AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Amongst the great European nations the Austro-Hungarian Empire
occupies a unique position. In number of inhabitants it is inferior
only to Russia and Germany, whereas it occupies more territory than
any other European country, with the single exception of Russia. In
spite of this, however, Austria-Hungary possesses no foreign
colonies, and those of its inhabitants who, for one reason or
another, decided to leave the land of their birth, have, therefore,
for years emigrated to foreign countries, and have been lost, in
large numbers, to their native country. Of course, the desire for
expansion, which is one of the chief characteristics of the
historical development of the various nations during the twentieth
century, made itself felt in Austria-Hungary as well as everywhere
else. Not having any colonies and not having either the financial or
military means of acquiring any, the Dual Monarchy has for many
years been deeply interested in the Near East. There vast stretches
of undeveloped territory, much of which was immediately adjoining
its own territory, created a strong desire for possession, or at
least for a preponderating influence. This desire was intensified by
the peculiar racial conditions which existed in the Dual Monarchy.
Austria-Hungary in this respect also differed from all the other
European nations. In each one of the other countries of Europe there
was _one_ race that was more numerous and more influential than any
of the other races that might inhabit the same country. In
Austria-Hungary, however, there were living side by side a number of
widely different races. Germans, Bohemians, Poles, Hungarians,
Serbians, and others. Of most of these races additional numbers were
living in one or another of the adjoining countries, and this
condition brought about a continuous desire on the part of these
different nations to unite. For instance, the Poles living in
Austrian Galicia never gave up their hope of once more becoming
united with their fellow Poles in Prussian and in Russian Poland. In
the same way the Rumanians in the Austrian province of Bukowina cast
longing eyes toward Rumania and Russian Bessarabia; the Austrian
Serbs did the same in respect to Serbia and so on.
All attempts of the Government to change this condition appeared to
be futile, whether these attempts were of a friendly or of a hostile
and oppressive nature. Legislature of any kind, as long as it
affected racial questions, was not only unsuccessful in
accomplishing its ends, but often resulted in bitter parliamentary
discussions and hostilities. The resentment of the various racial
units of the Dual Monarchy against such legislation was only
deepened by the fact that for many years the actual power of
government lay in the hands of the Germanic part of the empire in
spite of the fact that the Germans, though in many ways the most
advanced, were the least numerous.
In view of all these conditions it is rather remarkable that the
Dual Monarchy should have held together as long as it did and,
indeed, its disruption was frequently prophesied and as frequently
expected. It is clear, therefore, why every attempt on the part of
the different Balkan nations to readjust their affairs deeply
interested and affected Austria-Hungary. For, even if the empire had
given up all thought of profiting itself by such a readjustment,
there was always the danger that it might lose both in territory and
population. Such a loss, however small, would have seriously
embarrassed the Dual Monarchy. For not only might it have resulted
in further losses of the same nature, but also from a financial
point of view the empire could not afford a diminution of any of its
resources. As national wealth goes, Austria-Hungary cannot be
considered rich by any means, being in this respect almost on an
equal basis with Italy, which has only two-thirds the number of
inhabitants and less than one-half the extent of the Dual Monarchy.
Considering the many difficult problems of political, financial and
economic nature which the possession of colonies created for the
various colonial powers of Europe, Austria might have considered
itself fortunate because of its entire lack of colonies. However,
the problem of Balkan readjustments, upon which we have touched just
now, took the place of colonial problems and brought to Austria as
many difficulties and entanglements as any colony has ever brought
to its possessor. It was along that line that Austria-Hungary was
brought into contact with the other nations of Europe. Of these
Russia was the one most vitally interested in the same questions as
Austria. For of almost every race that inhabited Austria additional
numbers were living in Russia and whatever one country did or
attempted to do in the Near East was looked upon with suspicion by
the other. Turkey, too, of course, was vitally interested and
affected by Austria's policy in the Near East and so was England
ever since its foreign policy had been committed to the principle of
keeping the Near Eastern _status quo_ undisturbed.
Outside of these possibilities of becoming involved with another
nation the Dual Monarchy had long-standing difficulties with Italy.
For, previous to the creation of the present kingdom of Italy,
Austria had possessed large parts of northern Italy, and the loss of
these fertile and rich territories was a severe blow to Austria.
The enmity between the two countries was still more enhanced when,
in 1866, Austria had to give up Venetia to Italy. This loss was an
indirect result of the Prusso-Austrian War of 1866, the details of
which we have already mentioned in the recital of the political
development of Germany. Previous to declaring war against Austria,
Prussia had formed an alliance with Italy and at the beginning of
hostilities between Prussia and Austria Italy, too, attacked
Austria. Although the Austrian troops defeated the Italians, Austria
was forced, when peace was concluded, to yield Venetia to Italy
retaining only a small part of its former possessions on the
Adriatic so as not to be cut off entirely from a maritime outlet.
This small remnant of its former Italian possessions, however,
proved to be a thorn in the body politic of the Dual Monarchy. The
inhabitants of this province were preponderately Italian in language
and Italian in feeling and ever since the formation of the kingdom
of Italy a strong propaganda was carried on with the object of
finally accomplishing the redemption of these provinces from
Austrian rule and their unification with Italy.
In spite of the difficulties between Austria on one side and Russia
and Italy respectively on the other it seemed, soon after the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870, as if all these difficulties would be
adjusted in an amicable way. In 1872 the three European Emperors of
Germany, Austria and Russia met and without actually concluding a
treaty arrived at a mutual understanding which promised well for the
future peace of Europe. Five years later in 1877 when Russia went to
war with Turkey the definite result of this mutual understanding was
a treaty concluded between Russia and Austria. As a result of this
treaty Austria agreed not to interfere between Turkey and Russia
whereas Russia promised to Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina, both of
which were at that time under the rule of Turkey. This latter
promise was kept in 1878, when the various Balkan questions that had
become acute through the Turko-Russian War were adjusted at the
Berlin Congress. It is true that at that time Austria was only
permitted to occupy these territories, but even this was a
considerable acquisition.
Four years later another step was taken toward the strengthening of
European peace. In that year the treaty which had been concluded in
1879 between Germany and Italy was extended to include Austria-Hungary
and this alliance of the three Central European Powers, known commonly
as the Triple Alliance, endured not only till the outbreak of the war
of 1914, but even for some time later. This alliance originally was
made only for five years, but at the expiration of this time it was
renewed in 1887 and again later.
Of the causes and results of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 we have
heard already in the consideration of Germany's history. Immediately
after its conclusion Austria-Hungary devoted its energies chiefly to
internal affairs and in 1867 succeeded in a reorganization of the
difficulties which had arisen with Hungary. The result was the
"Ausgleich" which established Hungary practically on an equal basis
with Austria, giving it a separate constitution, legislature and
cabinet. It is from this dual basis that the term "Dual Monarchy"
was derived and the arrangement made then fundamentally is in
existence to-day.
Throughout the ensuing years Austria-Hungary's position and
influence amongst the great European powers was of little direct
importance. In the first place the Dual Monarchy was occupied
continuously with the most vexing internal questions caused by the
incessant difficulties arising between its racially different
population. These were responsible for the fall of one ministry
after another, and frequently caused grave apprehension to all
Europe. For many years the disintegration of the empire was feared
and expected. But in spite of all difficulties it held together. In
the second place the country remained for many years chiefly
agricultural and even to-day, considering its extent, is only
moderately industrial. This made it unnecessary for Austria-Hungary
to concern itself directly with such questions as the colonization
of Africa or the division of China. Only occasionally it made its
influence felt indirectly by supporting the policies and claims of
its two allies, Germany and Italy.
In 1908, however, it took a step that immediately brought it into
the center of world politics. In that year the annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina was announced, although for many years previous
the Turkish suzerainty over these two provinces had been less than
nominal. As this was followed immediately by a declaration of
independence on the part of Bulgaria, the jealousy of Serbia was
aroused. But both the difficulties with this country and with Turkey
about the annexation were finally adjusted, mainly through the
strong support which Germany gave to its ally and in 1909 all of the
powers recognized the annexation.
Once more Austria-Hungary withdrew from the international concert
and devoted itself to its internal difficulties which seemed to
increase in frequency and violence as the years passed by. It was
not until the summer of 1912 that it again became active in
connection with foreign politics. Then, when the Balkan question had
become acute, the Austrian Foreign Minister, Count Berchtold,
suggested to the other powers that they combine for the purpose of
settling the Balkan disputes. The suggestion was accepted and
although it did not succeed in avoiding war between the different
Balkan States themselves, it, at least, localized this war and kept
the rest of Europe out of it.
Of course, Austrian diplomats were busily occupied throughout this
entire period in guarding their country's interests, and
Constantinople especially was the scene of many a diplomatic battle
between Austria-Hungary and the other powers. From time to time
relations with Russia became somewhat strained on account of the
conflicting interests of the two countries in the Balkans. But in
spite of this conditions were friendly enough to permit an
arrangement between these two powers in March, 1913, whereby they
agreed on the demobilization of their respective forces along the
Russo-Austrian border.
The murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne, and
his wife during a visit at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, however,
changed immediately Austria-Hungary's attitude toward Serbia. Like
one man the country rose and demanded the punishment of the
murderers and of the nation which, it was claimed, had planned and
financed the murder, Serbia. Racial differences and dissensions of
long standing were forgotten and forgiven over night, as it were,
and a country, more solidified than at any other period in its
history, stood behind its Emperor Francis Joseph, a man who
throughout his life of more than eighty years--of which more than
three-fourths were spent on the throne--had suffered all the
disappointments and sorrows that can come to a man, but had never
lost the trust and love of his subjects.