In addition to the weight limits shown in connection with the foregoing

postage tables there is a measurement limit, which is the same for all

zones. This limit is that the girth (measurement around) and the length

added must not exceed 84 inches. For example, a parcel 12 inches square

(48 inches around) and 36 inches long would be just up to the limit, as

would also a parcel 15 inches square (60 inches around) and 24 inches

long. A parcel cubical in shape and 14 inches in each dimension would

measure 56 inches around, and to this would be added 14 inches for

length, making 70 inches, or 14 inches less than the limit.

_Receipt, Insuring and C. O. D._

If desired, a receipt can be procured from the postmaster acknowledging

the mailing of a parcel on the payment of 1 cent. For 3 cents a parcel

may be insured against loss if not valued at more than $5.

A parcel may be sent collect on delivery for 10 cents. This also insures

it for actual value not exceeding $50.

PRACTICABILITY AND UTILITY OF THE PARCEL POST IN EGG MARKETING

Under the present method the general farmer, or in most cases the

farmer’s wife, sells the surplus eggs to the local storekeeper, taking

their value out in trade. The parcel post offers an opportunity for a

cash outlet at better prices. It should prove a valuable help,

especially to those farms that are located unfavorably in regard to a

consuming market. It is not too much to say that shipping by parcel post

has been demonstrated as a practical proposition when properly

conducted.

To send a 2-dozen-size parcel would cost about as follows: For container

and wrapping, 8 cents; for postage, 9 cents, or a total of 17 cents,

which would be 8¹⁄₂ cents a dozen marketing cost. Marketing a 5-dozen

parcel would cost about 13 cents for container and wrapping and 14 cents

postage, or a total of 27 cents; a 10-dozen lot would cost about 22

cents for container and wrapping and 25 cents postage, or a total of 47

cents. These figures are based on container prices prevailing prior to

July 1, 1914.

The postage rates here used are those within the first and second zones.

The rates to the third and farther zones are higher, and the advantages

of marketing by parcel post consequently less.

These figures include the cost of a new container each time. The

experiments show that containers from the 4-dozen size up will stand on

an average two to four trips very satisfactorily. Containers for smaller

lots will stand on an average from three to five trips. As the postage

cost of returning containers is considerably less than the price of new

ones, the average expense for containers can be materially reduced from

the figures quoted.

DISADVANTAGES OR DIFFICULTIES IN MARKETING EGGS BY PARCEL POST

If it is kept in mind that it takes a few days for eggs to reach the

consumer, a regular supply of eggs can be had for use at all times. The

possibility of broken eggs and the consequent adjustment of payment may

seem to be a disadvantage, but if properly provided for in the agreement

it need not be. The matter of arriving at equitable prices may seem to

be difficult, but ought not be a drawback.

Some farmers may be so situated that they already have a satisfactory

market for their eggs. Others may wish to have a parcel-post market

during a part of the year, but may dispose of them otherwise during the

remainder of the year. The local market may also at times afford a more

satisfactory price than that received under a parcel-post selling

agreement. There may also be producers of large quantities of eggs who

find express transportation cheaper than parcel post.

The securing of proper containers and the wrapping and packing of the

eggs properly for mailing, as well as the care that needs to be

exercised in shipping only strictly first-class eggs, may seem difficult

to some, but if a parcel-post market is to be developed, it will require

care and attention to get it properly established and to keep it going

successfully.

DIRECT MARKETING OF LARGER QUANTITIES OF EGGS THAN PRIVATE FAMILIES

REQUIRE

The foregoing discussion applies especially to shipments of eggs for

family consumption. It is likely that many producers will desire a

larger outlet than is afforded by private families. These shippers may

use containers such as are described in the postal regulations. They

must come within the weight and measurement limits, however. The present

30-dozen commercial case exceeds the weight limits and would have to be

forwarded by express. The express companies are now paying special

attention to small shipments of food products, and furnish prompt and

efficient service.

Should an individual farmer not have enough eggs to ship alone a number

of neighboring farmers may club together for the purpose of shipping

eggs and may secure a purchaser in the person of a hotel, restaurant, or

lunch-room proprietor, or a retail grocer in some town or city. The eggs

from each farm should be packed in 1-dozen size cartons or fillers,

which would take the place of the ordinary filler of the standard

30-dozen-size egg case. These cartons should have stamped on them the

name and address of the producer, or instead of the name and address a

number could be assigned to each farm for the purposes of

identification. Each carton should be sealed so that any complaint in

regard to quality can be traced to the individual producer. This is

necessary in order to protect members of the club from complaints of

delinquency not justly attributable to them.[2]

[2] Farmers’ Bulletin 656, The Community Egg Circle, gives the details

of such an organization. It can be obtained on request from the

Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Shipping by express presupposes that the producers concerned are within

reasonable distance of express service, otherwise the expense of

transporting the eggs to the express office might be prohibitive.

It is hoped that these methods may enable the producer to realize better

prices, and that at the same time the consumer will secure a fresher

product. Eggs so handled and shipped will be fresher and in better

condition than ordinary country-store or huckster-collected eggs.

The average farmer pays scant attention to egg and poultry production,

usually leaving matters relating thereto to his wife. Properly managed,

however, this branch of farm industry may prove profitable. Indeed, it

is not unlikely that a careful keeping of the cost of producing corn on

many farms would lead to the conclusion that the family treasury had

profited more by the activities of the hen than by raising corn.

OPPORTUNITY OF EXTENSION OF PARCEL-POST MARKETING TO OTHER PRODUCTS

It is quite possible that once having secured a parcel-post market for

eggs many farmers having other commodities not readily salable at home

may open up markets for them in the same way. Methods of arriving at

prices would be the same, the producer advising the consumer as to the

commodities, quantity, and price. By this means a market may be found

for many products which are not now being marketed, mainly for the

reason that they are in the nature of by-products or small surpluses

over the family’s need which do not justify a special trip to market.

There is also a field of opportunity open for development in making a

special effort to produce such things as town or city residents are

anxious to obtain, and by proper attention a supplemental income could

be built up by developing such business.

SUMMARY

(1) In the experiments conducted in this study 760¹¹⁄₁₂ dozens, or 9,131

eggs, were sent through the mails in 466 shipments of from 1 to 10

dozens each. The total breakage was 327 eggs; of these, 118 were only

cracked or slightly broken and were usable, and 209 (or 2.3 per cent)

were broken beyond use. Ninety-one eggs were broken because the parcels

containing them were handled contrary to postal rules and regulations.

Subtracting these, the loss was only 1.3 per cent. This shows the

possibility of shipping eggs by parcel post with small loss, and

indicates that eggs may be so shipped with safety if existing postal

regulations are observed.

(2) Care should be exercised in the production of eggs so that they will

be of as good quality as possible. The hens should be provided with

proper quarters and fed on clean, wholesome feed. The production of non

fertile eggs reduces the losses materially. After gathering, the eggs

should be kept carefully in the coolest and best ventilated place

available.

(3) Trials of many styles and makes of containers were made; a large

number proved satisfactory. The addresses of manufacturers of containers

can be obtained from the agricultural experiment stations in the several

States.

(4) In selecting eggs for shipping by mail, thin-shelled and unusually

long or irregular-shaped eggs should not be used. Each egg should be

wrapped in sufficient paper to hold it snugly in its own individual

compartment in the container. The container should be properly closed

and carefully wrapped with good, tough wrapping paper and strong twine.

The address should be written plainly to insure prompt delivery on

arrival. The postal regulations require the name and address of the

sender on the parcel also.

(5) If attention is given to the necessary details, as indicated in this

bulletin, eggs can be shipped by parcel post to the advantage of the

farmer. This method of marketing affords a means of increasing the

fresh-egg business to the benefit of both the producer and the consumer.

(6) Farmers located out of reach of a satisfactory market or of the

usual means of transportation can find in the parcel post a ready means

of getting their eggs direct to a consuming market promptly and at

prices that will justify the additional trouble involved in packing for

mailing.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF INTEREST TO POULTRY

RAISERS

Farmers’ Bulletin 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens.

Farmers’ Bulletin 287. Poultry Management.

Farmers’ Bulletin 528. Hints to Poultry Raisers.

Farmers’ Bulletin 530. Important Poultry Diseases.

Farmers’ Bulletin 562. The Organization of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry

Clubs.

Farmers’ Bulletin 574. Poultry House Construction.

Farmers’ Bulletin 585. Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen’s

Eggs.

Farmers’ Bulletin 624. Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens.

Farmers’ Bulletin 656. The Community Egg Circle.

Farmers’ Bulletin 682. A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry.

Farmers’ Bulletin 703. Suggestions for Parcel-post Marketing.

Further suggestions along this line may be found in Farmers’ Bulletin

703, Suggestions for Parcel-Post Marketing, which may be obtained on

request from the Division of Publication, Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

PLAN No. 226. DRESSING CHRISTMAS DOLLS

Having observed that of the thousands of dolls which are sold during the

holidays very few of them are dressed to suit the tastes of buyers, this

woman felt certain she could make a good living by dressing these dolls.

She therefore prepared a circular letter which she sent to hundreds of

selected homes in her city, asking to be allowed the privilege of

dressing the children’s dolls according to her own taste, or that of the

mothers of the little girls, and received invitations to call at the

homes of a large number of these people. She did so, and so well did she

demonstrate her ability for the work that she received many orders. Her

charges were reasonable, and she developed a regular and paying

business.

PLAN No. 227. PAPER COVERS FOR SCHOOL BOOKS ASSIST IN PUTTING MAN

THROUGH COLLEGE

A young man in an eastern Washington town, who was obliged to work his

way through the agricultural college, adopted, as one of his numerous

plans for making money, that of providing substantial yet inexpensive

manilla covers for school books.

He bought from a wholesale paper store, a quantity of the best manilla

paper at 4 cents a pound and, at a cost of 15 cents additional, had it

cut into different sizes and the corners cut off on a regular paper

cutter. The ends he cut off himself with a pair of shears, and pasted

them down so they could be slipped on over any school book, to protect

it. The cover, completed, cost him less than 2 cents each, yet he sold a

large number of them for 5 cents each. Finally, he induced the school

board to buy 5,000 of them, at 3¹⁄₂ cents each. He made enough in this

to put him through the greater part of his first year’s schooling. He

operated the same plan in other school districts the second and third

years, and completed his course with the money he thus earned.

PLAN No. 228. MAKING PAN-LIFTERS

A woman in Lincoln, Nebraska, who knew the difficulties and dangers

involved in lifting hot pans that have to be handled often, figured out

a plan to make this work both safe and convenient.

She made a belt to fasten around the waist, and on each side of the

front she fastened a strip that came down nearly to the knees. On the

ends of these strips she sewed small quilted pads about six inches

square. These were always ready to use, and proved great time-savers and

made the lifting easy.

She was so well pleased with the one she made for herself, that she made

up a hundred of them and went from house to house, explaining their

advantages, and readily sold them at 25 cents each.

PLAN No. 229. MONEY IN WINTER BULBS

In late October or early November every year, a Massachusetts woman buys

some plain glass dishes, about five inches wide and two or three inches

deep. She then collects pebbles and places them in each dish, and on top

of them, so they will not touch each other, she places fine narcissus

bulbs, filling in around them with more pebbles, until the dish is quite

full. Then adding water enough to fill to the top, she sets the dishes

on the cellar floor and leaves them there until they are full of roots.

She then brings them into a light, sunny room, and as soon as they are

in bloom she takes them to the woman’s exchange, where they sell readily

for 50 cents a dish. The cost of the dishes is 5 cents each, and the

bulbs, six for 5 cents, so she makes 40 cents on each dish.

PLAN No. 230. SELLING HICKORY NUTS

A country woman with a grove of hickory trees on her farm, made $30 in

one month gathering hickory nuts, which she sent to a friend in the

city, who bought them at $1.50 per bushel. That was only twenty bushels,

and people who live in localities where these nuts are plentiful could

multiply that number many times by gathering them on a more extensive

scale.

PLAN No. 231. THUMBLESS MITTENS FOR CHILDREN

What mother has ever been able to get a baby’s thumb into a mitten? And

how long would it stay if she did? Then why have thumbs on baby’s

mittens at all?

These are questions a Canadian mother asked herself many times, and

learned that there was but one answer: make the mittens without thumbs.

And she did so.

In fact, she found that no matter how many pair she made, the

baby-outfitters gladly took all she could knit, sold them for 40 cents a

pair, and charged her only a small commission for selling; as the

materials cost less than 10 cents, her profit was large. She used white

pompadour or saxony yarn, and a large steel hook, so the work was light,

pleasant and profitable.

PLAN No. 232. TAILORED HATS

Here is the story of a Montana woman who discovered that she could make

a better tailored hat for girls, and sell it for 50 cents, than the

millinery stores ask $2 for, and she not only made one for her own

little girl, but for a hundred or more other small misses, and realized

a profit on every one she made. The material cost but little, while the

work on the hats was no trouble at all, so she kept it up until she had

supplied everybody of her acquaintance with the prettiest hats to be

seen anywhere. She made them from a pattern published by a well known

woman’s periodical; and it was so easy to follow it that the making of

hats was a real pleasure.

She also made nice hats for women, at $1.00 each, and on these the

profits were still greater.

PLAN No. 233. SELLING POTTED PLANTS

A southern woman who was extremely fond of flowers lived in a town of

5,000 inhabitants in which there was no regular florist, so she began

supplying the needs of the flower-loving people there by engaging in the

business on a small scale herself, specializing on potted plants and cut

flowers.

She bought small plants, repotted them, and easily doubled her money on

them. In their season she buys tomato and pansy plants and scarlet sage,

as well as bulbs and roots, and holds regular flower sales at Easter,

Christmas, Thanksgiving, Mother’s Day, etc., and always finds a demand

for all her floral products.

Recently she turned her back yard into a hot-house, and raises the

plants herself, thus decreasing the cost and increasing the margin of

profit. From one large bed, the seed for which cost 75 cents, she sells

from $15 to $20 worth of plants every season. She also advises flower

growers about flowers culture, color schemes, etc., and in many ways

adds to the grand total of her yearly income.

PLAN No. 234. BASKET MAKING

A downeast woman learned basket making in the young people’s society of

her church, and made it a regular business. She specializes in market

and scrap baskets, but makes fancy reed ones to order. Her main sales

are made through the woman’s exchange, though sometimes direct to

customers, and her earnings are sufficient to support her very

comfortably.

This line of work is not overcrowded, and there is plenty of opportunity

in it for many other women.

PLAN No. 235. GROWING MUSHROOMS

There are many methods of growing mushrooms, but the one adopted by this

Michigan woman is perhaps as easy and profitable as any of them.

First, providing a sufficient quantity of fresh manure and black dirt,

she carefully prepares the beds and buys the spawn, and with but little

care thereafter they produce a good crop every month in the year.

In one bed 7 feet long by 2 feet wide, made from an old trunk lid and

two soap boxes, she placed three bricks of spawn early in October, and

eight weeks later picked 1¹⁄₂ pounds of mushrooms, which sold for $1.26

per pound. Then every two days thereafter, until May 1st, she picked

from four to five pounds. The picking, packing and marketing are easy,

and do not interfere with her regular household duties. She made $8 to

$10 a week out of this industry, and recommends it to others who need

something to help out with household expenses.

PLAN No. 236. LUNCHES FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN

A woman in Minnesota, whose income was very limited, was asked by the

parent-teachers’ association to provide noon lunches for the pupils in

the basement of a school building, the profit or loss to be her own.

She had two long tables made of rough boards, covered with white

oilcloth, and on these she spreads sandwiches made of minced ham, peanut

butter, chipped beef and cheese, at 3 cents each; cake at 2 cents a

slice, with milk, cocoa, soup, etc., at very low prices, yet which pay

her a profit. She buys her material at wholesale prices, and makes a

small profit on each article, so there is at least a comfortable living

in it.

At one o’clock her work is all done, and she has the afternoons and

Saturdays at her own disposal.

Not a very large enterprise, but it affords a living, and that is quite

an item for a poor woman.

PLAN No. 237. DESICCATED VEGETABLES

An eastern woman, anxious to help her husband lift the mortgage from

their farm, had been told of the possibilities of desiccated vegetables,

and decided to try out the plan herself.

By way of experiment, she desiccated some vegetables and dried them in

the sun. These she soaked for an hour in cold water, poured off the

water, and put the vegetables in with some meat she was stewing. In half

an hour she had a fine Irish stew ready for the table.

Calling in some of her neighbors, they formed a local company for

manufacturing desiccated vegetables. The vegetables, dried to a small

bulk, were easily shipped to grocers at a great saving in freight or

express charges, the weight also having been reduced to almost nothing.

The company employed several of its members to become traveling

salesmen, and they took many orders, as dealers were glad to get the new

product. A package containing enough potatoes, carrots and onions for a

stew, was sold for 3 cents at retail or 2 cents wholesale. They sold

well at all seasons, as they were a great saving to the housewife, and

when put into water were as fresh and palatable as in their original

state.

PLAN No. 238. A PROFITABLE ADVERTISING PLAN

A young man left Chicago some time ago and went to the Northwest for the

purpose of increasing his earning power.

Having first provided himself with twelve cartoon plates, with a strong

home-trade argument under each cartoon, which a big newspaper syndicate

had made for him, he stopped at a town of some 5,000 inhabitants and

called upon the publisher of the leading newspaper. To him he made the

following proposition: To obtain for his paper one or two pages of local

advertisements to run every week for twelve weeks, and create a strong

sentiment for patronizing home merchants and local industries,

furnishing the cartoons and home-trade arguments, of which he showed

proofs, and to divide the profits equally, though it was not to cost the

publisher a cent, except the composition on the local ads. to be secured

and set up; that for this home-trade page, the rates must be double his

regular rates, so that he would get full price for his ads.

Of course, the publisher accepted, and the Chicago man went to work. In

three days he had contracts signed up for enough local ads. to fill two

pages with the cartoon in the center of the page to run twelve

consecutive weeks, the contracts to be left with the publisher, who was

to collect and forward him his half, but the newspaper man willingly

paid him one-fourth of the amount that would be due him at the end of

the twelve weeks.

In three days the Chicago man had made just $288. This plan will afford

a good living to any advertising salesman.

PLAN No. 239. BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Acknowledgment is due for this article to the United States Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Contribution from the Bureau of

Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.

In every household, no matter how economical the housewife, there is a

certain amount of table scraps and kitchen waste which has feeding value

but which, if not fed, finds its way into the garbage pail.

Poultry is the only class of domestic animals which is suitable for

converting this waste material, right where it is produced in the city,

into wholesome and nutritious food in the form of eggs and poultry meat.

Each hen in her pullet year should produce ten dozen eggs. The average

size of the back-yard flock should be at least ten hens. Thus each flock

would produce in a year 100 dozens of eggs which, at the conservative

value of 25 cents a dozen, would be worth $25.

By keeping a back-yard poultry flock the family would not only help in

reducing the cost of living but would have eggs of a quality and

freshness which are often difficult to obtain.

Remember that eggs produced by the back-yard flock cost very little, as

the fowls are fed largely upon waste materials.

[Illustration: An illustration of the average back yard of the city man

which may be turned to a profitable use by raising chickens.]

ADVANTAGES OF HOME POULTRY

The keeping of a small flock of laying hens on a town or village lot or

in a city back yard is an important branch of poultry keeping. Though

the value of the product from each flock is small of itself the

aggregate is large. The product of such a flock, both in the form of

eggs and fowls for the table, may be produced at a relatively low cost,

because of the possibility of utilizing table scraps and kitchen waste

which would otherwise be thrown away. A small flock of hens, even as few

as six or eight, should produce eggs enough, where used economically,

for a family of four or five persons throughout the entire year, except

during the molting period of the fall and early winter. By the

preservation of surplus eggs produced during the spring and early summer

this period of scarcity can be provided for. The keeping of pullets

instead of hens also will insure the production of eggs at this time.

Not only will the eggs from the home flock materially reduce the cost of

living, but the superior freshness and quality of the eggs are in

themselves well worth the effort expended. Eggs are a highly nutritious

food and are so widely used as to be almost indispensable, and an

occasional chicken dinner is relished by everyone.

Where conditions render it feasible and cheap small flocks of poultry

should be kept to a greater extent than at present by families in

villages and towns, and especially in the suburbs of large cities. The

need for this extension of poultry raising is particularly great in

those sections where the consumption of poultry products exceeds the

production, with the result that prices are high.

OVERCOMING OBJECTIONS TO KEEPING POULTRY IN THE CITY

Objection is frequently raised to the keeping of poultry in towns and

cities because of the odor which may result and also because of the

noise which is made by roosters crowing, particularly in the early

morning. In some cases city regulations have been formulated to prevent

or to control poultry keeping. Where there are city regulations it is

necessary to find out their provisions and to conform to them. There is

no necessity for the poultry flock to become a nuisance to neighbors. If

the dropping boards are cleaned daily and the houses and yards are kept

in a reasonably clean condition there will be no annoying odors.

The male bird need not be a nuisance. Unless it is intended to hatch

chickens from the flock it is unnecessary to keep a male bird. The fact

that there is no male in the flock will have absolutely no effect on the

number of eggs laid by the hens. If it is desired to mate the hens and

to hatch chicks the male bird should be sold or eaten just as soon as

the hatching season is over. This is desirable not only for the purpose

of eliminating noise, but also to save the feed that would be eaten by

the male and for the reason that the eggs produced after the male is

disposed of will be infertile. Since these eggs are incapable of chick

development they keep much better than fertile eggs and consequently are

superior for preserving or for market.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Poultry house and run in a back yard.]

The flock must be kept confined; otherwise the hens will stray into

neighbors’ yards and gardens, where they may cause damage and are almost

sure to cause ill feeling.

KIND OF FOWLS TO KEEP

Householders usually desire not only eggs for the table and for cooking,

but also an occasional chicken to eat. For this reason one of the

general-purpose breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode

Island Red, or Orpington, is preferable to the smaller egg breeds, such

as the Leghorns. Not only do the mature fowls of these breeds, because

of their larger size, make better table fowls than the Leghorns, but the

young chickens for the same reason make better friers and roasters,

whereas chickens of the egg breeds are only suitable for the smaller

broilers. The general-purpose breeds are also “broody” breeds, the hens

making good sitters and mothers, which is a decided advantage when it is

desired to hatch and raise chickens, since the hens of the egg breeds

seldom go broody and are in any event rather unreliable sitters and

mothers. If, however, the production of eggs outweighs the desire for an

occasional table fowl, the lighter egg breeds undoubtedly will be found

better, because they lay as many eggs and do so on less feed, with the

result that they produce the eggs more cheaply. It is by all means

advisable to keep some pure breed or variety. Where this is done, sales

at a profitable figure can often be made of breeding stock which it is

intended to market or of eggs for hatching.

SIZE OF FLOCK

The size of the flock which can be most efficiently kept will depend

first of all upon the space available and, secondly, upon the amount of

table scraps or other waste which is available for feed. It is a mistake

to try to overstock the available space. Better results will be obtained

from a few hens in a small yard than from a larger number. The back-yard

poultry flock rarely will consist of over 20 or 25 hens and in many

cases of not more than 8 or 10, or occasionally of only 3 or 4. For a

flock of 20 to 25 hens a space of not less than 25 by 30 feet should be

available for a yard. Where less space is available, the size of the

flock should be reduced, allowing on the average 20 to 30 square feet

per bird. A few hens are sometimes kept successfully with a smaller yard

allowance than this, but if the space is available a yard of the size

indicated should be used.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--A back-yard poultry plant. In the background are

the poultry houses set up off the ground on accounts of rats. At the

left is a shade made of wooden strips and roofing paper. At the right

are the coops for the hens and chicks. In the foreground oats for green

feed are being sprouted under wire screens.]

PROCURING STOCK

The best way for the city poultry keeper to procure hens is to purchase

them in the fall. An effort should be made to obtain pullets rather than

older hens, and the pullets selected should be well matured, so that

they will begin to lay before the cold weather sets in. Evidences of the

maturity of pullets are the development and red color of the comb and a

size and growth which are good for the breed or variety. Hens will lay

little or no eggs during the fall and early winter, while they are

molting. Well-matured pullets, however, should lay fairly well during

this period, so that an immediate return is realized from the

investment. The purchasing of pullets in the fall is preferable in most

cases to purchasing day-old chicks or to hatching chicks in the spring.

Usually there is little space available for the raising of chicks, and,

moreover, many city dwellers have had no experience in raising them.

Under these conditions the results are apt to be very poor. Hatching and

rearing chicks also necessitates broody hens for this purpose, or else

investing money in artificial apparatus such as incubators and brooders.

Such an investment is often too great to prove profitable with the

average small flock. If chicks are raised, they must be fed throughout

the summer and no return will be obtained until the pullets begin to lay

in the fall, except that the males can be eaten or sold.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--A shed in the heart of the city utilized for a

poultry house. While a larger opening in the front would admit more

light and make a more suitable hen house, the fowls kept here have done

very well. The wire netting used for the yard was purchased very cheaply

at an auction. The grass and sacks shown on the top of the run are used

to furnish shade.]

When pullets are to be purchased, it is well if possible to go to some

farmer or poultryman who may be known to the prospective purchaser. In

some cases it may pay to make arrangements with the farmer to raise the

desired number of pullets at an agreed price. Where the householder does

not have an opportunity to go into the country for his pullets, he can

often pick them out among the live poultry shipped into the city to be

marketed. The advice of some one who knows poultry should be sought in

making such a purchase, to make sure that pullets or young hens are

obtained, and that the stock is healthy. Often the local poultry

associations are glad to help the prospective poultry keeper to get

stock by putting him in communication with some of its members having

stock for sale. Sometimes the local board of trade or chamber of

commerce is glad to help to bring together the prospective purchaser and

the poultry raiser.

HOUSING

The flock should be comfortably but not expensively housed. A house

which provides a floor space of 3 or 4 square feet per bird is ample for

the purpose, and fowls are often successfully kept with an allowance no

greater then 2¹⁄₂ to 3 square feet. Houses must be dry and free from

draft, but must allow ventilation. Often there is an unused shed or

small building on the place which can easily be converted into a chicken

house (see fig. 3). The front of the poultry house should be faced

toward the south, if possible, so that the sun will shine into it.

Perfectly satisfactory houses can be made cheaply from piano boxes or

other packing cases. Two piano boxes with the backs removed can be

nailed together and a door cut in the end. These boxes should be covered

with a roofing paper in order to keep the house dry and to make it

wind-proof. A portion of the door should be left open or covered with a

piece of muslin, so as to allow ventilation. (See figs. 4 and 5.)

Similar houses can be constructed of packing cases at a relatively small

cost. A small amount of 2 by 4 or 2 by 3 lumber can be purchased for

framing. The box boards can be applied for siding or sheathing and then

covered with roofing paper. Where there is a board fence it is sometimes

possible to take advantage of this by building the poultry house in the

corner of the fence and making the fence itself, with the cracks covered

by strips or battened, serve as the back and one side of the house.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Poultry houses, each of which is made out of two

piano boxes. The two boxes are placed back to back, 3 feet apart, the

back and top of each removed, a frame for roof and floor added, and the

part between the two boxes built in with the boards removed from the

boxes. The whole is covered with roofing paper. With piano boxes at

$2.50 each, such a house can be easily and quickly constructed for $12.

It will accommodate 12 hens comfortably.]

A cheap house 8 by 8 feet square can be made of 2 by 4 inch pieces and

12-inch boards. Plans for such a house are given in figure 6. The 2 by 4

pieces are used for sills, plates, corner posts, and three rafters. No

studding is required except that necessary to frame the door and window

space. The boards are run up and down and add sufficient stiffness to

the house. They are used also for the roof and covered with roofing

paper. The back and sides of the house also can be covered with roofing

paper, or the cracks can be covered with wooden battens or strips 1¹⁄₂

to 3 inches wide. In the front of the house there should be left a

window or opening which can be closed, when desired, by a muslin screen

or curtain which serves as a protection against bad weather but allows

ventilation. In the side a door should be provided which will allow

entrance. A shed or single-slope roof is best because easiest to build.

A height of 6 feet in front and 4 feet in the rear is ample. If desired,

the house may be built higher, so that it is more convenient to work in;

the increase in cost will be slight. The ventilator in the rear is not

needed in the northern part of the country, but is desirable in the

South where summers are very warm.

[Illustration: Fig 5.--Rear view of piano-box houses shown in fig. 4.

The openings at the rear are provided for ventilation and coolness in

the hot weather. Windows could be used instead of solid shutters and

would make the houses lighter when closed.]

Such a house would be ample for a flock of 20 to 25 hens. It can be

built quickly and easily and is cheap in construction. The material

required is as follows:

BILL OF MATERIAL

Roof rafters, 5 pieces, 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long.

Roof plates, 2 pieces, 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long.

Sills, 4 pieces, 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long.

Posts, 3 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 6 feet long; 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches

by 4 feet long.

Stringer, 1 piece, 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long.

Total pieces required to cut list:

7 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 16 feet long.

1 piece 2 by 4 inches by 12 feet long.

Total feet in board measure, 81.

ROOSTS AND DROPPING BOARD.

1 piece 2 by 3 inches by 16 feet long.

1 piece 2 by 3 inches by 10 feet long.

Total board measure, 13 feet.

2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 16 feet long.

Total board measure, 32 feet.

SHEATHING BOARDS

Roof, 5 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 16 feet long.

Two sides, 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 10 feet long; 3 pieces 1 by 12

inches by 12 feet long; 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 14 feet long.

Front, 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 10 feet long.

Back, 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 16 feet long.

Total feet board measure, 216.

BATTEN STRIPS.

130 linear feet ¹⁄₂ by 2 inch strips, 24 board feet.

24 linear feet ⁷⁄₈ by 2 inch strips, for curtain frame, 4 board

feet.

ROOFING

80 square feet roofing paper; nails and tins.

HARDWARE

2 pairs 8-inch T hinges for door.

1 padlock for door.

3 pairs 4-inch T hinges for curtain frame and rear ventilator.

5 pounds 10-penny wire nails for framing.

10 pounds 8-penny wire nails for sheathing.

5 pounds 4-penny wire nails for stripping.

21 square feet poultry wire, ³⁄₄-inch mesh, for front.

3 yards muslin for curtain.

32 rough bricks will build piers.

FLOOR

If floor is desired in house, add the following material:

2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 16 feet long.

4 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 16 feet long.

Total feet board measure, 85.

TOTAL LUMBER REQUIRED

Without floor, 370 board feet.

With floor, 455 board feet.

Lumber can be rough or dressed.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Plan of a simple back-yard poultry house.]

When the soil is well drained and consequently will remain dry no floor

need be used in the house, the ground itself serving as the floor. Often

a slight dampness can be corrected by filling up the floor several

inches above the outside ground with sand, cinders, gravel, or dry dirt.

Three or four inches of the surface of the floor, and of the run if a

very small run is used, should be removed and replaced with fresh dirt

two or three times a year. If the ground is so wet or damp that this

condition can not be corrected by filling it is best to provide a board

floor as this will help to keep the house dry, will allow easier

cleaning, and will promote the general health and welfare of the hens. A

house with a board floor should be set on posts or blocks, so that it is

5 to 12 inches above the ground. When this space is left the floor will

not rot so quickly and rats are not so likely to take refuge under the

house. (See fig. 7.)

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--A good type of open-front poultry house for a

small flock. The front can be closed with a muslin curtain on cold

nights. The house is set on brick piers so as not to afford a refuge for

rats. Notice the nests built out on the front of the house where the

eggs can be reached by raising the hinged cover.]

In order to keep the flock in a clean and sanitary condition, dropping

boards should be provided and roosts above them. This makes it easy to

remove the droppings each morning and helps greatly to keep the house

free from objectionable odors. A little sand or ashes sprinkled on the

dropping board after each cleaning will be found to make the cleaning

easier.

The dropping boards and roosts should be placed against the back wall.

Here they are out of the way and at the same time where they are least

likely to be reached by drafts. The dropping boards should be about 20

to 30 inches from the floor, depending on the height of the building.

This gives space enough under them so that the hens have room to

exercise and is not too high for the heavier hens to fly up to. The

roosts should be 3 or 4 inches above the dropping boards. If more than

a single roost is used, they should be on the same level; otherwise all

the hens will try to crowd upon the highest roost. A piece of 2 by 4 or

2 by 3, laid and with the upper corners rounded off, make a good roost.

A pole, or even a piece of board 2 or 3 inches wide, may be used. If the

roost is of light material and fairly long, it should be supported in

the center, as well as at the ends, to prevent it from sagging badly. An

allowance of 7 to 10 inches of roost space per fowl, according to the

size of the birds, should be made. If more than one roost is used, they

should be placed about 15 inches apart.

Nests must be provided and may be very simple. Any box about 1 foot

square and 5 or 6 inches deep is suitable. An ordinary orange box with

the partition in the middle serves this purpose very well, each box

forming two nests. The top is removed, the box laid on its side, and a

strip 3 to 4 inches wide nailed across the lower front. (See fig. 9.)

Nests can be fastened against the walls of the house or set on the

floor. It is preferable to fasten them against the wall, as they take

too much floor space if set on the floor. One nest should be provided

for each 4 or 5 hens.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.--A larger poultry house suitable for a suburban

lot. Notice the old lumber, sash, etc., used in the construction. The

utilization of such used material, which can often be purchased for a

very slight sum at auction or where buildings are being wrecked, lessens

the cost of the poultry buildings very materially.]

The straw or other material used in the nest should be kept clean and

not be allowed to get so low that the eggs when laid by the hen will

strike the board bottom of the nest, as this will cause them to break

and will start the hens to eating the eggs, which is a very troublesome

habit and one that is very difficult to break up once it is formed.

A litter of straw or the leaves raked up in the fall about 3 or 4 inches

deep, should be used on the floor of the house. This material helps to

absorb the droppings and also provides a means of feeding the grain in

such a way that the hens are obliged to exercise by scratching for it.

When hens become broody, they should be “broken up” as quickly as

possible. for the sooner this is done the sooner they will resume

laying. To break a hen of broodiness she should be confined to a small

coop, preferably with a slat bottom. Give her plenty of water to drink;

she may be fed or not as desired. Not much difference will be found in

the time required to break her of broodiness, whether she is fed or

made to fast. Usually from 3 to 6 days’ confinement will break her, but

some hens require 10 to 12 days. The broody hen will be recognized by

her inclination to stay on the nest at night, the ruffling of her

feathers and her picking at anyone who approaches her, and by the

clucking noise she makes. The fact that her broodiness has been broken

up can be recognized by the disappearance of these symptoms.

THE YARD

The yard should be inclosed by a board or wire fence. Wire fencing is

preferable, as it is cheaper and the hens are less likely to fly over

it. If cats prove troublesome, where one is raising young chickens, it

may be necessary to cover the top of the yard with wire also. A board

should not be used at the top of a wire fence, as this gives the hens a

visible place to alight and tends to teach them to fly over. A 5-foot

fence is high enough for most conditions, but if the hens show a

tendency to fly over such a fence the flight feathers of one wing should

be clipped. The larger the yard which can be provided the better the

hens will do, as it not only gives them greater opportunity to exercise,

but also makes it possible to maintain a sod on the yard. In most cases

not enough land will be available so that a sod can be maintained.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.--An orange box converted into a double nest by

laying it on its side and nailing strips across the front to hold in the

nesting material.]

If the yard is fairly large, it can be divided into two parts and green

crops, such as oats, wheat, rye, or dwarf essex rape, allowed to start

in one yard while the hens are confined to the other. (See fig. 10.) The

green crops should be sown very thick, and the following quantities will

be found satisfactory for a yard 25 by 30 feet: Wheat, 2³⁄₄ pounds;

oats, 1¹⁄₂ pounds; rye 3¹⁄₄ pounds; rape, 5 ounces. When the growing

stuff reaches a height of 2 or 3 inches the hens can be turned upon it

and the other yard be similarly sown.

Where it is inadvisable to divide the yard, it is possible to keep a

supply of green stuff growing by using a wooden frame 2 or 3 inches

high, covered with 1-inch-mesh wire. A frame made of 2 by 4 lumber, 6

feet long and 3 feet wide, with an additional piece across the center to

support the wire when the hens stand on it, will be found desirable for

a small yard. (See fig. 11.) A part of the yard as large as this frame

is spaded up and sown, the frame placed over it, and the material

allowed to grow. As soon as the green sprouts reach the wire the hens

will begin to pick them off, but since they can not eat them down to the

roots the sprouts will continue to grow and supply green material. This

frame can be moved from place to place in the yard, and in this way

different parts cultivated.

The yard should be stirred or spaded up frequently if not in sod in

order to keep it in the best condition. This will not only tend to keep

down any odors which might arise, but also allow the droppings to be

absorbed into the soil more readily and therefore keep the yard in

better condition for the hens.

Although it is necessary to keep the hens confined to their yard most of

the time, it is sometimes possible to let them out where they may range

upon the lawn for an hour or so in the evening when some one can be at

hand to watch them, or at certain seasons of the year to allow them to

run in the garden plot. This will be enjoyed greatly by the hens and

will be very beneficial to them.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Back-yard poultry house and flock. Notice the

double yard. The green crop of the first yard has been fed off and the

second yard is planted to rape, which is about ready to feed. The

mulberry tree in the background provides, when the berries are ripe,

nearly enough feed for a flock of 25 hens for three weeks.]

FEEDING

In feeding the city flock an effort should be made to do so as cheaply

as possible, consistent with the production of eggs. To accomplish this,

all table scraps, kitchen waste, etc., should be utilized. Scraps of

meat or left-over vegetables which can not be utilized in any other way

make excellent feed. There are also many other waste products, such as

beet tops, turnip tops, carrot tops, potato parings, onion tops,

watermelon and cantaloup rinds, the outside leaves of cabbages, waste

lettuce leaves, bread and cake crumbs, etc., all of which are relished

by the hens and can be used to the best advantage. In saving the scraps

and waste it is well to separate the portions adapted for feeding to the

flock and place these in a receptacle or pail of their own. Decomposed

waste material or moldy bread or cake should never be saved to feed to

the hens, as it is harmful to them and may cause serious bowel trouble.

Sloppy material, such as dishwater, should not be thrown into their

pail. It is also useless to put in such things as banana peels or the

skins of oranges, as these have little or no food value. Any sour milk

which is not utilized in the house should be given to the chickens. This

should be fed separately, however, either by allowing the hens to drink

it or by allowing it to clabber on the back of the stove and then

feeding it in that condition. When the family’s table waste is not

sufficient for feeding the flock, it is usually possible to get some of

the neighbors who keep no hens to save material suitable for feeding.

Many people are glad to do this if a small pail in which to place the

waste is furnished.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.--A frame made of 2 by 4 inch lumber and covered

with ³⁄₄-inch mesh poultry wire used to sprout oats or other grain for

the hens. The wire prevents the hens from eating the sprouts down so

close as to kill the plants and from scratching out the roots. Sprouting

grain unprotected will be quickly killed.]

Table scraps and kitchen waste are best prepared for feeding by running

them through an ordinary meat grinder. After the material has been put

through the grinder it is usually a rather moist mass, and it is well to

mix with it some corn meal, bran, or other ground grain until the whole

mass assumes a crumbly condition. The usual method is to feed the table

scraps at noon or at night, or at both times, as may be desired, in a

trough or on a board. All should be fed that the hens will eat up clean,

and if any of the material is left after one-half or three-quarters of

an hour it should be removed. If allowed to lie it may spoil and would

be very bad for the hens.

With the table scraps it is well to feed some grain. Perhaps this may be

given best as a light feed in the morning. Four or five handfuls of

grain (about ¹⁄₂ pint) scattered in the litter will be sufficient for a

flock of 20 or 25 hens. By handful is meant as much as can be grasped in

the hand, not what can be scooped up in the open hand. By scattering it

in the litter the hens will be compelled to scratch in order to find the

grain and in this way to take exercise, which is decidedly beneficial to

them. If the house is too small to feed in, the grain can be scattered

on the ground outside. A good grain mixture for this purpose is composed

of equal parts by weight of wheat, cracked corn, and oats. Another

suitable grain mixture is composed of 2 parts by weight of cracked corn

and 1 part oats.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.--An intensive back-yard poultry plant.

Practically the entire back-yard is occupied by houses and covered runs,

and about 70 hens are carried. Each house is 6 by 14 feet, divided into

two pens with a covered yard of the same size. Each pen carries about 15

hens. The houses are raised from the ground so that the hens can run

under them. The soil in the runs is renewed four times a year. A flock

of 13 hens in one of these pens laid 2,163 eggs in a year. Oats are

sprouted in the cellar of the dwelling house for green feed. In

addition, chickens are raised here.]

In addition to the grain and the table scraps it is well to feed a dry

mash. This dry mash is composed of various ground grains and is placed

in a mash hopper or box from which the hens can help themselves. The

advantage of feeding such a mash is that the hens always have access to

feed, and this tends to make up for any fault, inexperienced, or

insufficient feeding. The hens do not like the dry mash so well that

they are likely to overeat, but it will supply a source of feed in case

they are not getting enough. The dry mash also provides a suitable

medium for feeding beef scrap, a certain amount of which may or may not

be necessary, depending upon the amount of meat scraps available in the

table waste. If the hens show a tendency to become overfat it may be

desirable to close the mash hopper during a part of the day and allow

them access to it only during a certain period, preferably the

afternoon. A good dry mash is composed of equal parts by weight of corn

meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, and beef scrap. Another good mash is

composed of 3 parts by weight of corn meal and 1 part beef scrap. Still

a third mash, which has given excellent results, is composed of 1 pound

of wheat bran, 1 pound of wheat middlings, 6.5 pounds of beef scrap, and

16.5 pounds of corn meal. The beef scrap used in the dry mash is usually

the most expensive ingredient, but it is a very essential part of the

mash and very efficient for egg production. It should not be eliminated

or reduced unless the quantity of meat in the table scraps is

considerable or unless some other product can be substituted for it.

Fish scrap, when available, may replace the beef scrap, or cottonseed

meal can be used to replace one-half the beef scrap in the mash. No

attempt should be made to replace more than half the beef scrap with

cottonseed meal, as the results in egg production and in the quality of

the eggs will be unsatisfactory.

Green cut bone can often be purchased from the butcher. This material

when procured fresh makes an excellent substitute for beef scrap. It

should be purchased in small quantities, as it can not be kept fresh for

any length of time and when spoiled may cause severe bowel trouble. It

is best fed in a trough not oftener than every other day, allowing about

one-half ounce per bird. Should severe or continued looseness of the

bowels follow the feeding of green cut bone it should be discontinued or

the quantity reduced.

Vegetable tops, parings, and other vegetable refuse supply a valuable

and very necessary green feed for the hens. Lawn clippings also are a

valuable green feed. They can be fed as soon as cut, or they may be

dried or cured, stored in bags, and saved until winter, when they can be

soaked in warm water and fed in that condition or be mixed with some of

the mash or with the table scraps.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Inclosure for hen and chicks with box used as a

coop at the end. Both coop and run is moved each day to a fresh spot of

ground. A burlap bag thrown across the top of the yard provides shade.

Twenty-five chicks were put with a hen in this yard and 24 of them were

raised, making good growth.]

The hens should have access at all times to a supply of grit or stones

of a size small enough to be swallowed readily. Grit is used by the hens

to help in grinding in their gizzards the hard grains which they eat. A

supply of ordinary gravel will answer the purpose of grit very well.

Crushed oyster or clam shell also should be given to the hens and be

kept before them at all times. If this is withheld the hens are likely

to lack sufficient shell-forming material in their feed, with the result

that they lay many soft-shelled or thin-shelled eggs. Grit or shell can

be purchased in small quantities at any feed or poultry supply store.

A plentiful supply of clean, fresh water must always be available to the

hens. The fowls drink freely, especially when laying heavily, and should

not be stinted of such a necessary and cheap material as water. The

water pan or dish should be kept clean. If it is not washed out

frequently a green slime will gather on its inner surface. This should

not be allowed to happen. It is well to keep the water pan outside the

house and in the shade in the summer, but in the winter, when the water

may freeze, it is best that the pan be left in the house, and it should

be raised about a foot above the floor so that the hens will not kick it

full of straw or other litter when scratching for their feed. When the

nights are cold enough so that the water is likely to freeze the pan

should be emptied each night and refilled in the morning.

LICE AND MITES

If the best results are to be expected from the flock, the hens must not

be allowed to become overrun with lice or the house with mites. Usually

there will be a place in the yard where the hens can dust themselves in

the dry dirt. If such a place is not available, a box large enough

(about 2 feet square) for the hens to get into it should be provided in

the house and a quantity of dust such as ordinary road dust or fine dirt

placed in it to allow the hens a place to dust themselves. A dust bath

aids the hens in keeping lice in check and therefore adds to their

comfort. Usually the lice are not present on the birds in sufficient

number to prove particularly harmful. However, it is better to keep the

hens as free as possible from this pest, and if they are not able to

keep them in check by dusting themselves, other measures can be

undertaken.

To rid the hens of lice, each one can be treated by placing small

pinches of sodium fluorid, a material which can be obtained at most

large drug stores, among the feathers next to the skin--one pinch on the

head, one on the neck, two on the back, one on the breast, one below the

vent, one at the base of the tail, one on either thigh, and one

scattered on the underside of each wing when spread. Another method is

to use a small quantity of blue ointment, a piece about as large as a

pea on the skin 1 inch below the vent. If mercurial ointment is used

instead of blue ointment, it should be diluted with an equal quantity of

vaseline. Any of these methods will be found very effective in ridding

the hens of lice and should be employed whenever the lice become

troublesome. Two or three applications a year usually prove sufficient.

Mites are more troublesome and more harmful than lice. They do not live

upon the birds like the lice, but during the day hide in the cracks and

crevices of the roosts and walls of the house, and at night they come

out and get upon the fowls. They suck the hen’s blood, and if allowed to

become plentiful--as they certainly will if not destroyed--will

seriously affect her health and consequently her ability to lay eggs.

They may be eradicated by a few thorough applications of kerosene or

some of the coal-tar products which are sold for this purpose, or crude

petroleum, to the interior of the poultry house. The commercial coal-tar

products are more expensive but retain their killing power longer, and

they may be cheapened by reducing with an equal part of kerosene. Crude

petroleum will spray better if thinned with 1 part of kerosene to 4

parts of the crude oil. Both the crude petroleum and the coal-tar

products often contain foreign particles, so should be strained before

attempting to spray. One must be sure that the spray reaches all of the

cracks and crevices, giving especial attention to the roosts,

dropping-boards, and nests, and the treatment should be repeated two or

three times at intervals of a week or 10 days.[3]

[3] For further information on the subject of poultry lice and mites

and their control the reader is referred to Farmers’ Bulletin 801,

“Mites and Lice on Poultry,” by F. C. Bishopp and H. P. Wood, of the

Bureau of Entomology. Copies of this bulletin may be obtained free on

application to the Division of Publications, United States Department

of Agriculture.

HATCHING AND RAISING CHICKS

Often it is inadvisable to attempt to renew the city poultry flock by

hatching and rearing chicks or buying and rearing day-old chicks.

Previous experience in the raising of chickens often increases the

chances of success. However, the land available is usually small in

area, and no attempt should be made to raise chicks unless a plot can be

provided separate from that to which the hens have access and upon which

there is grass, or a supply of green feed can be furnished. Where these

conditions are not available, it is better to kill the hens as soon as

they have outlived their usefulness and replace them by well-matured

pullets in the fall. Where it is found desirable to hatch and rear a few

chicks this can best be done with hens. Where a few day-old chicks are

purchased to rear and no hens are available for the purpose, it is

possible with little trouble and expense to construct a fireless brooder

which will answer the purpose. Full directions for making such a brooder

are given in Farmers’ Bulletin 624, page 10[4].

[4] Copies of these publications may be obtained free from the

Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

The hatching should be done early in the spring and should be completed

if possible by the first of May. Chicks hatched before this time will

have a good chance to mature and be in laying condition as pullets

before the cold weather of fall sets in, and should in consequence be

producers during the entire fall and winter. Early-hatched chicks are

also easier to raise, as they live and thrive better than those which

are still small when the hot weather begins. If it is desired to hatch

and raise chicks, the reader is referred to Farmers’ Bulletin 585,

“Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens’ Eggs,” and 624, “Natural and

Artificial Brooding of Chickens.”[5]

[5] Copies of these publications may be obtained free from the

Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

CULLING THE HENS

In any flock some hens will be found to be much better producers than

others. Often there are a few hens which are such poor producers that

they are unprofitable. Where the flock is comparatively small, the owner

is often able to determine by observation which are the poor producing

hens. Needless to say, these should be the ones to kill and eat as fowls

are desired for the table. All hens molt in the fall and early winter.

During this molting season, which usually takes about three months, the

hens lay few or no eggs. It is advisable, if well-matured pullets can be

purchased at a reasonable price, to kill and eat the hens as they begin

to molt, replacing the flock with newly purchased pullets. The hens

should not be killed, however, until they begin to molt and their comb

begins to lose its size, color, and flexibility, for if these changes

have not taken place the hens will probably still be laying and at a

time of year when eggs are especially valuable.

PRESERVING EGGS

A small flock of hens, even five or six, may produce enough eggs during

the greater part of the year to supply the needs of a medium-sized

family. Where a larger flock is kept, there will be a time during the

spring and early summer when more eggs are produced than are used. These

surplus eggs can either be sold or, what is perhaps more desirable,

preserved in the spring for home use during the fall and early winter,

when eggs are high in price and much more difficult to obtain from the

flock.

The eggs to be preserved must be fresh. They should be put in the

preserver on the day on which they are laid. The eggs should be clean,

but it is better not to wash them. Eggs with dirty shells can be used

for immediate consumption and the clean eggs preserved. Cracked eggs or

those with thin or weak shells should never be used for preservation.

Not only will the cracked egg itself spoil, but it will cause many of

the other eggs packed in the same jar with it to spoil as well.

One of the best methods of preserving eggs is by the use of waterglass.

This material can be purchased by the quart from the druggist or poultry

supply men. It is a pale yellow, odorless, sirupy liquid. It should be

diluted in the proportion of 1 part of waterglass to 9 parts of water

which has been boiled and allowed to cool. Earthenware crocks or jars

are the best containers for the purpose, since they have a glazed

surface and are not subject to chemical action from the solution. The

crocks or cans should be scalded out, so that they will be perfectly

clean, and allowed to cool before they are used. A container holding 6

gallons will accommodate 18 dozen eggs and will require about 22 pints

of solution. Too large containers are not desirable, since they increase

the liability of breaking some of the eggs. Half fill the container with

the waterglass solution and place the eggs in it. Eggs can be added from

day to day as they are obtained, until the container is filled. Be sure

that the eggs are covered with about 2 inches of waterglass solution.

Cover the container and place it in a cool place, where it will not have

to be moved. It should be looked at from time to time to see that not

enough of the water has evaporated so that the eggs are uncovered. If

there seems to be any danger of this, sufficient cool boiled water

should be added to keep them covered.

Remove the eggs from the solution as desired for use and rinse them in

clean, cold water. Before boiling such eggs prick a tiny hole in the

large end of the shell with a needle, to keep them from cracking. As the

eggs age the white becomes thinner and is harder to beat. The yolk

membrane becomes more delicate, and it is correspondingly difficult to

separate the whites from the yolks.

Limewater is also satisfactory for preserving eggs and is slightly less

expensive than waterglass. A solution is made by placing 2 or 3 pounds

of unslaked lime in 5 gallons of water which has been boiled and allowed

to cool, and allowing the mixture to stand until the lime settles and

the liquid is clear. The eggs should be placed in a clean earthenware

jar or other suitable vessel and covered to a depth of 2 inches with the

liquid. Remove the eggs as desired, rinse in clean, cold water, and use

immediately.

PRACTICAL POINTERS

Keep the hens confined to your own land.

Don’t keep a male bird. Hens lay just as well without a male.

Don’t overstock your land.

Purchase well-matured pullets rather than hens.

Don’t expect great success in hatching and raising chicks unless you

have had some experience and have a grass plot separate from the yard

for the hens.

Build a cheap house or shelter.

Make the house dry and free from drafts, but allow for ventilation.

Fowls stand cold better than dampness.

Keep house and yard clean.

Provide roosts and dropping boards.

Provide a nest for each four or five hens.

Grow some green crop in the yard.

Spade up the yard frequently.

Feed table scraps and kitchen waste.

Also feed grain once a day.

Feed a dry mash.

Keep hens free from lice and the house free from mites.

Kill and eat the hens in the fall as they begin to molt and cease to

lay.

Preserve the surplus eggs produced during the spring and summer for use

during the fall and winter when eggs are scarce and high in price.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO

THE CARE OF POULTRY

_=Available for Free Distribution by the Department.=_

Standard Varieties of Chickens. (Farmers’ Bulletin 51.)

Poultry Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 287.)

Successful Dairy and Poultry Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 355.)

Hints to Poultry Raisers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 528.)

Important Poultry Diseases. (Farmers’ Bulletin 530.)

Boys and Girls Poultry Clubs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 562.)

Poultry House Construction. (Farmers’ Bulletin 574.)

Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens’ Eggs. (Farmers’ Bulletin

585.)

Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens. (Farmers’ Bulletin 624.)

Simple Trap Nest for Poultry. (Farmers’ Bulletin 682.)

Squab Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 684.)

Duck Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 697.)

Goose Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 767.)

Mites and Lice on Poultry. (Farmers’ Bulletin 801.)

Standard Varieties of Chickens: 1. The American Class. (Farmers’

Bulletin 806.)

How the Produce Dealer May Improve Quality of Poultry and Eggs.

(Separate 596 from Year Book 1912.)

Thanksgiving Turkey. (Separate 700 from Year Book 1916.)

The Chicken Mite, Its Life History and Habits. (Department Bulletin

553.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

WASHINGTON, D. C.

Refrigeration of Dressed Poultry in Transit. (Department Bulletin 17.)

Price, 10c.

Commercial Fattening of Poultry. (Department Bulletin 21.) Price. 10c.

Lessons on Poultry for Rural Schools. (Department Bulletin 464.)

Price, 10c.

Food Value and Uses of Poultry. (Department Bulletin 467.) Price, 5c.

Eggs and Their Value as Food. (Department Bulletin 471.) Price, 5c.

Improvement of Farm Eggs. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 141.)

Price, 10c.

PLAN No. 240. CAPONS AND CAPONIZING

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.

Acknowledgment is due for this article to the United States Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

A capon is an unsexed or castrated male chicken.

The true capon seldom crows.

The capon is to the poultry dealer what the fat steer is to the beef

packer--the source of the choicest food product of its kind. As a result

of a contented disposition the capon develops more uniformly than the

cockerel, and grows larger than the cockerel of the same age. Coupled

with this better growth, the capon commands a better price per pound,

and the demand continues good notwithstanding the fact that more and

more are raised each year.

The Plymouth Rocks, Light Brahmas, Cochins, Indian Games, Langshans,

Wyandottes, Orpingtons, and various crosses of these, make the best

capons.

Cockerels should be caponized when they weigh from 1¹⁄₂ to 2¹⁄₂ pounds

or when from 2 to 4 months old.

The operation is more difficult than with most other domestic animals,

but can be performed rapidly and with little danger after some practice.

The making, feeding, and marketing of capons, with details concerning

methods and results, are presented in this bulletin that caponizing may

become a regular practice of the poultry raiser where conditions are

favorable.

It is impossible to say just how long the operation of caponizing has

been performed. It seems quite certain, however, that the practice was

familiar to the Chinese more than 2,000 years ago. Later it was

practiced by the Greeks and Romans and, through medieval times, by the

people of middle and southern Europe, until in recent times it has been

introduced into America. At present capons are most universally known

and appreciated in France, although within the last few years the

business of producing them has advanced rapidly in this country. This

industry is most important in that portion of the United States east of

Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of capons are being raised in

the Middle Western States. During the winter months capon is regularly

quoted in the markets of the larger eastern cities. Massachusetts and

New Jersey are the great centers for the growing of capons, while

Boston, New York, and Philadelphia are the important markets.

[Illustration: A Capon.]

DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAPON

What is a capon? A capon is an altered or castrated male chicken,

bearing the same relation to a cockerel that a steer does to a bull, a

barrow to a boar, or a wether to a ram. As with other male animals so

altered, the disposition of the capon differs materially from that of

the cockerel. He no longer shows any disposition to fight, is much more

quiet and sluggish, and is more docile and easy to keep within bounds.

The true capon seldom crows. Along with this change in disposition there

is a change in appearance. The comb and wattles cease growing, which

causes the head to appear small. The hackle and saddle feathers develop

beautifully.

As a result of the more peaceful disposition of the capon he continues

to grow and his body develops more uniformly and to a somewhat greater

size than is the case with a cockerel of the same age. For a time the

cockerel and the capon make about equal development, but as soon as the

reproductive organs of the cockerel begin to develop the capon begins

to outstrip him in growth. Also when finishing off the capon fattens

more readily and economically. As they do not interfere with or worry

one another, a large flock of capons may be kept together. Coupled with

the better growth is the fact that the capon brings a better price per

pound. Cockerels from 2 to 5 months old usually bring from 15 to 25

cents a pound; if held longer than this they become “staggy,” are

classed as old cocks, and do not bring more than 6 to 15 cents a pound.

Capon in season brings 20 to 35 cents and often more a pound. There are

two reasons, then, why it is better to caponize surplus cockerels than

to raise them for market as such: (1) There is an increase in weight and

(2) the price per pound is materially increased. Yet in many localities

where especially fine poultry is raised, while capons usually sell for a

somewhat better price, the difference is not great. In fact, for the

Boston market, many capons are picked clean and sold as “south shore

roasters.” Hence it will be seen that the profit in capons must depend

to a great extent upon local conditions. The demand for capons continues

good, notwithstanding the fact that more and more are raised each year.

SELECTION OF BREEDS

In selecting the breed best suited for caponizing several factors must

be taken into consideration. Large capons bring the best prices.

Consequently the breed should be large. It does not pay to caponize

small fowls. Yellow legs and skin, as in other classes of poultry, are

most popular. The Plymouth Rocks, Light Brahmas, Cochins, Indian Games,

Langshans, and Wyandottes are all recommended by different producers, as

are also various crosses of these. The Orpington also makes fine capons,

but the white legs and skin are somewhat of a disadvantage in this

country. The Brahmas and Cochins possess good size. By some the Brahmas

are claimed to be difficult to operate upon; by others this is denied.

The Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes are somewhat smaller, but sell readily

and possess the advantage of yellow skin and legs. The Langshan is large

and is easily operated upon. The Indian Game is probably most useful as

a cross upon some one of the other breeds, thereby improving the breast

meat without materially reducing the size of the fowl. In Massachusetts

the Brahma was formerly the most popular breed for this purpose because

of the demand for large birds for roasters. Later crosses between the

Light Brahma and the Barred or White Plymouth Rock became quite popular,

while at present the pure Barred and White Plymouth Rocks are perhaps

most widely used.

TIME TO CAPONIZE

In so far as the effects of the operation and the rapidity and ease of

healing are concerned, the time of year when the operation is performed

is of little importance. The capons seem to recover and do well at any

time. Certain other considerations, however, do influence the time. The

age and size of the cockerel are very important. As soon as the

cockerels weigh 1¹⁄₂ to 2¹⁄₂ pounds, or when 2 to 4 months old, they

should be operated upon. The lower age and weight limits apply

particularly to the American breeds, while the higher apply to the

Asiatics. If smaller than this, their bodies do not give room enough to

work handily. On the other hand, they should never be over 6 months old,

as by this time the testicles have developed to a considerable extent,

the spermatic arteries carry greater amounts of blood, and the danger of

pricking these arteries and causing the fowl to bleed to death is

greatly increased. The fact that capons are in greater demand and bring

the best prices from the Christmas season until the end of March, and

that it takes about 10 months to grow and finish them properly, makes it

important to hatch the chicks in early spring so that they will be of

proper size for caponizing in June, July, and August. These are by far

the most popular months for the operation, though in some cases it is

performed still later.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Instruments used in Caponizing.]

CAPONIZING INSTRUMENTS

There are several sets of instruments for performing the operation.

These differ principally in the type of instrument used in getting hold

of and removing the testicle. One type is the cannula (fig. 1, _a_).

This consists of a hollow tube, the lower end of which is compressed and

closed except for two small holes through which to run the horse hair or

wire comprising the other part of the instrument. This type requires two

hands to operate. Another type is the twisting scoop (fig. 1, _b_). This

is a spoon-like scoop slotted in the center and mounted upon a slender

rod. It is designed to slip under the testicle, allowing the spermatic

cord to pass through the slot. By twisting the cord in severed. This

type has the advantage of requiring only one hand to operate, but is

more liable to produce “slips” than the cannula. A third style of

instrument (fig. 1, _i_) is also in the form of a spoon or scoop, but

instead of being in one piece has two jaws regulated by a slide. The

testicle is caught in the scoop with the spermatic cord between the

jaws, and by tightening the jaws and gently moving the instrument the

cord is severed and the testicle removed. Still another type, not now in

common use, is the spoon forceps. With this the testicle is simply

grasped with the forceps and detached by a twisting movement. Here one

hand can be used also, but the liability of slips is rather greater than

with the other methods.

Figure 1, _k_, shows a type of forceps, consisting of two hinged arms,

one of which terminates in a broad, flat surface, and the other in an

end of similar shape from which the center has been removed, leaving

only a narrow rim. These two ends are held closely pressed together by

means of a rubber band passing across the handles. In use, the ends of

the forceps are separated, the solid one slipped under the testicle and

the rim then allowed to settle down over it. The cord is thus caught and

the testicle can be removed. Careless or too rapid use of this

instrument is likely to cause slips. Figure 1, _l_ and _m_, shows two

additional types of testicle removers. The type shown in _l_ has a

curved handle which brings the hand out of the line of vision, making it

easier to see into the body cavity when using the instrument. A knife

for making the incision into the body cavity is, of course, necessary.

Almost any sharp-pointed, thin-bladed knife will answer the purpose well

(see fig. 1, _c_). Some sort of spreader to spring apart the ribs far

enough to allow the instruments to be inserted into the body must be

used. A plain spring spreader, as shown in figure 1, _d_, or a sliding

spreader (fig. 1, _e_), allowing the pressure to be gauged, will answer

the purpose. A sharp-pointed hook (fig. 1, _h_). for tearing away the

thin membranes, and a blunt probe, of which figure 1, _g_, is one type,

for pushing aside the intestines, complete the necessary equipment. A

pair of small tweezers or nippers (fig. 1, _f_) is also useful in

removing any foreign matter from the body.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel of suitable size

to caponize.]

THE OPERATION OF CAPONIZING

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Method of securing fowl in position for the

operation on top of a barrel.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Feathers plucked away to make ready for

incision.]

Before beginning the operation two conditions are absolutely essential.

If these are not favorable, do not attempt to operate. The first of

these is that the intestines of the fowl should be completely empty, so

that they will fall away and expose the testicle to view. This can be

accomplished by shutting up the fowls and withholding all food and water

for 24 to 36 hours before the operation. Withholding water tends to make

the blood thicker and consequently to decrease the amount of bleeding.

Thirty-six hours is better than 24, especially for a beginner. The

second condition is a good, strong light, so that the organs of the fowl

may be clearly and easily distinguished. Direct sunlight is best for

this, and in consequence it is well to operate out of doors on a bright

day. Some operators have substituted the physician’s head reflector and

artificial light with good success. An ordinary incandescent electric

bulb fastened to a gooseneck standard and provided with a reflector can

be used to good advantage when caponizing indoors. It has been

suggested that a probe consisting of a small electric bulb on the end of

a slender rod and operated by small dry batteries, so that it can be

introduced into the body cavity, could be manufactured and used with

good success.

METHODS OF HOLDING THE FOWL

When ready to operate, catch the bird and pass a noose of strong string

about the legs. Do the same with both wings close to the shoulder

joints. To the other end of the string are attached weights of

sufficient size to hold down and stretch out the bird when placed upon

the head of a barrel or box of convenient height, which is to serve as

operating table. These weights are allowed to hang on opposite sides of

the barrel or box (see fig. 3). A table, if so desired, may be arranged

by boring holes through its top at proper distances from each other,

allowing the strings to pass through these, and hanging the weights

underneath. Still other ways of holding the fowl in place have been

devised, but these are unimportant so long as the fowl is held securely

stretched out.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--The incision made. Before making the cut, the

skin over the last two ribs is pulled down toward the thigh and held

there while the incision is made. When the bird is released after the

operation, the skin slips back into its natural position. The cut in the

skin is then not directly over the incision in the body, with the result

that the wound is closed and protected.]

DETAILS OF THE OPERATION

Having fastened the fowl, be sure that all the instruments are at hand.

It is also well, though not necessary, to have ready some absorbent

cotton and a dish of water to which have been added a few drops of

carbolic acid or some other antiseptic. Having once started, carry the

operation through as quickly as possible. Moisten and remove the

feathers from a small area over the last two ribs just in front of the

thigh (see fig. 4). With the left hand slide the skin and flesh down

toward the thigh. Holding it thus, make the incision between the last

two ribs (see fig. 5), holding the edge of the knife away from you as

you stand back of the fowl. Lengthen the incision in each direction

until it is 1 to 1¹⁄₂ inches long. Now insert the spreader into the

incision, thus springing the ribs apart, as shown in figures 6 and 7.

The intestines will now be visible, covered by a thin membrane called

the omentum. Tear apart this membrane with the hook, and the upper

testicle, yellow or sometimes rather dark colored and about the size and

shape of an ordinary bean, should be visible close up against the

backbone. By pushing aside the intestines this can easily be seen, and

the lower one also, in a similar position on the other side of the

backbone. Expert operators usually remove both testicles through one

incision. This is a desirable practice, as it saves time and is not so

hard on the bird. Inexperienced operators will usually find it well to

attempt the removal of the upper or nearer testicle only and to make a

second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal of the

other testicle.

If both testicles are to be removed through the same incision, remove

the lower first, as the bleeding from the upper might be sufficient to

obscure the lower. Each testicle is enveloped in a thin membrane. This

may be and probably is best removed with the testicle, though some

operators tear it open and remove the testicle only.

The delicate part of the operation is now at hand, owing to the close

proximity of the spermatic artery, which runs just back of the testicle

and to which the testicle is in part attached. If this is ruptured the

fowl will bleed to death. The cannula, threaded with a coarse horsehair

or fine wire, or one of the other forms of instrument previously

described, now comes into use. If the cannula is used, allow the hair or

wire protruding from the end to form a small loop just large enough to

slip over the testicle. Work this over the testicle, being careful to

inclose the entire organ. Now tighten up on the free ends of the hair or

wire, being careful not to catch any part of the artery. If the

spermatic cord does not separate, saw lightly with the hair or wire.

When the testicle is free, remove it from the body. The method of

removing the testicle is shown in figure 8. If only the upper testicle

has been removed, turn the birds over and proceed in exactly the same

manner upon the other side.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Spreader in place. Tearing open the membranes.]

After removing the testicle, if the bleeding is at all profuse it is

well to remove a portion of the blood by introducing small pieces of

absorbent cotton into the body by means of the hook or nippers, allowing

them to become saturated and then removing them. Be sure to remove all

blood clots, feathers, or foreign matters. After the testicles and all

foreign matter are removed, take out the spreaders, thus allowing the

skin to slip back over the incision.

LOSSES DUE TO CAPONIZING

Even experts are sure to kill some birds, but the loss is small, seldom

exceeding 5 per cent where any considerable number are caponized, and

usually not more than 2 or 3 per cent. With beginners, of course, the

percentage is much larger, but with a little practice and care this is

soon overcome. Any fowls which may be killed in this way are perfectly

good to eat and are therefore not wasted.

A great deal of practice is required to become expert enough to operate

rapidly. Consequently it is quite common in localities where many capons

are grown to hire experts to do the work. These men are able to caponize

a fowl every two to five minutes, and charge from 3 to 6 cents a fowl

for the service. It is most humane for the beginner to make his first

trials upon dead fowls.

SLIPS

Many times, particularly with beginners, while the operation seems to be

entirely satisfactory, the bird will turn out to be what is known as a

“slip.” A “slip” is neither cockerel nor capon, but is between the two,

possessing the mischievous disposition and the appearance of an ordinary

cockerel, but, as a rule, being unable to reproduce. This condition is

due to the fact that a small piece of the testicle is left in the body.

This piece often grows to a considerable size. As the “slips” possess

the same restless disposition as the cockerels, they grow and fatten

little if any better, while they do not bring as good a price in the

market as the capons. Consequently it is well to use every precaution in

order to avoid “slips,” as they are unprofitable as compared with

capons. With the greatest care, however, “slips” are more common than

are deaths due to the operation. The percentage varies all the way from

50 per cent with beginners down to 2 or 3 per cent with experts.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Spreader in place. The testicle can be observed

lying between the jaws of the spreader.]

CARE OF FOWLS AFTER THE OPERATION

Upon being released from the operating table the capons are usually put

in a closed yard where they can find shelter, food, and water and can be

kept quiet. No roosts are provided, as the less flying and jumping they

do the sooner will the wound heal. The capons seem to be very little

inconvenienced by the operation, and water and soft feed mixed with

sweet skim milk can be given immediately. Some feeders give this in

unlimited quantity, while others feed more sparingly for a time. Some

growers observe no precautions whatever, giving the birds full liberty

immediately after the operation and allowing them to have any sort of

feed.

For a week or 10 days the newly made capons should be carefully observed

to see whether they become “wind puffed.” This is a condition caused by

air gathering under and puffing out the skin near the wound. When

observed it can be readily relieved by pricking the skin with a needle

or knife and pressing out the air. In about 10 days or 2 weeks the

incision into the body should be entirely healed, and, although no

special antiseptic methods are employed in the operation, blood

poisoning or any other trouble seldom results.

FEEDING CAPONS

Capons are usually kept till they are about 10 months old. At this time

the market is at its best and the birds have made their most profitable

gains. The feeds used and the methods of feeding vary greatly, so much

so, indeed, that it is futile to try to give specific directions. For

several months after the operation a good growing ration and not a

fattening ration is required. It may consist of whole grains, ground

grains, or a combination of the two, as each feeder finds most

profitable and best suited to his locality. As with other poultry,

variety must be given for best results. Late in the fall, when the

capons have no pasture, green feed, such as cut clover or vegetables,

should be provided. A somewhat more fattening ration than that required

for laying hens seems to give good results.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Removing the testicle.]

As capons are not usually marketed before Christmas or the first of

January they have to be housed during the late fall and early winter.

Because of their quiet disposition they stand crowding quite well and

have been successfully housed with only 2 or 3 square feet of floor

space to a fowl. Free range for capons is very desirable, as it promotes

their continuous, rapid, and economical growth.

During the last month or month and a half before marketing, the corn in

the ration should be gradually increased until the fowls are on a full

fattening ration. For the last two or three weeks it is desirable to

shut them up and feed them in crates, for every possible ounce at this

stage adds to the appearance and profit.

KILLING AND DRESSING CAPONS FOR MARKET

_Killing_

The capons selected for killing should be confined for 24 hours without

feed or water to completely empty their crops. The usual method of

killing is known as the sticking method. The fowl is hung up by the

feet, the head held in the left hand, and the whole body stretched to

full length. The mouth is forced open, and by means of a sharp,

narrow-bladed knife held in the right hand the blood vessels at the back

of the throat are severed with a single sweep. The knife is then turned

and the point plunged through the roof of the mouth to a point just

behind and between the eyes. The brain is here reached, and if properly

stuck all feeling is then lost. Convulsions ensue, the muscles are

relaxed, and the feathers come out easily.

_Picking_

Capons should always be dry picked, as they look much better and some of

the feathers should be left on. The feathers of the neck and head, the

tail feathers, those a short way up the back, the feathers of the last

two joints of the wing, and those of the leg, about one-third of the way

from knee to hip joint, should be left on. These feathers, together with

the head of the capon, serve to distinguish it from other classes of

poultry on the market, and consequently should never be removed. In

picking be careful not to tear the skin. If bad tears are made, sew them

up. Capons scalded and picked bare bring very little, if any, better

prices than other poultry in the same condition.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.--The spreader removed and the weights taken off

the wings. Notice how the skin slips back over the incision so as to

close it.]

_Drawing_

Most markets require capons to be undrawn and the head and feet left on.

Care should be used to cleanse the head and feet of all signs of blood

or filth.

_Cooling and Packing_

After picking, the carcases are hung in a cool place until the animal

heat has entirely left the body, when they are ready to be packed. Like

other poultry they should be packed in boxes of convenient size, holding

a dozen carcases, or in barrels. Every attention should be given to

neatness and attractiveness, as this helps the sale and the price.

During the time of year when most capons are marketed--January,

February, and March--no ice is necessary, but if for any reason they are

shipped in warm weather they should be packed in ice.

PROFITS

[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Capons dressed for market. These illustrations

show appearance after picking, but do not show fowls in perfect

condition of flesh.]

It is extremely difficult to make any general statement concerning the

profits yielded by capons. That they do yield a profit in practically

all cases is undoubtedly true, but whether the profit is sufficient to

give up to them the time and room they require is a question which must

be settled by each man’s experience and by local conditions. Many

poultrymen think that they can do better to turn off their surplus

cockerels as broilers as long as the market holds up and rely upon

caponizing only for later-hatched chicks. The house room thus saved they

use for pullets or other laying stock, feeling that they make more money

in this way. It is certain, however, that many poultrymen find capon

raising profitable enough to induce them to continue in the business. On

several farms in Massachusetts 500 to 1,000 capons are raised annually,

and the writer knows of one farm on which in one season 5,000 cockerels

were held for caponizing. Although the industry is growing rapidly year

by year, the supply does not yet equal the demand. The best prices are

commanded by capons produced near to the market, and consequently

perfectly fresh. The markets of the West usually do not quote as good

prices as the eastern ones; hence most of the western-grown capons are

shipped East, in which case the express rates cut down the profit

materially. On the whole, the profit is probably rather greater for

eastern producers than for those of the North Central States.

PLAN No. 241. LIQUID CARPET CLEANER

One of the very best carpet cleaners ever placed on the market is that

put up in liquid form by a man living in a western town of 5,000 people,

where there was no steam cleaning establishment. He used the following

formula:

Solution soap, 120 ounces; ammonia water (10%), 60 ounces; gasoline, 120

ounces; chloroform, the cheap kind, 20 ounces; saltpetre, 10 ounces;

commercial oil of wintergreen, or other perfume, sufficient to give an

agreeable scent.

(The solution soap named is made of cheap olive oil, 60 ounces; caustic

potash, 12 ounces; wood alcohol and water, equal parts, to make 1,000

ounces.)

In making the liquid cleaner, dissolve the saltpetre in the water, add

the ammonia to the soap solution, then the chloroform, oil and gasoline,

shaking well after adding each ingredient, then add this to the water.

This makes a milky white compound that must be shaken well before using.

Citronella or other cheap perfume may be used instead of the

wintergreen, if desired.

In making the soap solution, called for in the formula, put the oil into

a suitable vessel, with half of the alcohol, then dissolve the potash in

water, mix the two solutions, until it forms a nice soap, which can be

determined by dropping a little of it in water. If it dissolves without

forming oily drops, it is complete. Allow this to cool, add the rest of

the alcohol and enough water to bring the measure up to 1,000 ounces.

Then strain and filter.

Use the cleaner by applying freely with a sponge, and scrub briskly with

a stiff brush, then wash off with warm water, which removes all grease,

dirt, etc.

With a man to do the work, our friend went to the most prominent homes,

as well as all the hotels in his town, and asked for the privilege of

demonstrating his compound. This was granted in practically all cases,

and he was given a large number of orders for cleaning carpets without

removing them from the floor, at about half the price charged by regular

cleaning establishments, yet which netted him a good profit after paying

his man for the work.

He also advertised it through the smaller towns, and secured sales for

it which brought him a good income every year.

PLAN No. 242. A WHITE SHOE DRESSING

The only objection to white shoes is that they soil so easily, but those

who use the following formula will find their troubles on that score are

over.

Precipitated chalk, 4 ounces; zinc oxide, 6 ounces; whiting, 8 ounces;

pipe clay, 16 ounces; have all thoroughly dry and in fine powder, mix

together very thoroughly and pass through a fine sieve. Now is where one

of the tricks of the trade comes in. If the powder should have any

yellowish tinge, as it most likely will, or does not seem to be just as

dead white as it should be it may be brought up, by the judicious

admixture of a very little bluing, just as is used in washing clothes

and also is put in white granulated sugar for the same purpose. The blue

must be in very fine powder and thoroughly mixed with the other powder,

to give the proper results. Add it cautiously and be careful not to get

too much. A good plan to work is, take some blue and rub it with three

or four times its bulk of the powder in a mortar until thoroughly and

evenly mixed, then use this powder for toning up your product. When this

is done, mix a dram of powdered tragacanth and a dram of carbolic acid

for each pound of the powder, with enough water to wet the whole thing

into a stiff, putty-like mass. Fill this mass solidly into the boxes,

and strike the upper edge. It will dry out, but that will not injure it

at all.

Directions for use: Brush the shoes well, then rub over with a soaped

cloth, to remove all stains, etc. Wet a small sponge or cloth in water,

rub it on the cake in the box until well loaded, then go over the shoes,

evenly and rapidly. Set aside to dry, and with a dry cloth lightly

remove spots in the dressing.

PLAN No. 243. A TRAVELING TYPIST

A young man who had been clerking in a men’s furnishing store for $10 a

week got an idea one day that turned out to be the means of giving him a

good-paying business.

He noticed that there were many public stenographers located in the

various office buildings of the city, and figuring that all their

patrons had to come to them when wanting work done, why wouldn’t it be a

good thing to call at the different stores and offices of these patrons

and do their type-writing.

He therefore bought a light but reliable typewriting machine, which

could be carried easily from place to place, learned to operate it with

accuracy and speed, and then began to work up a line of customers. He

found them, too, lots of them, and every day he called at their places

of business and wrote their letters.

He was kept busy all the time, and from the very beginning of his

enterprise he made from $25 a week up, yet did his work at the rate of

10 cents per letter. He seldom used short-hand but took the letters on

his machine.

PLAN No. 244. MAKING HENS LAY ALL THE YEAR

This is something that all poultry raisers would give a good deal to

know:

On every alternate day, mix cayenne pepper with soft food, at the rate

of one teaspoonful of pepper to each dozen hens. Take good care to see

that each hen obtains her share. In winter give each hen a half ounce of

fresh meat each day, and see that they have plenty of water, grain,

gravel and lime.

PLAN No. 245. HOW TO MAKE COTTAGE CHEESE ON THE FARM

K. J. MATHESON AND F. R. CAMMACK, of the Dairy Division.

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Acknowledgment is due to the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,

D. C., for the following plan:

Cottage cheese can be made on the farm or in the home with little labor

and expense.

It is a palatable, nourishing product that furnishes a means of

utilizing skim milk to excellent advantage.

The directions given in this plan are for manufacturing cottage cheese

either for home use or for marketing on a small scale.

[Illustration: Preparing Cottage Cheese for Market.]

A DESIRABLE FOOD EASILY PREPARED

Cottage cheese, a most palatable and nutritious product, is one of the

few varieties of cheese which can be manufactured on a small scale. It

furnishes a convenient and economical means for using skim milk as a

human food, and supplies, more cheaply than meat, the protein or

body-building part of the diet. In fact, pound for pound, it contains 25

per cent more protein than a medium-fat side of beef and costs about

half as much.

The haphazard methods used in the making of this product, together with

the lack of simple and easily available directions, probably are

responsible for the small quantities made and consumed in the farm home.

Uncertainty of results and defects in the finished product also have

been causes for discouragement to the beginner. It is hoped, however,

that by following the directions given in this bulletin a better and

more uniform product may be obtained.

For making the cheese in small quantities for home use a very simple

process and ordinary household equipment will suffice. But if it is

desired to market the product and to insure good, uniform quality it

will be necessary to follow somewhat more elaborate methods. Details

sometimes must be modified according to conditions, and only experience

will give proficiency.

QUALITY AND ITS REQUISITES

Cottage cheese is judged by its flavor and texture. A high-quality

cheese should have a clean, mild, acid flavor and a texture smooth, free

from lumps, and uniform or homogeneous throughout. The undesirable

flavors commonly found are described as unclean, tasteless, too acid,

and sometimes even bitter. Flavor can be controlled by the use of clean,

sweet skim milk and a good “starter,” but texture depends largely upon

careful manipulation during the making process. Good, clean skim milk,

clean utensils, and careful attention to the details of making are

essential to good quality in the product.

_Good Skim Milk Necessary_

The first consideration in the production of good cottage cheese is the

quality of the milk itself. Milk which is dirty or has undergone any

abnormal fermentation is undesirable. The fresher the milk the more

satisfactory it is for cheesemaking, because then it is possible to

direct and control the souring. It is absolutely necessary to give the

milk proper attention, both at the time of its production and in all its

subsequent handling. The temperature at which it is kept from the time

of production until made into cheese determines in a large measure the

quality of the cheese. For best results milk should be kept cool, at 50°

F. or lower, if possible, until it is to be made into cheese.

_Cleanliness of Utensils_

The material and construction of all equipment used in handling milk and

in the manufacture of cheese should be smooth and free from crevices, so

as to allow easy and efficient cleaning. The most scrupulous care should

be exercised in order to keep all utensils sweet and clean. For cleaning

utensils the following method is advised:

1. Rinse with cold water.

2. Wash and scrub with hot water to which a cleaning powder has been

added.

3. Rinse in hot water above a temperature of 150° F.

4. Steam or immerse in boiling water for five minutes.

5. Place all equipment in a clean place free from dust.

A SIMPLE WAY TO MAKE SMALL QUANTITIES FOR HOME USE

One gallon of skim milk will make about 1¹⁄₂ pounds of cheese. If the

milk is sweet it should be placed in a pan and allowed to remain in a

clean, warm place at a temperature of about 75° F. until it clabbers.

The clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily this

will take about 30 hours, but when it is desirable to hasten the process

a small quantity of clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet

milk.

As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered it should be cut

into pieces 2 inches square, after which the curd should be stirred

thoroughly with a spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of hot

water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F. Cook at that temperature

for about 30 minutes, during which time stir gently with a spoon for 1

minute at 5-minute intervals.

At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd and whey into a small

cheesecloth bag (a clean salt bag will do nicely) and hang the bag on a

fruit-strainer rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander

or a strainer over which a piece of cheesecloth has been laid. After 5

or 10 minutes, work the curd toward the center with a spoon. Raising and

lowering the ends of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To

complete the draining tie the ends of the bag together and hang it up.

Since there is some danger that the curd will become too dry, draining

should stop when the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream.

The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked with a spoon or a

butter paddle until it becomes fine in grain, smooth, and of the

consistency of mashed potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to

increase the smoothness and palatability and improve the flavor. Then

the cheese is salted according to taste, about one teaspoonful to a

pound of curd.

Because of the ease with which the cheese can be made it is desirable to

make it often so that it may be eaten fresh, although if it is kept cold

it will not spoil for several days. If the cheese is not to be eaten

promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass vessel rather

than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a cold place.

THE USE OF STARTERS

The first step in the making of cottage cheese is to sour or ripen the

milk. If care has been used in the production and handling of milk, a

good grade of cheese may be made by allowing the milk to sour naturally.

Uncertainty of results and lack of uniformity in the cheese, however,

have caused many to resort to a more definite means of controlling

fermentation or souring by the use of starters. Some of the dangers and

disadvantages of natural souring are--

1. Slow coagulation or curdling.

2. Glassy and undesirable fermentations, causing loss of curd in whey.

3. Bitter and other undesirable flavors.

4. Lack of uniformity in the cheese.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Bottles of Starter.]

When cottage cheese is to be produced in large quantities it is

advisable to use a starter. Starters aid and hasten acid fermentation

and tend to suppress and eliminate undesirable fermentation. A starter,

in brief, is a quantity of milk in which the acid-forming bacteria have

grown until the milk contains a great number of them. There are two

kinds of starters, commercial and homemade.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Stirring in starter and rennet and taking

temperature.]

_Commercial Starters_

When cottage cheese is to be made on a large scale it is advisable to

use a commercial starter, obtainable from a reliable starter company or

through a dairy-supply house. The small package of starter, which may be

either liquid or solid, is added to a pint of pasteurized skim milk and

the milk covered and set away at 75° F. to sour. This is called a

“mother starter.” After curdling or coagulation, a teaspoonful of the

“mother starter” is added to a quart of pasteurized skim milk, which,

when coagulated, is used to ripen the milk for cheesemaking. In

pasteurizing milk for starters, it is heated to 175° F. and held at

that temperature for 30 minutes, after which it is cooled to 75° F.

before the starter is added.

_Homemade Starters_

Homemade starters are made as follows:

1. Clean thoroughly and boil for five minutes several pint fruit jars or

wide-mouthed bottles, together with tops or tumblers for covering them.

(Fig. 1.) After boiling, keep the jars or bottles covered to prevent the

entrance of bacteria.

2. Select several pint samples of fresh milk, put into the jars or

bottles, cool to 75° F., cover and keep at that temperature until

curdling occurs.

3. The curdling or coagulation should take place in about 30 hours. An

ideal curd should be firm, smooth, marblelike, free from holes or gas

bubbles, and should show little separation of the whey. To be a good

starter the curd should have a clean, sharp, sour or acid flavor.

4. Select the sample that most closely meets these conditions and

propagate it. This is done as follows:

_a._ Prepare, shortly before using, a quart jar or bottle and a teaspoon

according to the method described in paragraph 1.

_b._ Fill the jar or bottle with fresh skim milk and pasteurize by

heating to 175° F. and keeping at that temperature for 30 minutes.

_c._ Cool to 75° F. and add a teaspoonful of curdled milk or starter

described in paragraph 3, and set away to curdle.

_d._ Propagate the starter from day to day until one is found with

desirable qualities. In doing this repeat steps _a_, _b_, and _c_, but

in the last use the starter of the day before instead of that originally

mentioned in paragraph 3.

PASTEURIZATION

While for small-scale operations the pasteurization of milk may not

always be practicable, it permits a better control of the fermentations,

increases the yield of cheese, and renders the product safe from

disease-producing organisms. _If milk is pasteurized it is absolutely

necessary to use a vigorous starter for ripening._ Otherwise, great

difficulty is found in draining the curd, and as a result the cheese

probably is spoiled.

Skim milk is pasteurized for making cottage cheese by heating it in a

pail, can, or vat to a temperature of 145° F. and holding it at that

temperature for 30 minutes. The milk then is cooled quickly to 75° F.,

when it is ready for adding the starter.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Pouring curd upon draining cloth.]

MAKING THE CHEESE ON A LARGER SCALE

To make cottage cheese in considerable quantities and of good, uniform

quality, especially if it is to be sold, it is desirable to follow a

more exact method than that described for making small quantities for

home use.

_Setting_

For natural souring without starter, fresh skim milk is placed in a

clean pail or a “shotgun” can, covered, warmed to 75° F., and allowed to

stand at that temperature until curdled. The temperature can be

controlled by keeping the pail or can of milk in a tub, sink, or other

vessel filled with water at the same temperature.

When starter is used it is stirred into skim milk which has been warmed

to 75° F. (Fig. 2.) The vessel of milk then is covered and set away at

the same temperature to curdle. The quantity of starter used varies from

1 to 5 per cent; a pint for 3 or 4 gallons of milk usually gives good

results. By the use of a large quantity of starter it is possible to

ripen the milk and complete the making of the cheese in one day.

Probably it is more convenient, however, to set the milk with starter at

night, in which case the milk should be firmly clabbered by morning. For

obtaining a desirable coagulum or curd that is firm and not easily

broken into fine particles during heating, 75° F. seems to be the best

temperature. When the skim milk has coagulated into a firm, solid curd

which gives a sharply defined break as the finger is inserted, with whey

collecting at the break, the curd is ready for cutting.

_Cutting, Heating, and Stirring_

The coagulum, or curd, is cut crosswise into 2-inch squares, with a

long-bladed knife. The mixture then is heated quickly to 100° F. and is

maintained at that temperature for about 30 minutes. During the entire

heating process the curd is stirred with a spoon or a cream agitator

every four or five minutes. The object of these operations is to remove

the whey from the curd and to bring the product into a concentrated

form. The texture of the cheese is regulated in a large measure by the

manner of cutting, heating, and stirring the coagulum. Prolonged and

vigorous stirring of the mixture is undesirable, since it causes a

fine-grained curd which is slow in draining and has excessive curd

losses in the whey. Heating at too high a temperature results in a

tough, dry curd.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Raising and lowering draining cloth to hasten

draining.]

_Draining_

After heating, the mixture is poured upon a draining cloth, which is

fastened over a pail or a specially constructed rack, in order to

separate the curd from the whey. (See fig. 3.) The curd is allowed to

drain undisturbed for 15 or 20 minutes, because if handled during that

period it will tend to become mushy, a condition which renders the

removal of the whey very difficult. Later, every few minutes, the sides

of the cloth should be raised and lowered several times (as shown in

fig. 4), which hastens draining. Draining should continue until very

little whey separates upon standing, at which time the curd is rather

soft and smooth. It is then ready for salting.

_Salting_

For salting, the curd is placed in a pan or pail and salt added and

mixed uniformly into the curd with a butter ladle or a spoon. The usual

rate of salting is two heaping tablespoonfuls to 3¹⁄₂ gallons of milk,

or about 2¹⁄₂ ounces to 10 pounds of curd, although there is some

difference of opinion as to the quantity of salt needed. In case a scale

is lacking it is possible to approximate the salt when it is known that

a level tablespoonful of salt equals two-thirds of an ounce. Salt is

added to the cheese to increase its palatability and to a certain extent

to preserve it.

MAKING THE CHEESE WITH RENNET OR PEPSIN

Several advantages are found in making cottage cheese with rennet or

pepsin, as follows:

1. A finer-textured and more uniform cheese results.

2. Making requires less time and attention.

3. Losses of curd in the whey are reduced.

Rennet is a substance which causes milk to coagulate and may be obtained

either as commercial liquid rennet or as junket tablets. The former may

be purchased from a dairy-supply house, while the latter may be obtained

from grocery and drug stores.

If commercial rennet is used for making cottage cheese, about 3 drops

should be added to each 10 pints or pounds of milk, or 10 drops to 30

pounds of milk. The rennet, after being measured, is diluted about 40

times with cold water (a half cupful is satisfactory) before it is added

to the milk. For measuring a medicine dropper may be used with good

results.

If the liquid rennet can not be obtained, junket tablets may be used,

one tablet having about the same strength as 1 cubic centimeter or 25

drops of the liquid. One tablet may be dissolved in 10 tablespoonfuls of

cold water, then 1 tablespoonful of the mixture is sufficient for 10

pounds or pints of skim milk and 3 tablespoonfuls for 30 pounds of milk.

Junket tablets are not always of the same strength, so it may be

necessary to experiment somewhat before the right quantity to add is

obtained.

Pepsin is a powder which has somewhat the same effect upon milk as

rennet and may be used instead. It should be added at the rate of

one-twelfth gram to 100 pounds of milk. For 30 pounds of milk this would

be a quantity about half the size of a medium-sized pea. This should be

dissolved in water and fractional portions used in a manner similar to

that described for the junket tablet.

The milk is handled in identically the same manner as in the method

already described with the exception that rennet or pepsin is added to

it just after the starter is put in and the mixture stirred vigorously.

When this is done the curd or coagulum may be poured directly into the

draining cloth without cutting, heating, or stirring. If no starter is

used it is desirable to let the milk stand at 80° F. for five or six

hours before adding the rennet or pepsin.

When clear whey collects upon the surface of the curd in the can it is

an indication that the curd is ready to be drained. At first it may not

be possible to get the best results by this method, but after a few

trials it should be possible to produce a fine, firm coagulum in from 12

to 15 hours.

The coagulum is now poured upon the draining rack covered with cotton

sheeting. Because of the fineness of the curd a draining cloth with a

smaller mesh is more desirable than the one previously described. After

a short preliminary drainage of perhaps 20 minutes the ends of the cloth

are unfastened and the diagonally opposite corners drawn together and

tied. Moderate weights, about 25 pounds, are then placed upon the bag of

curd to hasten the draining. (See fig. 5.) A pail filled with stones or

water will serve for this purpose. There is danger that the cheese curd

may be pressed too dry when rennet is used, so it is advisable to watch

the curd closely at this period. The pressing should be continued until

the curd has reached about the same consistency as described under the

preceding method.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Boards and weight for pressing cheese.]

After draining, salt is added in the same way as for ordinary cottage

cheese.

ADDING CREAM AND PEPPERS

A small quantity of sweet or sour cream added after salting, especially

if the curd is a little dry, will improve greatly the quality and

palatability of cottage cheese made by either process. Usually cream is

added at the rate of half a pint to 10 pounds of curd.

Finely ground pimento peppers also add much to the appearance, taste,

and attractiveness of the product, especially to the finer textured,

rennet-made cheese. Peppers when used are added at the rate of 1 pound

to 20 of curd.

If the product is to be marketed the additional expense of cream or

peppers probably is warranted.

YIELD OF CHEESE

The yield of cottage cheese depends upon the quality of the milk and the

method of manufacture. Yields of from 12 to 22 pounds of cheese per 100

pounds of skim milk represent the limits, while a normal yield of from

16 to 18 pounds produces best results. A gallon of skim milk usually

yields about 1¹⁄₂ pounds of cottage cheese.

MARKETING THE PRODUCT

Although often marketed in bulk and sold by the pound, cottage cheese

may be marketed best in single-service containers holding from 10 to 12

ounces. This makes a neat and convenient package which commonly retails

for about 10 cents. These cartons are made of wood pulp treated with

paraffin. For interstate shipping it is necessary to put the net weight

of the cheese on the package, and it is desirable, for advertising

purposes, to place on it the name and address of the maker. While the

product may be molded into balls or prints and wrapped in paraffined

paper, the carton is strongly recommended as a marketing receptacle for

such a perishable product as cottage cheese. The carton makes a nearly

air-tight package which improves the keeping quality of the cheese.

It is advisable to keep cottage cheese at a low temperature until

consumed. Holding the product at room temperature for only 36 hours may

cause it to become slightly “off flavor,” while in a longer period the

deterioration may be so marked as to render it unsuitable for

consumption. Cheese from which the whey separates spoils quickly and is

very undesirable. It is better to have the cheese a little too dry than

too moist, for the former defect may be corrected easily by the addition

of a little cream or milk by the consumer.

EQUIPMENT FOR MAKING COTTAGE CHEESE

Little equipment is needed for making cottage cheese, and for the most

part it may be found in any home. When the cheese is made in large

quantities a small outlay for equipment is warranted as a matter of

convenience and satisfaction. In most homes, however, satisfactory

substitutes may be found for some of the utensils mentioned here.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Equipment used in first stages of making cottage

cheese.]

_Starter bottles._--Quart milk bottles and tumblers are needed for

holding the starter. Quart fruit jars will serve the purpose very well.

_Cans or pails._--A “shotgun” can which may vary in size and material is

very convenient; usually it is straight sided, 8 inches in diameter, 20

inches high, and holds about 4 gallons of milk. If such a can is not

available, an ordinary 10-quart milk pail will be satisfactory.

_Milk agitator._--A stirrer of the kind shown in figure 6 is desirable

for causing a uniform distribution of the starter and rennet prior to

setting and for stirring the curd, but for making small quantities of

cheese a spoon is entirely satisfactory.

_Floating dairy thermometer._--The use of a reliable and accurate

thermometer is absolutely necessary to obtain uniformity in results from

day to day. Because of the danger of breaking, it should be kept in a

case when not in use.

_Rennet or pepsin._--Either commercial liquid rennet or junket tablets

are desirable when cottage cheese is to be made quickly. Powdered pepsin

also may be used. Rennet always should be kept cold and in a dark place.

_Draining racks._--An ordinary fruit-straining rack is very useful for

small quantities of cheese. A colander also will answer the purpose.

When larger quantities are made a special rack will be found to be very

convenient. Such a rack is described below.

A wire-covered rack (fig. 7) consists of a rectangular frame, 20 by 52

inches and 6 inches high, upon the bottom of which is tacked one-half

inch mesh woven wire. The rack should be made of hard wood and

dovetailed at the corners. If it is placed upon a table slightly

inclined, the whey is directed to a common point and collected in a jar

or pail by the use of strips nailed to the bottom of the frame. The

materials required for making the rack are two boards ⁷⁄₈ by 6 by 52

inches, two boards ⁷⁄₈ by 6 by 26 inches, and woven wire 26 by 52

inches.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Wire-covered draining rack.]

Another kind of rack is rectangular, 13 inches wide, 36 inches long, and

10 inches deep. The corner posts extend 1¹⁄₂ inches beyond the strips

and top and bottom, with the top rounded, so that a ring may fit over

them. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches and are removable for

washing. The materials required are four corner posts 1¹⁄₂ by 1¹⁄₂

inches, nine strips 1 by ³⁄₈ by 36 inches, and six strips 1 by ³⁄₈ by

12¹⁄₄ inches, notched to receive bottom slats, all made of pine. A cloth

is fastened upon each frame and the contents of one can poured into each

cloth.

_Draining cloths._--When the cheese is made without rennet, common

cheesecloth is most satisfactory, but for cheese made with rennet,

unbleached cotton sheeting is recommended. The quantity depends upon

the size of the draining rack, enough being required to supply a single

thickness, with an allowance for hems. All draining cloths should be

hemmed.

_Cartons._--Round, paraffined, sanitary, single-service containers are

desirable for marketing the cheese.

SUMMARY OF ORDINARY PROCESS

The process of making cottage cheese without rennet or pepsin, on the

basis of 30 pounds or about 3¹⁄₂ gallons of milk, which will yield about

5¹⁄₄ pounds of cheese, may be summarized as follows:

Obtain clean, fresh milk.

If starter is not used, warm the milk to 75° F. and hold it at about

that temperature until curdled.

If starter is to be used, add 1 to 5 per cent, or about 1 pint of

starter to 30 pounds of milk, stir, and set away at 75° F. to curdle.

If it is desired to pasteurize, heat milk to 145° F., hold at that

temperature for 30 minutes, and cool to 75° F. If pasteurization is

practiced, a starter must be used and should be added after

pasteurization, as described.

Time for curdling when starter is used, 12 to 15 hours (usually

overnight).

When starter is not used the time for curdling will be about 30 hours.

Cut and stir, and then heat to 100° F. and hold for 30 minutes. Stir

gently at intervals.

Pour upon cheesecloth and drain for 20 or 30 minutes.

Place in pail or pan and salt at the rate of 2¹⁄₂ ounces to 10 pounds of

curd, or about 2 level tablespoonfuls for the cheese from 30 pounds of

milk.

If desired, add sweet or sour cream at the rate of one-half pint to 10

pounds of curd, or about one-quarter pint of cream to the product from

30 pounds of milk.

SUMMARY OF RENNET OR PEPSIN PROCESS

The following is an outline of the process with rennet or pepsin on the

basis of 30 pounds or 3¹⁄₂ gallons of milk, which will yield about 5¹⁄₄

pounds of cheese:

Obtain clean, fresh milk.

When a starter is not used, after adding rennet or pepsin, warm the milk

to 75° F. and hold it at about that temperature until curdled.

If starter is to be used, add 1 to 5 per cent, or about 1 pint of

starter to 30 pounds of milk, and set away at 75° F. to curdle.

If it is desired to pasteurize, heat to 145° F., hold at that

temperature for 30 minutes, and cool to 75° F. If pasteurization is

practiced, a starter must be used and should be added as described.

Add rennet, junket tablets, or pepsin just before setting the milk away

to curdle at 75° F., carefully stirring to insure a thorough

distribution.

Add rennet at the rate of one-third cubic centimeter, or about 8 drops,

diluted 40 times in cold water (half a cup of cold water is

satisfactory) for each 30 pounds or 3¹⁄₂ gallons of milk.

Or, dissolve one junket tablet in a pint of cold water and use one-third

of the mixture.

Or, dissolve powdered pepsin (one-half size of pea) in one-quarter pint

of cold water and use the entire mixture.

Time for curdling when starter is used, 12 to 15 hours (usually

overnight).

When starter is not used the time for curdling will be about 30 hours.

Pour upon cotton sheeting and drain for 20 or 30 minutes.

Tie the ends of the cloth together and press with weight (20 or 25

pounds) until the curd has attained the desired consistency.

Salt at the rate of 2¹⁄₂ ounces to 10 pounds of curd. If desired, add

sweet or sour cream at the rate of one-half pint of cream to each 10

pounds of curd, or one-quarter pint of cream to the product from 30

pounds of milk.

PLAN No. 246. MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE BY PARCEL POST

LEWIS B. FLOHR, Investigator of Marketing and ROY C. POTTS, Specialist

in Marketing Dairy Products.

Contribution from the Bureau of Markets, CHARLES J. BRAND. Chief.

For the following plan we are indebted to the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Because butter does not keep well unless good storage facilities are

available, most families must purchase it frequently and in small

quantities.

Parcel post has been found a desirable and useful means of sending

butter from producer to consumer, and when favorable conditions exist

and proper methods are used in preparing and mailing, it carries

satisfactorily by that method of transportation.

There are practically no difficulties in transporting cheese by parcel

post. Frequently this method of marketing affords an economical and

satisfactory way for obtaining cheese for family use.

Butter is highly perishable unless it is handled under proper

conditions, yet the fact that many consumers obtain their supplies

direct from producers by parcel post, proved by the quantity passing

through many post offices, indicates that parcel-post marketing of

butter is feasible. It is usually an economical method, as the cost of

market distribution through the regular wholesale and retail channels of

trade is relatively high in comparison with the cost of shipments by

parcel post from the first and second and sometimes more distant zones.

EXPERIMENTAL PARCEL-POST SHIPMENTS OF BUTTER

Shipments of butter aggregating more than 10,000 pounds have been made

by the Bureau of Markets, under various conditions and in packages

carrying from 1 to 10 pounds, over both long and short distances, in

order to test various kinds of shipping containers, methods of packing,

and the possibilities of parcel-post shipping of butter during the

summer and other seasons. These experimental shipments consisted of (1)

shipments of fresh butter from four creameries to this bureau, and (2)

shipments of the butter received from the creameries by the bureau to

experiment stations and return shipments of the same. The summarized

results of the shipments from the four creameries are presented in the

following table:

TABLE I.--_Experimental shipments of butter by parcel post in 2, 3, 5,

and 10 pound parcels from creameries to the Bureau of Markets._

=========+==========+========+====================+==========+

|Distance | | | |

| from |Hours in| | Number |

Creamery.|Washington|transit.| Months covered. | of |

| (miles). | | |shipments.+

| | | | |

---------+----------+--------+--------------------+----------+

A | 375 |22 |April to October | 222 |

B | 536 |48 to 60|August and September| 61 |

C | 187 |18 to 20|June and July | 82 |

D | 266 |18 to 20|April to January | 89 |

---------+----------+--------+--------------------+----------+

Total | | | | 454 |

---------+----------+--------+--------------------+----------+