
for example, automobile bodies, doors, and fenders.
Of all the metal-working trades, that of the machinist is the most
varied in its hand and machinery processes, although many workmen never
learn more in the trade than how to operate some one automatic machine,
or how to do some one simple task. In general the machinist should know
how to operate all of the machinery of his trade, and in addition he
must acquire skill of hand in metal working, and especially in the
processes of building, repairing, assembling, and erecting every sort of
engine and machine.
PLAN No. 920. MOLDERS
VARIETY OF EMPLOYMENTS.
Foundry employments generally will not be found to be suitable for men
who have suffered serious physical injuries, or for men whose physical
strength has been seriously impaired by exposure or illness, and they
are not generally employments for which any extended course of training
is required. These employments are, however, more varied in character
than they are commonly supposed to be, and some lines of molding and
casting may very well be undertaken by men who have been disabled,
especially in cases where previous experience and training in foundry
work will prove helpful.
Practically all floor molding is heavy work. Shovels and various hand
tools are used in building molds around patterns or templates which
determine shape and size of castings. Bench molding and machine molding,
on the other hand, may involve no considerable physical strains, and
many operations in machine molding can be done with one hand. Some lines
of bench molding may be done sitting at the bench and do not require the
molder to move about in the foundry.
PROMOTION.
In welding as in other trades, advancement comes to specialists, and to
those who acquire such technical knowledge as is practically useful in
the various lines. Some training in metallurgy, for example, will have
value where alloys of vanadium, chromium, tungsten, nickel, and
manganese are used, and the expert molder who can calculate quickly and
accurately, and can handle men may expect promotion to foremanship.
HOURS AND WAGES.
Working hours in foundries vary from 8 to 9 a day, and wages of molders
in private concerns range from 50 to 75 cents an hour, the Government
rate in railroad shops being 88 cents. Pieceworkers in stove foundries
and in other shops where machines are used earn highest wages.
CORE MAKING.
Core making is lighter work than molding, since cores are generally
smaller and lighter than molds or castings. The core maker often works
at a bench, with a mixture of core sand and binder, which he rams
tightly into molds. Comparatively little training is required and such
disabilities as partial loss of sight or hearing, loss of fingers or
thumbs, stiffness of knee, ankle or hip joint, and weakness of heart or
lungs, need not be serious handicaps.
MACHINE MOLDING.
In well equipped plants machines do most of the ramming, turn over the
mold, draw the pattern, and do away with much heavy lifting. Machine
molders usually work by the piece, and must be active and quick to earn
good wages.
TRAINING.
Foundry work is taught in many schools, but only a few schools have been
able to keep up with the industry in providing machinery.
PLAN No. 921. SHEET-METAL WORKERS
DEMAND FOR WORKERS.
The sheet-metal worker is the survival in modern industry of the village
tinner or tinsmith, and the demand for these workers is large and
increasing.
In the building trades, in ship building, in automobile and airplane
construction, and in the manufacture of furniture, kitchen ware, heating
and ventilating apparatus men of skill and experience in sheet-metal
working are required.
WHAT THE WORKER DOES.
Workmen at the trade are mainly occupied in cutting out shapes or
patterns, bending and forming these shapes on machines or with hand
tools, and assembling the parts by hand. Edges are fastened together by
riveting, soldering, or by lock seams. For example, a shaving-exhaust
system consists of suction pipes, an exhaust fan, and a large pipe
leading to the outlet, at which point is a dust separator called a
cyclone. Practically all of the system is built of galvanized iron in
sections, which are first constructed in the shop, then erected and
supported in place in the factory where it is to be used. All of this
work, including the erecting, is done by sheet-metal workers.
It is the work of the journeyman in a job shop to use the common
machines for cutting and forming the sheets of metal, to rivet or solder
the parts together, and to fasten them in place on buildings or in any
location where the product is used.
This job-shop worker is, therefore, commonly both an outside and an
inside worker. He must know how to place on buildings all the roofing,
skylights, gutters, down spouts, cornices, metal ceilings, etc., needed
in the construction. He installs air ducts for hot-air furnaces and for
ventilating systems. He may be called on for a variety of repairs on
sheet metal--to line tanks with lead, copper, or zinc, and to make and
attach guards for machinery. The material for this work is bought in the
form of sheets of various sizes, and the workman spends a large part of
his time in the shop cutting up his material and working it into the
required form.
Extreme accuracy of measurement is seldom necessary, and not much
attention is paid to finish since much of the work is immediately
painted.
In the building of ships there is a great variety of sheet-metal work
done. Heavier gauge metal is used than on most architectural work and
the joints are more often required to be oil and water tight.
In the automobile and motor truck industry many men are employed in the
making and assembling of bodies, fenders, tanks, and radiators. Much of
the formed work is drawn to shape in large presses, the finished shapes
being assembled by hand.
Large factories now produce most of the kitchen utensils and stamped
sheet-metal ware. This ware is coated with enamel or japan, or plated
with nickel. Tin plate is still used, but sheet aluminum and enameled
steel ware are fast taking its place. The manufacture of metal
containers for canned fruits, meats and fish, oils, and sirups is an
important industry. Very few machines for any purpose could dispense
with sheet-metal parts without increasing the weight or the cost. In
building construction the use of sheet metal is increasing, and when
properly protected with paint it is both durable and inexpensive. Sheet
metal is taking the place of wood for lath, sash, and trim for fireproof
construction in large office buildings. It is used, also, in the
manufacture of metal furniture for schools and offices.
TOOLS AND MACHINES.
Tools and machines used by sheet metal workers include the following:
Hand tools.--Hammers, punches, chisels, hand snips or shears, rivet
sets, rule, soldering outfit, and a variety of stakes of different
shapes and sizes.
Hand and power machines.--Turning, burring, forming, setting, grooving,
double seaming, beading, wiring, and folding machines, circular, rotary
and squaring shears, cornice brake, and presses for drawing hollow ware.
REQUIREMENTS.
Shopwork in sheet metal does not require men of great strength or
quickness of movement. The machines are operated with the right hand and
the stock supported with the left. To be of value to the shop a man
should know something about pattern drafting, but many workmen are
unable to lay out new work, and must work from old patterns or depend on
the foreman for help. A sheet-metal worker needs fairly good eyesight,
two hands with strong fingers, and on construction work a clear head and
good use of his limbs. Requirements for outside work are quite different
from those for inside work in the shop.
HOURS AND WAGES.
Hours of labor average about nine a day, but in Government work the
standard is eight hours.
Wages range from 45 to 85 cents per hour, but will average about 65
cents, with 68 cents as the union scale on Government work.
FUTURE OF THE EMPLOYMENT.
There seems to be no reason for doubting that this occupation will
remain a very stable one. After the war it may be difficult to absorb
into industry all the men who have been trained as sheet-metal workers
for shipbuilding, but it is certain that the normal requirements of the
building trades, the automobile industry, and airplane construction will
take many men.
REEDUCATION.
No single course of instruction will fit all cases. If a man can shift
from general outside and inside work to inside work exclusively, it will
be possible for him to learn the drafting of patterns to great advantage
to himself and to the shop. Skill in soldering may also be acquired by
practice and will increase the man’s earning capacity. Competent foremen
are very much in demand, and they should be trained in drafting and in
estimating the cost of construction.
This ability to estimate costs on job work can be attained by special
training and would make a disabled man more independent of his handicap.
For the disabled man any course which provides only the theory will fail
absolutely in making a man useful to the average employer. It will be
necessary to locate the man in a selected situation where his handicap
will count for the least and then train him to overcome entirely the
handicap. If the school can help with this training the man should go to
school, but in a majority of cases it will be necessary for the shop to
provide the training, supplemented by evening courses or
correspondence-school work. The latter would be quite satisfactory in
pattern-drafting and cost-estimating courses.
PLAN No. 922. FACTORY WORKERS
Factory production of articles made of sheetmetal implies that machines
will be used where possible. Parts will be stamped out with dies and
hollow ware drawn to shape in large presses. The hand operations, as a
rule, will be confined to riveting, soldering, and assembling parts.
Where disabled men can qualify it will not be difficult to place them on
machines or at hand operations. While the pay will be lower than in the
outdoor branch of the trade, work will be steadier and less dependent on
weather conditions. Men with a variety of disabilities can find places.
Training will be given on the job by foremen. Previous experience in any
branch of sheet-metal work will be of value, and since the machines are
largely automatic, only a short period of training will be required.
The position of foreman of a department is worth striving for, and the
qualities which will help a man to overcome handicaps will also help him
to get a foreman’s position, in which he will be largely independent of
physical disabilities.
PLAN No. 923. MACHINISTS AND MACHINE OPERATORS
Previous training and experience in some of these metal-working
employments will greatly help you if you elect to take up some related
line of work. With a little training to overcome your handicap, you may
be able to resume your old employment or one in which your previous
training and experience will count.
MACHINES OPERATED
Machinists work with the following machines:
Metal turning.--Speed lathes; screw-cutting lathes; engine lathes;
turret lathes; shaft and wheel lathes; automatic lathes.
Planing.--Planers; slotters; shapers; gear planers.
Milling.--Hand-feed millers; plain and universal milling machines;
planer type millers; special milling and hobbing machines.
Drilling and boring.--Sensitive drills; vertical drilling machines;
radial drills; multiple drills; horizontal and vertical boring machines,
and boring mills.
Grinding.--Rough, wet, and dry grinders; tool grinders; cylindrical and
special shaping grinders; planer type grinders; disk grinders.
Machines for special operations.--Bolt and nut machines; automatic screw
machines; broaching machines; cutting-off saws; profiling machines;
chasing and engraving machines; rifling machines.
SHOP CONDITIONS
The machinist and machine operator work sometimes in a room crowded with
machines, and frequently under artificial light, but usually in a room
with plenty of air properly heated. Most of the machines are
safeguarded, but there is always danger of accident from moving trucks,
flying particles of metal, and sometimes from unprotected belts, gears,
and shafting. State laws and inspection may be counted on to reduce this
danger materially. Most well-organized shops have announced safety rules
to promote the health of the men and to reduce the number of accidents.
Hours of labor average from eight to nine a day. There is a tendency
toward a standard eight-hour day, which is already established in
Government work. There is usually an increase in the hourly rate for
overtime work. Many shops pay according to a piecework rate or premium
plan. The trade is fairly well organized, especially in job and railroad
shops.
EQUIPMENT OF THE WORKER
It is common practice for a machinist to provide himself with a kit of
tools useful in his work. This outfit usually includes steel scales,
inside and outside calipers, hammer, surface gauge, punches, and an
indefinite collection of other tools of less importance. All classes of
workmen, in fact, depend more or less on the shop tool room, and men
beginning their employment often have nothing but a steel scale.
OPPORTUNITY FOR PROMOTION
A highly skilled general machinist who can handle men has an excellent
opportunity to become a foreman, and workers who understand the
technique of their trade may fairly expect to advance rapidly in wages
and position. Men who can figure costs and devise economies in
production especially are in demand.
FUTURE OF THE TRADE
The war has very greatly increased production in machine shops. The
manufacture of guns and munitions and the demands of the shipbuilding
industry for tools and machinery for ships have multiplied the demand
for men many times. While there must be a readjustment after the war, it
is certain that the manufacture of standard products will be very
greatly in arrears, and since all industry, including agriculture,
transportation, and the arts, depend on the machine shops for their
product, there will be a continued demand for trained men.
Wages
Where machinists or machine operators receive wages at an hourly rate
this rate approximates the Government scale in railroad shops, which is
68 cents an hour. In shops where the piecework or premium plan prevails,
the amount earned by employees varies. It is safe to say that most men
employed at any branch of the trade get more than $4 a day in wages.
MUSCULAR STRAIN
A machinist is commonly expected to do some lifting, varying from very
light weights to more than 100 pounds. Operators of large machines doing
heavy work are often provided with air hoists or jib cranes or with
chain hoists to help serve their machines. Probably the operator of a
machine working on medium weight parts on lathes or grinding machines
may have the maximum of physical strain, due to the quality production
expected of him.
YOUR DISABILITY
It would be foolish to make many general statements as to the effect of
the loss of various members on the future of a man who desires to be a
machinist or a machine operator. So much depends on the will power of
the man and on the exercise of wisdom and foresight in selecting a line
of work. Talk it over with the placement officer.
A study of the rehabilitation in industry of those injured in industrial
accidents shows that most men have been taken back to work after such
injuries as the loss of fingers, thumbs, one eye, or similar accidents.
Others with more serious injuries have often been taken on again and
provided with jobs, perhaps as watchmen or gate tenders, without any
reeducation. They accepted their job, lived up their industrial
insurance, and were down and out industrially. This should not happen to
the man injured in industry, and must not happen to you, because there
is a better way which will keep you in a good wage-earning occupation
and make you independent.
It will be necessary, of course, for you to take account, not only of
your physical condition and of the requirements of the trade, but also
of your previous experience, your resources, and your aptitudes.
PLAN No. 924. BENCH HANDS
KIND OF WORK DONE
In the construction of machinery, including the repair of worn and
broken parts, there are many operations which can not conveniently be
done on machines. This work is done by hand at a bench, fitted with a
vise for holding the work. The work done consists of chipping and
filling to remove metal, the laying out of centers, circular arcs, lines
and limits for the operator, and a variety of operations which require
the use of hand tools.
Examples of this work are:
Fitting piston rings to grooves and to standard test gauges.
Filing machined parts to provide smooth surfaces, and to remove burrs.
Laying out and marking parts for drilling and other operations. Much of
this work is necessary in making special jigs and fixtures to increase
quantity production.
TOOLS
The bench hand uses a variety of files, marking punches, light and heavy
hammers, cold chisels, measuring tools and gauges, and often uses hand
or power machines, such as bench drills, hand taps and dies.
HOURS, WAGES, AND CONDITIONS OF WORK
The hours of labor are as a minimum forty-eight a week, and will average
between fifty-one and fifty-four. Wages are generally according to the
scale paid to machinists and are subject to overtime, piecework, and
premium rate changes. For instance, the wage scale in railroad shops is
now 68 cents per hour and in shipyards 72 cents. Other shops seldom pay
as much, but the union scale is from 50 cents to 75 cents an hour in
sections where large shops predominate.
The health of the worker is not apt to be impaired by his work, as the
muscular strain is not severe, and the sanitary conditions of shops are
not generally unfavorable.
The importance of the bench worker in the metal-working industry is
decreasing with the increased use of automatic machines, jigs, and
fixtures which do away with laying out, and with improvements in molding
and casting. All repair work in railroad, automobile, and other shops,
however, require much handwork at the bench.
HANDICAPS
Filing, chipping, hammering, etc., may be done by men provided with an
artificial hand or arm. The training required before a man can become
accustomed to this substitute will take some time, since the bench
worker is required to use a variety of tools, and the output of work
will depend on the skill of the worker in handling these tools.
Previous experience in the employment will go a long way toward starting
a man in the trade again. The use of hand tools is relatively less
complicated than that of machine tools, and previous experience should
provide the man with the essential knowledge of processes.
Reeducation for any line of bench work should take all possible
advantage of previous experience. Many of the things done by the bench
hand can be taught in a school in short courses, but experience at the
bench on productive work may be obtained at the same time. If the school
is provided with satisfactory benches of the proper height and with
standard vises, the course may require no longer than from three to six
months, allowing for instruction in the reading of blue prints, the use
of tools, and for getting accustomed to the work again.
PLAN No. 925. ASSEMBLERS AND ERECTORS
The parts which go to make up the finished machines come from the shop
and after inspection are ready to be put together. Men who work at a
bench in the assembling room or on the erecting floor fasten these parts
together.
ASSEMBLING WORK
Examples of heavy work are found in the assembling of locomotives,
stationary and marine engines, mining and pumping machinery, printing
presses, rolling mills, and sugar machinery; of medium work in the
assembling of gas and gasoline engines, farm machinery, automobiles, and
trucks; of light work in the assembling of sewing machines, shoe
machinery, cream separators, and typewriters.
Machinists who assemble medium and light machinery receive the parts
from the stock room after they have been inspected for accuracy and
finish, and bolt them together. Frequently mechanical means are used to
carry the parts to the assembler, who bolts them in place on the frame
of the machine. This is common in automobile factories.
From the assembling room the machines go to be tested or to be painted
and prepared for shipment.
In contract work in job shops the routine described is not usually
followed, and the work is performed by all-around men who take the place
of the assemblers.
ERECTING WORK
Machinists who work as erectors usually fit the parts together, bolt
them solidly, then test the machine for alignment. Shafting is fitted to
bearings and sliding surfaces brought into contact by scraping with
steel scrapers. Oil grooves are cut in bearing surfaces and all
accessory parts fitted. Then in most cases the machine is taken down for
shipment, and after reaching its destination is erected again on
permanent foundations. Traveling machinists are frequently sent out from
the shop to do this work in the field.
TOOLS
Assemblers and erectors use a variety of wrenches, hammers, and other
tools. They are often provided with cranes and hoists for all heavy
lifting. In the field they may have to devise special means of moving
heavy machinery.
HOURS, WAGES, AND CONDITIONS OF WORK
The hours and wages of labor are the same as for the machine operators
and bench men, the hours ranging from forty-eight to fifty-four a week.
The position of the assembler or erector is very important. There is no
possibility of his being displaced by the introduction of machinery. The
increase of production will demand more men, but it is fair to say that
there are very many men who are qualified to fill the lower grades of
work in this occupation. Only through experience and training on the job
can men learn to be competent machinist erectors. These men hold
responsible positions in industry and there is a constant demand for
competent men.
HANDICAPS
The workman in this branch of the trade must be active and have physical
strength, good eyesight, and considerable skill in the use of hand
tools. He should know something about machine-tool processes, and may
find it necessary to operate machines on occasion. Any handicap must be
considered from the point of view of the man and the job he expects to
take. If the man has had experience in the given line of work and wants
to reenter it, he will be a very good judge of his own ability.
Nearly every disabled man who has previous experience in a machine shop
will find it possible to use this experience to advantage.
Handicapped men who are preparing to enter this occupation may be
trained in special classes in the factory where the work is done. A
group of ten or twelve such men may be taken to a large factory and
trained for special jobs under the instruction of a practical teacher.
PLAN No. 926. THE PRACTICE OF OPTOMETRY AND THE TRAINING IT REQUIRES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The material of this monograph was compiled by S. Reid Warren, editor of
The Keystone Magazine of Optometry, assisted by several successful
practicing optometrists, to whom acknowledgment is gratefully accorded.
The monograph has been prepared under the direction of Charles H.
Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for
Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due Dr. John Cummings, of the
Research Division, for editorial assistance.
It is an indisputable fact that the efficiency of the American troops
during the late war was greater than that of any other army. One factor
which contributed largely to their success is apt to be overlooked by
the casual observer, but excited comment wherever our troops were
thickest in the fray: _Our men were properly glassed_.
You, for whom this monograph is written, well know how thoroughly and
systematically your eyes were examined. Perhaps you do not know that the
actual testing of your eyes and the adoption of proper glasses whenever
necessary to bring vision up to normal was done in a number of camps by
optometrists.
What an important part glasses played in the success of our Army and
Navy is a chapter yet to be written.
Now that the conflict is over it is fitting to call attention to the
opportunity of entering a profession which has contributed so much to
the winning of the war. And as optometry is a comparatively strange word
to those not personally concerned with the profession, an explanation of
its meaning had best preface this monograph.
WHAT IS AN OPTOMETRIST?
An optometrist examines eyes for the detection and correction of
_visual_ or _muscular_ defects not requiring medical attention. He uses
no drugs; he does not treat _diseases_ of the eye, nor does he practice
surgery. To one not familiar with optical sciences it may be difficult
to comprehend, then, what the work of the optometrist includes.
Comparison of his work with two better known and somewhat related
vocations--that of the oculist and that of the optician--will perhaps be
the quickest method of explaining the practice of optometry.
First, let it be understood that the human eye may be considered as a
refracting and focusing mechanism, similar to a camera, as well as an
organ subject to diseases like any other part of our body.
An _oculist_ (a physician who specializes on the eye) deals both with
refraction and muscular deficiencies, and with pathological or diseased
conditions.
An _optometrist_, on the other hand, specializes on the functions of the
eye as a refracting and focusing apparatus.
An _optician_ grinds the lenses and puts together the necessary fittings
to form the eyeglasses prescribed by the oculist or the optometrist.
TYPE OF MAN REQUIRED
The serious nature of the optometrist’s work--the care of human
vision--makes it imperative that only men of good moral character and
high ideals be admitted to the practice of optometry. An optometrist
should be more interested in helping his patient than in making money;
he should be tactful, and not only professionally competent, but of the
type of personality that inspires confidence. He should realize that the
completion of his course of technical instruction and the receipt of a
license to practice merely mark matriculation in a postgraduate course
stretching out to the end of his days of practice. He should not enter
the profession of optometry unless willing to continue the study of
never-ending developments in this science and practice.
LENGTH OF PREPARATORY TRAINING
As the optometrist takes up little in medical studies, his technical
training requires a briefer time than that of the physician or oculist.
The optometrist, of course, must be able to recognize the symptoms of
eye diseases, but does not attempt to remedy them; he refers such cases
to a physician.
In view of the lesser scope of the work of the optometrist his course of
technical training covers only two to four years, as against four to
seven years for medical education.
The practice of optometry is regulated by law in 41 States, and in
Hawaii, Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, and Alaska. These laws usually
require a general education equivalent to two years of high school
instruction and (before admission to examination for a license)
completion of a course in a school of optometry having an approved
two-year course, in addition to one year of practical service in an
optometrist’s office.
The laws of the different States vary considerably as to these
requirements, and the prospective optometrist should inform himself as
to the provisions of the law in the State in which he expects to
practice. A few optometry laws have reciprocity clauses, making it
permissible for licensees of one State to practice in another.
Most of the schools have two-year courses--some longer. One of the
universities--Ohio State--has an optometry course laid out over a period
of four years. The course at Columbia University is planned to cover two
years. In a number of instances it has been covered in one year by
students who were exceptionally well prepared. The studies in optical
subjects can be counted toward a B. S. degree, for which four years are
required, as is usual. Besides these universities, a number of schools
of optometry in various parts of the country have two to three year
courses. A list of such schools and their addresses may be obtained from
the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
THE OPTOMETRIST’S WORK
The word “optometry” is made up of two Greek words: optos, visible and
metron, a measure, meaning the measurement of the visual powers.
Examination for detection of visual deficiencies includes tests by the
use of charts and of certain precise measuring instruments. For example:
One instrument permits inspection of the interior of the eye; another,
measurement of the curvature of the cornea; still another, the field of
vision. With the data obtained by the intelligent use of all these
instruments the optometrist can determine the nature of the lenses
required to correct any refractive errors found.
Formerly glasses were given merely as an aid to vision, now they are
prescribed for the relief of strain and its resultant symptoms, such as
headache, etc. They are also supplied for efficiency and protection
purposes to factory employees, for some workmen without glasses will
exhibit as much eye fatigue in 5 hours as others will in 10; and
employers are now recognizing this to their own advantage.
Thus the field of usefulness and profit for optometrists is ever
enlarging.
INDOOR WORK--PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
An optometrist confines his practice to office work, there being no
traveling or outdoor activity. If desired, his office may be established
in his own home. As the work is all indoors, there is no great physical
strain. While sound health and normal strength are always desirable,
robustness is not a first requirement of this vocation; nor is
possession of all the members essential. A man who has lost a hand, an
arm, a leg, or even both legs could successfully practice the profession
of optometry, if properly fitted with artificial equipment. It is also
quite possible for a man with one eye to practice optometry. To a
determined man this would not prove an insurmountable obstacle, though
he might be at a disadvantage because some patients might think he could
not do his work as well. This is, of course, unreasonable, but should be
considered. Several instances are known to the writer of successful
optometrists who have lost the sight of one eye through cataract or
other cause.
A Colorado woman who has been practicing optometry for a number of years
sums up some of the advantages of this profession in the following
words:
“There are fewer objectionable features, and more to commend the
practice of optometry than in any other profession or semiprofession. No
midnight calls, as in the case of the physician, no direct contact, as
in osteopathy, or chiropractic; no proximity to offensive breath, as in
dentistry. Variety and fascination attach to the work, besides the joy
that comes with doing something that relieves suffering and is
beneficial to humanity. The time required for preparation and getting
established is somewhat less than for other professions; the expense
incurred more moderate.”
THE DEMAND FOR OPTOMETRISTS
No man taking up the study of optometry need fear a lack of opportunity
when his course is completed. There is a scarcity of optometrists all
over this broad land, and in thousands of optometrists’ offices to-day
opportunities are open for assistants. As such, an optometrist can
develop a following, and eventually start for himself. Moreover, the
call of young men to the defence of their country cut down the number of
students in this, as in all other vocations; hence the number of
graduates from the optometric schools and colleges is insufficient to
meet the demand.
Another advantage in following this vocation is the fact that the
profession is still in the formative stage. For this reason there are
unusual opportunities for progressive, studious, conscientious men of
the professional type.
The hours of work, which are regular, are of course determined by the
individual practitioner; the man who has established his own office can
make his hours to suit his own convenience. If he is employed by another
optometrist, he will find the hours are not as long as in many other
callings.
SCOPE OF A COURSE IN OPTOMETRY
The curriculum of the course in applied optics in one of our leading
universities will give a comprehensive survey of the branches of
scientific knowledge forming the science of optometry. The following
subjects are included in this course: Chemistry, anatomy, physics,
physiology, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, bacteriology, optics,
psychology, drawing, pathology, and English composition. Under
theoretical and applied optics are of course grouped the chief subjects
bearing upon the science and practice of optometry. The mathematical
studies are necessary as a foundation for an understanding of the
optical science.
While the university course, in its cultural as well as technical
development, is desirable, still, as in other professions and callings,
success and service are not dependent upon the completion of such a
course. But general education, culture and personality developed
therefrom are all potent factors in success in any profession, and
should be acquired from one source or another before or during technical
training.
POSSIBLE INCOME
As in other professions, it usually requires a few years to build up a
practice, but few men who have started under proper conditions and with
fair qualifications have failed to achieve success. An income of $1,500
or $2,000 yearly is common, and many optometrists earn incomes of from
$5,000 to $10,000. As an employee of another optometrist, a practitioner
can earn from $30 to $50 a week, and even more.
Optometry is not a means of earning a living with ease nor a haven for
the indolent, but it does offer a reasonable competency without unusual
sacrifice or hardship.
PLAN No. 927. THE FACTORY WOODWORKING TRADES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Eugene C. Graham, special agent for the
Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles
H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due to
Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
The trades of the planing-mill operator, of the cabinetmaker, and the
finisher are the outgrowth of the trades of the village carpenter and
painter.
Woodworking factory products are innumerable, and a choice of occupation
can be made so that you will find the work interesting, if you have any
liking for the trades at all.
In these trades the worker leads an active life and he is not generally
exposed to severe weather conditions. The work is not usually heavy, and
practically all of the men employed work indoors.
The industries are bound together by the use of common materials and
machines and related operations, while their products, as noted below,
cover a wide range; many of the operations are similar, whether the
product is furniture, interior finish, boxes and crates, truck bodies,
or musical instruments.
PLAN No. 928. CLASSES OF WORKERS AND WHAT THEY DO
Workers in these trades may be grouped as in the following tabulation:
==============================+=======================================
Classes of workers. | What the men do.
------------------------------+---------------------------------------
Yardmen }
Dry kiln men }
Lumber inspectors }Prepare raw material and keep machines
Swing-saw men }and tools in order.
Planer and resaw men }
Filers }
Millwrights }
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Machine operators }
Off-bearers }Operate machines and prepare stock for
Gluers }assembling.
Carvers }
Turners }
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Cabinetmakers }
Chair makers }
Frame, sash, and door makers }Assemble prepared pieces of stock into
Interior wood finishers }built-up products.
Assemblers }
Box, crate, and basket makers }
Toy makers }
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Men who apply stain and filler}
Rubbers }
Varnishers }Apply finishing materials and prepare
French polishers }the product for sale.
Upholsterers }
Packing-room employees }
------------------------------+---------------------------------------
Foremen |Direct labor.
------------------------------+---------------------------------------
[Illustration: Plan No. 928. Industry Makes All Things Easy]
Many employees in woodworking establishments are common laborers, some
of whom have learned to do the simpler operations by watching other men
at work. They may finally learn to run machines. Boys who are taken on
as off-bearers get into positions as machine operators in this way.
Other men of a somewhat higher grade, operate machines, work at the
bench assembling parts, and in the finishing room apply the finishing
materials.
There are certain special occupations which require more skill, such as
hand and machine carving, wood turning, and saw filing, for which men
must be trained through a kind of apprenticeship, which may take several
months or years.
In these occupations workmen move about easily from one factory to
another, or shift from one machine to another. Many men move about
constantly, and seem to have little difficulty in fitting in wherever
they go.
The operator of woodworking machines is commonly required to look after
the oiling of his machine, to change knives, saws, and cutter heads when
they become dull or when the work requires it, and to adjust the machine
properly so that it will do good work at a fast rate.
SOME PRODUCTS OF THESE TRADES
Factory woodworkers are employed in many industries in which the men
carry on one or more of the lines of work specified above. Of these
industries the principal products are the following:
_Products of Woodworking Industries_
========================+=============================================
In planing mills. |Stair material; sash; doors; blinds, interior
|finish for homes, stores, and offices;
|built-in furniture parts; cabinets; cases;
|mantels; bar, store, and hotel fixtures.
------------------------+---------------------------------------------
In vehicle, truck, and |Wagons; buggies; auto bodies; truck bodies;
body factories. |poles and shafts; baby carriages.
------------------------+---------------------------------------------
In furniture factories. |Tables; chairs; bedroom, office, and library
|furniture; kitchen cabinets; case goods;
|specialty furniture; school furniture;
|billiard and pool tables.
------------------------+---------------------------------------------
In box, crate, and |Boxes; crates; splint baskets; patent
basket factories. |carriers; fruit and berry boxes.
------------------------+---------------------------------------------
Special products. |Airplane parts; agricultural implements;
|cane, reed, and fiber goods; trunks; wooden
|canoes and boats; coffins; musical
|instruments; toys; games, etc.
------------------------+---------------------------------------------
PLAN No. 929. THE PLANING MILL INDUSTRY
Much of the work formerly done by carpenters in the shop is now done to
order in planing mills. This branch of the woodworking industry supplies
lumber and building material at retail, and builds store and office
fixtures, interior woodwork for dwelling houses, and a variety of
special work which requires the use of machinery.
Planing mill employees usually are able to do a variety of hand and
machine work and usually receive therefrom somewhat higher wages than do
factory workers. They rank with outside carpenters as mechanics, and the
trade is organized as a branch of the carpenters and joiners national
organization. Opportunities for advancement in this industry are greater
than in other related woodworking occupations, but there is some
irregularity in employment, since the prosperity of the trade depends on
local building operations.
PLAN No. 930. VEHICLE MANUFACTURING
Buggies, wagons, and auto and truck bodies are built in special shops.
These have separate departments for wheel making, body making, and other
processes, and often buy their stock partly finished.
PLAN No. 931. OTHER MANUFACTURING
Musical instruments, such as pianos, organs, phonographs, and violins,
are built in special factories, but the same processes are used here
that are employed in the other woodworking occupations.
Toys, games, gymnasium equipment, special wood products are made to a
large extent by machine operations. The men employed are mostly machine
hands, and women and boys do much of the assembling and finishing.
Box, crate, barrel, and basket making are low-grade woodworking
occupations. Much of the work done is rough and unfinished, and is
turned out in large quantities. Women and boys are employed and machines
are used as much as possible.
DEMAND FOR LABOR INCREASING AND STEADY
The field of the factory woodworker is growing. Much of the woodwork
formerly performed on the job is now done in whole or in part in the
factory. Growth of population and higher standards of living have
increased the demands made upon woodworking factories for all sorts of
furniture and equipment. The greater cost of metal furniture limits its
use somewhat. Woodworking is less seasonal than many other lines of
employment, and a disabled man may choose one of the woodworking trades
in the assurance that he will be permanently employed at all seasons of
the year.
SAFETY AND HYGIENE
Safety devices have reduced greatly the accident risk. Except for dust
and fumes, now largely eliminated by means of exhaust fans, the working
conditions are good. Fumes of paints, varnishes, and of their solvents
are of course detrimental to health, if no precautions are taken to
remove the fumes or to provide for adequate ventilation, and even under
favorable conditions, it is only fair to say that a person who is
inclined to tuberculosis should avoid the finishing trade.
CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT
Hours will average 54 a week. Wages have increased about 10 per cent in
the past two years, and there has been some tendency to shorten hours.
The wages received by box makers vary from 15 cents to a maximum of 40
cents an hour. Crate and basket makers, many of whom are women and boys,
receive less. Cabinetmakers get from 20 cents to 75 cents an hour,
according to the skill required. As a rule in the planing mills, where
the men are organized, wages are higher, but these are offset by the
fact that the planing-mill operators do not have as steady employment.
Men in this occupation are employed quite regularly and do not move
about much. In planing mills and to some extent in other factories, men
remain year after year at the same bench, and there are many old men who
have worked at the trade for 50 years. They are quite certain of steady
employment at a living wage. But there is not much opportunity for
advancement and independence unless the workman can become an owner of
stock in the factory.
PLAN No. 932. SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR DISABLED MEN
In this field there are positions which will appeal to men with certain
sorts of disabilities. Some of these occupations require a knowledge of
materials and processes and the ability to direct men, but demand little
in the way of mechanical training. Among these may be mentioned the
following:
Foreman of cabinetmakers and assemblers.
Foreman of shipping room.
Yard foreman, in charge of dry kiln and yard.
Cost estimator for planing-mill.
Salesman for factory-made products.
Furniture designer and detailer.
Other occupations which require more mechanical ability and which pay
better wages than straight factory work may be mentioned also. These
include:
Foreman of the filing room (saw filing, knife and cutter grinding,
etc.).
Factory millwright.
Foreman of the mill room or machine room.
Operator of Linderman machine or of automatic turning machines.
Practically all of the above special positions may be obtained only by
men who have had previous training and experience before becoming
disabled. These positions will be attractive to such men because they
offer better wages and do not require so much manual labor.
PLAN No. 933. QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER
There is a demand for teachers of woodwork and drawing in the schools.
If a disabled man with previous experience in the trade has had a
high-school education and wants to become an instructor he may find it
more profitable to do so than to go back into the trade. His injuries
may not prevent the simple movements necessary in demonstrating to a boy
or to another man the principles involved in the use of the tools.
But it must be understood that both teaching ability and a knowledge of
the trade are necessary for success. A man who already possesses one or
the other will be far on his way, the school undertaking to provide for
his deficiencies in one or the other line. But rarely can the school, in
the limited period at its disposal, undertake both to develop teaching
ability and to give a practical knowledge of the trade.
WHAT OTHER DISABLED MEN HAVE DONE BY TRAINING
Many examples might be cited of disabled men who have retrained for some
line of woodworking. For example, a common laborer who became afflicted
with chronic bronchitis and emphysema, took a three months’ course in
cabinetmaking and now has a good position as a cabinetmaker. A farmer,
who had suffered partial loss of function of his left hand through a
gunshot wound, studied cabinetmaking and is now employed in this work by
a motor company. A commercial traveler, whose right leg was rendered
lame by a shrapnel wound, became a teacher of manual training at a good
salary, by taking a teacher’s course.
Other disabled soldiers who had a knowledge of some woodworking trade
secured promotion through special courses. Their wounds brought them an
opportunity of which they took advantage. A wood machinist, for example,
whose hearing was seriously impaired in the service, took a course in
lumber estimating and specification work in lumber yards, and now has a
position in that field. A cabinetmaker, who suffered deformity of his
left forearm, studied drafting and building construction, and secured a
position, where his training counts, with a large sash and door company.
A cabinetmaker, whose left leg was greatly weakened by a gunshot wound,
obtained a position as instructor in manual training by taking a
teacher’s course in this subject.
PLAN No. 934. MACHINE OPERATING
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The machine operator needs no personal equipment of tools, and most
workmen carry only a folding pocket rule and a pencil. He operates a
variety of machines, of which the principal ones are listed below:
======================+===============================================
Saws. |Swing saws; single and double cut-off saws;
|hand and power feed ripsaws; variety of
|universal saws; band scroll saws; horizontal
|and vertical band resaws; grooving saws; jig
|saws.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Planers. |Single and double surfacers; hand and power
|feed jointers; continuous power feed jointers;
|Linder machines; stockers, or two and four side
|molders.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Sanders. |Belt sanders; drum sanders; disk sanders; edge
|sanders; spindle sanders.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Lathes. |Spindle lathes; Blanchard lathes; special
|automatic forming lathes.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Boring and mortising |Single and multiple spindle boring machines;
machines. |foot lever mortisers; hollow chisel mortisers;
|chain mortisers.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Shapers and profilers.|Single and double spindle shapers; routing and
|profiling machines; spindle carvers.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
Special machines. |Embossing machines; bending machines; dowel
|machines; dovetailing machines.
----------------------+-----------------------------------------------
PLAN No. 935. DISABILITIES FOR MACHINE OPERATING
Such disabilities as slight deafness, blindness in one eye, hernia, or
minor troubles of the heart, liver, kidneys, or digestion will not bar a
man who can turn out fair work. Injuries to the fingers, hands, and arms
have always been common in the woodworking industry and many of the best
men have been disabled more than once. Some men have to change machines
on account of injuries but not many lose out entirely.
The loss of an arm or a leg would require intelligent placement on a
particular machine. Some machines, including spindle carvers and some
types of belt sanders, may be operated by men while sitting down. A
great many machines require but little movement from a standing
position, and could be operated by a man with one injured limb after
some training.
There is usually considerable dust in the air of a machine room, and
this dust may be injurious to men with tuberculosis. Furthermore, men
who are quite deaf or whose sight is not good, and who are certain to
find it hard to handle material quite rapidly with safety to themselves
and others, should avoid the machine room.
OVERCOMING HANDICAPS
In order to become accustomed to disabilities men will be trained in
schools or shops to use injured members and thus to overcome the natural
disinclination to use such members freely. Each man in training will
change from one machine to another until he finds his place. Special
training on machines will be offered in schools where, under a practical
instructor, a man may try himself out.
The operator will be taught in school to take care of his machine and
remove dull cutters, knives, and saws. If he can be trained to set the
knives and cutters in an automatic machine his future employment at good
wages is assured. There is at present a strong demand for men who can
operate automatic machines and set them up for a variety of work.
Employers may be willing to substitute automatic or power feed machines
for other types, at least where this may be done to the great advantage
of the employer himself, as in the case of wood turning. A disabled man
operating a modern automatic lathe can turn out a quantity of perfect
work quite as easily as any other workman.
Unlike the machinist the machine woodworker does not often work from
blue prints. He needs only to learn to understand a stock bill stating
the dimensions of the finished parts in plain figures, and is not
concerned about the destination of these parts. All routing from machine
to machine is looked after by the foreman.
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE AN ASSET
Previous experience and training will often provide the man who is
trying to come back with certain useful information about machine
processes, adjustments, and lubrication. For instance, a carpenter who
is incapacitated for climbing or for outside work, or a sawmill hand who
requires indoor employment because of his injury may easily fit in as a
machine operator.
CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT
Machine operators work about nine hours a day. They receive in wages
from 25 cents to 50 cents an hour. The man who cuts up good lumber with
a swing saw may receive more than the average because he must know how
to avoid wasting expensive material. His good judgment is his capital.
The machine woodworker often moves from one factory to another, but he
is usually in demand and may count on steady employment without much
regard to the season.
RE-EDUCATION FOR MACHINE OPERATING
No apprenticeship is usually considered necessary for machine operators.
A try-out period of a few weeks will decide whether a man is likely to
make good or not. A short period of training in a school where a variety
of different machines is provided will help a man to get a real insight
into his prospective occupation.
The training required is usually obtained in the factory, but disabled
men can shorten the period of training necessary in their case
considerably by taking a short course in a well-equipped school under an
instructor who is a practical woodworker. The course taken will be
planned to prepare the pupil for a definite occupation. An agreement may
be made with a prospective employer before the course is undertaken, so
as to provide opportunity for overcoming any handicap in a definite way.
The same results may be secured by short tryout courses in the factory
itself and in most cases this will appeal both to the man himself and to
the employer. But in order to guarantee an adequate course of training
the factory must be required to make definite preparations to train
disabled men under an agreement as to the instructor, the length of the
course, and the subject matter of the instruction.
PLAN No. 936. CABINETMAKERS
THE OCCUPATION
The work of the cabinetmaker, and of such other allied occupations as
chair makers, assemblers, and box makers, is to use hand tools, and
sometimes certain machines, in putting together furniture, interior
woodwork, or manufactured articles of wood. In some factories he
actually builds furniture or a completed product. In others he performs
a few operations and passes the work on.
Men who assemble furniture must apply glue to the joints, nail and screw
parts together where necessary, and see that the finished product is
clean, square, and solidly built. They use a variety of hand tools and
sometimes take material to machines for certain operations. They are
expected to leave surfaces well scraped and sanded. In all high class
work they must show considerable skill in construction and knowledge of
design. What tools are used will depend on the line of work. They are
usually the property of the workman and are kept in order by him. They
include the usual outfit of hammers, squares, saws, rules, shaves,
chisels, bits, levels, planes, rasps, etc.
The trade of the cabinetmaker may not appeal to more than a few disabled
men from each community. Men who have worked at the trade and who
already know something about it will naturally wish to stay in it if
they can.
Cabinetmakers are found in nearly every town or city. Planing mills and
box factories are very common. Furniture factories are scattered
throughout Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, New York, and North
Carolina more generally than in other States.
HANDICAPS
Since the cabinetmaker must be a skillful user of hand tools, any injury
which prevents him from using his hands and arms easily will interfere
with his success, but, as he does not need to move about much in the
factory, foot and leg injuries need not constitute serious handicaps. He
may have some lifting to do, and must be active in order to turn out a
sufficient quantity of work.
Partial deafness, blindness in one eye, or minor diseases of the heart,
lungs, kidneys, or digestive organs need not disqualify a man if he can
handle tools and work without undue fatigue.
Loss of an entire arm, or severe injuries to both hands, or blindness,
or diseases which cause considerable bodily weakness would generally
constitute serious handicaps.
SCHOOL AND SHOP TRAINING
Cabinetmaking is the kind of training which most manual-training schools
are best equipped. Successful schools are not hard to find, and men who
are trying to overcome handicaps may find it easy to get a start through
this school training. The cabinetmaker should learn:
(a) How to use hand tools.
(b) How to operate a few machines.
(c) How to read a stock bill and to work to dimensions.
(d) About glue, grain of wood, cabinet hardware, finishing material,
etc.
(e) How to make and read a simple drawing.
Many good schools will provide the equipment and give instruction in the
subjects mentioned.
If the disabled man arranges for a combination of shop and school
training in which he will have the benefit of practical instruction for
half of each day, and will spend the remainder of the day in some
factory, he will, after perhaps six months’ schooling and training, be
able to maintain himself at the trade.
Any other division of time as seems wise may be made. For instance, the
first three months of training may be full-time work in the school and
the next three months half-time in the shop and factory.
PLAN No. 937. FINISHING
The men who apply stain, filler, varnish, and other finishes properly
belong in a class by themselves in the woodworking trades. Many of these
men can do all of the operations necessary in finishing a piece of
woodwork. The same ability and skill is possessed by men in the
painters’ trade, but some of the processes are different, and the
occupation may be considered separately.
The finisher of wood products may use any of the following materials;
Oil stains, acid stains, water stains, liquid and paste fillers, putty,
linseed oil, shellac and shellac, substitutes, varnish, paint, enamel,
lacquer, wax, and prepared polish.
These materials are applied by dipping, brushing on with a brush or
cloth or spraying on with an air brush or spraying machine. Excess
material is removed by wiping with cloths, cotton waste, or vegetable
fiber. Varnish is rubbed down to an even surface with pumice stone and
water, or with sandpaper and steel wool. Drying ovens or hot rooms are
often used to hasten the processes.
The air brush is a spraying machine which atomizes the liquid finish and
spreads it on a surface quickly and evenly. The machine consists of a
tank, an air hose, and nozzles which spray the material in a fine mist.
Various materials, such as varnish, shellac, and stain, may be applied
with this machine.
Men who apply filler, stain, and putty need very little training. Their
skill consists in doing the work rapidly without waste of material. The
same may be said of men who use rubbing machines or hand blocks in
rubbing down varnish.
A somewhat higher degree of skill must be possessed by the varnisher,
whether he works with a common brush or an air brush. The brush hand
must have considerable experience and know how to avoid brush marks,
bubbles, and other evidences of poor work. The operator of the air brush
acquires his skill by practice; experience with the common varnish brush
is valuable but not altogether necessary. The same processes are used in
finishing metal surfaces, and there is a demand for men in the
automobile factories for experienced finishers.
A disabled man might find an opportunity here if he could do about the
same kinds of work as the common laborer. If his previous training and
experience had given him a knowledge of the use of different finishes,
he could adapt himself to the use of the air brush quite easily even if
he had only one working arm and hand. A good eye to judge the condition
of surfaces is essential.
While training in a school is possible it is less necessary than in some
skilled occupations where more tools are used and where a greater
knowledge of processes is required. The handicaps which would interfere
with success would be poor eyesight and the loss of both hands or arms.
Experience in the employment itself would provide the best sort of
training for a man who wants to re-enter the trade. A painter who is
disqualified for outdoor work and for climbing could qualify for this
work.
Men who have had one arm fitted with a working hook could handle
furniture in the process of dipping, and could apply and remove the
excess of stain and filler. With factory training they could advance to
brush hands and varnishers without great difficulty, if the opportunity
offered.
To handle a common brush or an air brush and to operate a rubbing
machine requires one good hand, but disabilities of the feet and lower
limbs can be overcome.
Men receive from 25 cents to 60 cents or more an hour, according to the
work done and the skill required. The hours are usually the 54 hours a
week of most factory trades.
There is some danger to health in handling wood alcohol, turpentine, or
lead paints, but the use of any one of these materials is not constant
enough to make the whole occupation dangerous. Those suffering from
chest complaints should, however, avoid this trade.
The trade is quite stable and the demand for men fairly constant.
Employment in this trade is fairly certain and apparently will continue
to be so in the future. The demand for experienced men for air brush
work will increase with the more general utilization of machines, which
is almost inevitable. The use of the air brush and the drying room or
kiln has greatly increased the output of the finishing room per man
employed, but increase in the quantity of the articles finished has
offset this increased efficiency so that unemployment has not resulted.
Hand varnishing, however, will continue to be done and skill in this
work will be a valuable asset to the workman, whether he uses a hand
brush or a machine.
A short apprenticeship or try-out period in the factory will start many
disabled men in this trade, but no school training is required.
PLAN No. 938. TECHNICAL AGRICULTURE AS A VOCATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Dr. Walter J. Quick, Special Agent for
the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of
Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is
due A. C. True, Director, States Relation Service; E. W. Allen, Chief,
Office of Experiment Stations; W. H. Beal, Chief, Editorial Division,
and Edwy B. Reid, Chief, Division of Publications of the United States
Department of Agriculture, for suggestions and data; to the Curtis
Publishing Co., for use of illustrations; also, to Dr. John Cummings, of
the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
AND IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
Many responded to the call to arms from the student bodies and the
faculties and staffs of the State agricultural colleges, experiment
stations, and extension service. These institutions have lost also to
war service, at least temporarily, numerous scientific associates,
lecturers, and teachers, research experts and assistants, extension
workers, county agents, and others in co-operative agriculture. During
the war the withdrawals from all departments and lines of work were of
necessity replaced by insufficiently prepared men who in turn, now that
the war emergency is passed, will be replaced by trained, efficient men
as such become procurable.
It is to be noted further that agriculture in city high schools and
other public-school grades is at the present time being taught largely
by regular teachers not specially trained in the subject, the number
teaching and demonstrating in the agricultural high schools of the
country being about 2,500.
Under the Smith-Hughes Act providing for introduction into public
schools of agricultural studies and projects, the demand for
agricultural teachers, directors, and organizers has greatly increased,
and will continue to increase in the future. In the establishment
throughout the States of vocational courses, under this vocational
education act, great difficulty has been experienced during the war in
securing a sufficient number of men qualified to teach agriculture. From
year to year, as more Federal and State funds become available, the
vocational schools will broaden the scope of their work and more
instructors and trained scientific men will be required.
In the higher institutions and services--the agricultural colleges,
agricultural experiment stations, and agricultural extension service
staffs--new appointments are constantly being made because of
promotions, creation of new positions, changes for various reasons,
resignations, and deaths. The agricultural colleges and experiment
stations employ approximately 3,500 on their faculties and staffs,
including associates, assistants, instructors, and helpers. The
extension service workers number approximately 6,500, and the number
would be greatly increased were trained men and funds available.
Hundreds of counties have no agricultural agents. Compensation in these
various lines is liberal and proportioned to service rendered,
increasing with promotion from lower to higher positions.
Under these conditions numerous teaching positions are now open to men
qualified to fill such positions in our agricultural colleges, in our
vocational schools, and in our agricultural high schools located in
every section of the country. Each year, also, even under normal
conditions, as has been noted, many appointments of research experts and
assistants are made to the staffs of our agricultural experiment
stations, as well as of demonstrators and lecturers in extension work,
and of county agricultural agents.
Those returning from overseas in fit condition will, in most cases,
wisely resume their abandoned studies or scientific employment. Those
disabled should, even during the period of their convalescence, begin to
prepare themselves to resume former positions or others more desirable
and in line of promotion. Some position is certainly awaiting you if you
will but “run the course,” take the training, and prepare for it.
These positions present exceptional opportunities in every State for
disabled men who can qualify for them. They cover every phase of
agriculture, and will appeal to men of practical experience in farming
whose disability may make it inadvisable for them to undertake hard
manual labor on the farm, and to men of scientific or technical training
that especially fits them for teaching, lecturing, demonstrating, or
conducting scientific research.
In general, the positions most suitable for men who have been disabled,
where such men have had practical agricultural experience and some
agricultural education, and where they are disposed to take the
necessary vocational training, will be positions as county agricultural
agents, or as demonstrators in the co-operative extension service, or as
organizers and directors of the club work in animal husbandry and
cropping. These positions may serve most admirably to give training for
promotion to some more specific line of work.
AGRICULTURAL SPECIALISTS
While the agricultural specialist has usually a thorough knowledge of
some particular line of work, and is exceptionally efficient in that
line, he does in many instances specialize in several different lines.
For example, many have specialized successfully in “poultry, fruit, and
bees,” and a specialist may easily be well informed in all three of
these lines. Nearly all farmers devote themselves to some specialty in
which naturally their sons also become efficient. By vocational training
such young men who have been disabled in the war, especially those who
have had in addition to their practical farm rearing some systematic
school training in an agricultural course, may have their development
rounded out until they become capable, practical specialists. Their
efforts may be expected to be attended by that success which always
accompanies the combination of practice and theory. A special vocational
training will be necessary to fit such men for positions in agricultural
colleges, experiment stations, or extension service.
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AHEAD
Much of the specialist’s work can be undertaken by men with serious
physical disabilities, and the opportunities for promotion along lines
of expert and special service are excellent.
The following lists of positions in schools, colleges, and experiment
stations, as teachers, lecturers, demonstrators, and research men,
indicate the wide range of opportunity open to men of varied training,
experience, and capacity. The lists have been made up from official
publications showing the positions in agricultural institutions, and an
attempt has been made to indicate the number and character of
appointments usually made to the staffs of such institutions.
For example, the department of animal husbandry in an established
agricultural college located in a State in which grain production and
live-stock industries are prominent will frequently include, in addition
to the head of the department of animal husbandry, four or five and
sometimes as many as eight or ten associate heads of subdivisions, each
subdivision employing instructors and assistants, together with a number
of herdsmen and helpers for practical work.
The number of departments and subdivisions and the number employed in
each department, of course, varies from institution to institution. In
the following lists, when the singular form is used, as for example
“associate,” it indicates that commonly one associate is employed in the
subject indicated in an institution covering the subject adequately.
Where the plural form is used it indicates two associates as the usual
number employed, and where the name of the position is followed by a
numeral or numerals, as “associate (2 to 5),” it indicates that more
than two will usually be found on the staff.
PLAN No. 939. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE POSITIONS
The Federal Board for Vocational Education has completed arrangements
with the State Agricultural Colleges for special technical and for
regular courses, giving such training for the positions indicated below
as seems most suitable, taking account of age and experience in each
case. You should consult the nearest vocational officer, remembering
that Uncle Sam is ready to train you free in a technical course and pay
you while you are taking it, also to help you secure a permanent
position after your training is completed.
If you were pursuing a course in one of the State Agricultural Colleges
or in an agricultural high school when called to arms, resumption and
completion of that course is generally to be recommended. You can not as
a general rule afford to abandon a course once begun in which you have
made any considerable progress.
Many minor positions are available to ambitious students requiring
financial assistance promptly after or even during preparation. Many of
the less important college positions immediately available for men who
have taken training provide opportunities for further study and training
leading to higher positions in the agricultural colleges, as indicated
in the positions here listed. The same is true of positions listed
herein under Experiment Stations and Extension Service.
PLAN No. 940. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES
_Faculty:_
Dean.
Assistant to dean.
Office employees.
Heads of departments.
Associates.
Instructors.
Assistants.
_Agriculture_, head of department.
Rural schools, supervisor.
Junior school, superintendent.
High schools, agricultural, supervisor.
College:
Librarian.
Assistant librarian.
Curator.
Assistant curator.
Photographer.
Assistant.
Farm management:
Associate.
Instructors.
Assistants (2 to 4).
Farm manager.
Farm foremen.
Farm laborers (3 to 15).
Journalism:
Editor.
Assistant editor.
Assistants.
Education, scientific:
Associates.
Assistant.
Economics:
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
Pedagogy:
Associates.
Instructors.
Assistants (2 to 5).
_Agricultural engineering_, head of dept.
Rural engineering:
Associates (2 to 4).
Instructors (2 to 6).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Highway engineering, associate.
Irrigation engineering:
Associate.
Assistants.
Drainage engineering:
Associate.
Assistants.
_Agronomy:_
Head of department.
Associates (2 to 5).
Instructors (2 to 4).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Seed, analysts.
Farm crops--
Products--
Associate.
Instructors.
Plant breeding--
Associates.
Instructors.
Assistants.
Soil investigations--
Biology--
Associates.
Assistants.
Physics--
Associate.
Instructors.
Assistants.
Soil, analyst.
Bacteriology, associate.
Fertilizers--
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Animal husbandry:_
Head of department.
Associates (2 to 5).
Instructors (2 to 4).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Cattle--
Associates (4 to 10).
Instructors (4 to 6).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Horse--
Associates (4 to 10).
Instructors (4 to 6).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Swine--
Associates (4 to 10).
Instructors (4 to 6).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Sheep--
Associates (4 to 10).
Instructors (4 to 6).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Pathology--
Associate.
Assistant.
Nutrition--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
Meats, assistant.
Genetics--
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistant.
_Bacteriology:_
Head of department.
Instructors (1 to 4),
Hygiene, associate.
_Beekeeping:_
Associate.
Apiarist.
Instructor.
_Botany:_
Head of department.
Associates.
Instructors (1 to 3).
Assistants.
Plant pathology--
Associate.
Instructors (2 to 4).
_Canning:_
Associate.
Instructors.
Assistants.
Helpers.
_Chemistry, agricultural_, head of dept.
Soil, crops:
Associates (2 to 5).
Instructors (2 to 5).
Assistants (2 to 8).
Soil physics:
Associates.
Assistants.
Fertilizer control:
Manager.
Analysts (2 to 10).
Recorders (2 to 4).
Markers (2 to 5).
_Chemistry, general_, head of dept.
Inorganic:
Associates.
Instructors (2 to 4).
Assistants.
Organic:
Associates.
Instructors (2 to 4).
Assistants (2 to 4).
Physiology:
Associate.
Assistant.
_Daily husbandry:_
Head of department.
Associate.
Instructor.
Assistants.
_Dairy industry:_
Associate.
Instructors (1 to 3).
Assistant.
_Dairy bacteriology_, associate.