The Zulus.
Cause:
The warlike and threatening attitude of the Zulus under Cetywayo
constituted a perpetual menace to the safety of the British possessions
in South Africa. The policy of Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Cape
and High Commissioner, was the eventual Federation of all South African
states under British rule, and it was essential, therefore, in his
opinion, that the white inhabitants should be secured against native
raids. There was a strong opinion that this could be effected without
force of arms.
Occasion:
The cruelties and excesses practised by Cetywayo culminated in a raid
into Natal, where women were carried off and murdered. Frere issued an
ultimatum demanding the break-up of the military system of Zululand,
and further that a British Resident was to be received and missionaries
were not to be molested. No reply was received, and British troops
entered Zululand on January 10, 1879.
Course of the War:
Frere’s application for reinforcements was refused by the British
Government. But after a British defeat at Isandhlwana, January 22,
1879, which was only prevented from being a disaster by the gallant
defence of Rorke’s Drift, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out with more
troops. The Zulus were defeated at Ulundi, July 5th, and Cetywayo was
taken prisoner.
Political Result:
Zululand was divided into thirteen districts, each with a separate
chief, and was placed under a British Resident. It was finally annexed
in 1887.
Remarks:
This war is only an episode in the extension and consolidation of the
British Empire in South Africa. But it is an instance of the grave
responsibilities which are involved in Imperial expansion.
In the course of the war the Prince Imperial, only son of Napoleon III,
was killed, and with him died the last hopes of a restoration of the
Napoleonic dynasty in France.
THE CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR
1879–1882
Belligerents:
Chile.
Peru. Bolivia.
Cause:
After the blockade and bombardment of their ports by a Spanish squadron
in 1865, on account of their sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with
Spain, the Chileans were impressed with the necessity of possessing an
adequate fleet to defend their long coast line. Ships were obtained and
officers trained, so that Chile became well equipped for any future
encounter.
The authorities of Bolivia seized the effects of the Chilean Nitrate
Company at Antofogasta.
Occasion:
Five hundred soldiers were despatched to protect Chilean interests. The
force landed and marched inland. Bolivia declared war on March 1st,
Peru on April 5, 1879.
Course of the War:
The Chileans occupied every port on the Bolivian coast, and engaged the
Peruvian fleet. The _Huascar_, a Peruvian ironclad, after other ships
had been destroyed, did great damage under four successive commanders,
but after severe fighting was forced to surrender off Angamos, and the
Peruvian navy ceased to exist. After several engagements on land the
Chileans succeeded in taking possession of the Bolivian seaboard and
the Peruvian province of Tarapaca.
Fighting continued in 1880 when, in spite of daring resistance, the
Peruvians were defeated at all points. Lima was occupied on January 17,
1881, and Callao surrendered on January 18th. The last engagement took
place in September 1882, and a small army of occupation was left in
Peru.
Political Result:
The Treaty of Peace was not ratified till April 1884. Peru ceded to
Chile the province of Tarapaca. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were
placed under Chilean authority for ten years, after which they were to
decide their own future government. Chile, however, eventually evaded
compliance with this agreement and retained forcible possession of the
provinces. Chile retained possession of the Bolivian seaboard, thus
cutting off Bolivia from access to the Pacific.
Remarks:
The aggressive attitude of Chile was a cause of complaint with the
neighbouring states, and nearly led on more than one occasion to
further conflict. By a Treaty signed in 1905, however, Bolivia at last
ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of coast. Chile, except for a
civil war in 1891, is distinguished among the South American States by
its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest.
THE FRENCH EXPEDITION IN TUNIS
1881
Belligerents:
France.
The Arabs of Tunis.
Cause:
Tunis under the government of the Beys formed part of the Ottoman
Empire. In 1862 Italy began to take an interest in Tunis. A triple
British, French, and Italian control over Tunisian finances was
established in 1869. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Great Britain
came to a secret understanding to allow France a free hand in Tunis in
return for French acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus.
Occasion:
In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Golitta.
France, under the pretext of chastising independent tribes in the
north-east, determined to take action.
Course of the War:
A French force marched on the capital. The conquest of the country was
not effected without serious resistance, specially at Sjax, but finally
the whole country was brought completely under French jurisdiction, and
the Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Bardo_, May 12, 1881, and a further _Treaty of La
Marsa_, June 8, 1883, the French protectorate was established. Italy
did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate
till 1896. Protests by Turkey were ignored by France, and in 1892 the
Ottoman Government was prepared to delimit the Tunis-Tripoli frontier.
But there were various frontier incidents, and Turkey maintained the
claim that the Tunisians were Ottoman subjects.
Remarks:
The occupation of Tunis led to an estrangement between France and
Italy.
THE EGYPTIAN WAR
1882
Belligerents:
Great Britain.
Egypt.
Cause:
Since 1840, while Egypt had been virtually independent, Great Britain
had been regarded as the special champion of Turkish suzerainty;
France as the protector of the Viceroys of Egypt. The construction of
the Suez Canal, chiefly engineered by France and Great Britain, made
Egypt of new importance, as the direct route to India now lay through
the Red Sea. An Anglo-French financial control was established to
secure payment of interest on the enormous sums lent to the Khedive
Ismail. British influence became paramount, and the British Government
gradually assumed the responsibility for good government in Egypt.
Occasion:
An anti-Turkish revolt under Arabi Pasha broke out, and there was a
massacre of Christians in Alexandria in June 1882. The Khedive was
powerless. The Powers met in conference at Constantinople, but before
any decision was arrived at the British Government resolved to act.
Course of the War:
The bombardment of Alexandria took place on July 11, 1882, and the
Egyptian troops set fire to the town. The Sultan was willing to enter
into a military convention with Great Britain, but before it was signed
the Egyptians were defeated at Tel-el Kebir by the British under Sir
Garnet Wolseley, on September 13, 1882, and Arabi surrendered.
Political Result:
Arabi and other Pashas were banished to Ceylon.
The military occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, in spite of
declarations to the effect that the troops would shortly be withdrawn,
and in spite of protests from France, became permanent.
Remarks:
Till the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France adopted a more or
less hostile attitude with regard to Egypt. Many administrative and
financial reforms were introduced by Sir Evelyn Baring, afterwards Lord
Cromer. The government was practically taken out of the hands of the
Egyptians, and from time to time there was trouble with a nationalist
movement.
FRANCO-CHINESE WAR
1884–1885
Belligerents:
France.
China.
Cause:
France, after 1870, turned its attention more and more to colonial
expansion in Africa, and also in Asia, where for some time efforts had
been made by the French to indemnify themselves in Indo-China for the
loss of Hindustan. In 1875 a vague treaty with the Emperor of Annam
gave France the protectorate. The importance was realized of finding a
path of penetration towards China.
Occasion:
In 1883–1884 an attempt was made to force the Emperor of Annam to
acknowledge the protectorate and to secure the delta of Tonkin. The
Chinese Government, unwilling to have France as a neighbour, took the
offensive.
Course of the War:
The French fleet destroyed the arsenal of Foochow, took possession of
Formosa, Kelung, and the Pescadores Islands, and blockaded Southern
China. A French brigade was put to flight near Langsen. Incorrect
information as to the extent of the reverse caused the overthrow of
Jules Ferry’s ministry. But the victories and blockade of the French
fleet induced China to accept peace.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Tientsin_, June 9, 1885, China recognized the French
protectorate in Tonkin and Annam, and promised to open the southern
provinces to French traders.
By treaties with Siam in 1893, and Great Britain in 1892–1896, Cambodia
came also under French protection, and the Empire in Indo-China was
consolidated.
Remarks:
France definitely joined in the competition for Imperial expansion.
THE BURMESE WARS
1823–1826, 1851, 1885
Belligerents:
Great Britain.
Burma.
Cause:
The expansion of the British Empire in India involved the subjection of
neighbouring states. In addition to this there was fear of the rivalry
of France in Burma.
Occasions:
(1) The conquest of Assam, which was under British protection, by the
King of Ava in 1823, and the attack by him on a British fort at Shapur,
led to the declaration of war against Burma.
(2) The insults offered to the British flag at Rangoon by the King of
Ava, led to the fresh outbreak of war in 1851.
(3) King Thibaw’s despotic rule and his design to enter into an
agreement with France, led to the last Ultimatum in 1885.
Course of the Wars:
(I) A British force was defeated at Ramu, and the first two attempts to
reach Ava failed. Martaban and Tennasserin were taken by the British,
and the Burmese were expelled from Rangoon in December 1824. Prome
was reached in April 1825. Myede was entered in December. In 1826 Sir
Archibald Campbell pushed on to Yandabu, forty-five miles from Ava. By
the treaty of peace February 24, 1826, the British gained the provinces
of Assam, Arakan, and the coast of Tenasserim.
(II) In April, 1852, as the King of Ava refused to come to terms,
Rangoon, Martaban, and Bassein were taken by Dalhousie. Prome was
taken in October, and Pegu in November 1852. No treaty was signed but
the King was prepared to accept an accomplished fact.
(III) In 1885 the British Ultimatum took King Thibaw by surprise, and
within a fortnight he surrendered unconditionally when the British
force approached his capital. Guerilla warfare continued for nearly two
years.
Political Result:
By the proclamation of January 1, 1886, the whole of Burma was annexed,
and Thibaw was deported to India.
Remarks:
The conquest of Burma was affected, not so much because of the misrule
of the Kings of Ava as from a motive of Imperial expansion and the
desire to forestall the designs of France.
THE SERBO-BULGARIAN WAR
1885
Belligerents:
Bulgaria.
Serbia.
Cause:
The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 left abundant material for future conflict
in European Turkey. Bulgaria was confined to the north of the Balkan
mountains, and Eastern Roumelia was still under the Sultan. Prince
Alexander of Battenberg, the ruler of Bulgaria, in September 1885,
marched south and occupied Philippopolis. The Sultan protested, the
Czar was indignant, but Great Britain approved the Union of Roumelia
with Bulgaria, and the danger of war passed away. The success of
Bulgaria whetted the appetite of Milan, who had become King of Serbia
in 1882. With a view to strengthening the prestige of his dynasty he
adopted a spirited foreign policy and awaited an opportunity.
Occasion:
Frontier troubles and tariff disputes between the two countries had
embittered relations, and the King of Serbia declared war, thinking
he would have a triumphal march to Sofia, the Russian officers having
withdrawn from the Bulgarian army.
Course of the War:
The Bulgarians gained a decisive victory at Slivnitsa on November 16,
1885, and occupied Pirot, and the road to Belgrade lay open before
them. But Austria intervened on behalf of Serbia, and after fourteen
days’ fighting an armistice was signed.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Buckarest_, March 3, 1886, the _status quo_ was
restored; Bulgaria gained nothing, but established her right to Eastern
Roumelia. Owing to Russian intrigue Alexander was forced to abdicate
and was succeeded by Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria.
Remarks:
Bulgaria became gradually the most advanced and formidable state in the
Balkans. In 1908, at the time of the revolutionary crisis in Turkey and
the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina by Austria, Ferdinand declared
himself Czar of a completely independent Bulgaria.
Milan abdicated in 1889, and his son Alexander became King of Serbia.
He and his wife were murdered in 1903 and Peter Karageorgevich accepted
the crown.
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
1894–1895
Belligerents:
Japan.
China and Korea.
Cause:
Japan adopting Western ideas developed into a powerful state with
surprising rapidity during the last fifty years of the nineteenth
century. The growth of her armaments and an ambition for expansion
necessarily followed. China, on the other hand, did not welcome
the influence of the West, which rapid transit and communication
had brought into Asia. The weakness and misgovernment of Korea was
a perpetual temptation to her neighbours. Japan invited China to
co-operate in demanding reforms in Korea, but China refused and Japan
acted alone.
Occasion:
In July 1894 Japan issued an Ultimatum calling on Korea to accept
a Japanese programme of reforms. Korea temporized, and Seoul, the
capital, was taken without difficulty, the Emperor being made a
prisoner. China immediately intervened.
Course of the War:
By land and sea the Japanese, who had been trained by European
officers, were easily victorious. Asan was occupied, a victory was
gained off the Yalu River, and the Japanese marched on Yingkow. Port
Arthur, on the Liao-Tung peninsula, was captured, finally Wei-hai-Wei
fell, and Li Hung Chang, the Chinese Minister, sued for peace.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Shimonoseki_, China ceded to Japan the Liao Tung
peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands, and the
indemnity was fixed at 200 million taels. But Russia, France, and
Germany intervened, and ordered Japan to surrender the Liao Tung
Peninsula on the ground that Port Arthur threatened the independence of
Peking. But the insincerity of the intervention of the Western Powers
was revealed in 1897, when China was compelled to lease Kiao Chow to
Germany, Port Arthur to Russia, Wei-hai-Wei to Great Britain, while
France obtained a concession near Tonkin. Only the Italian claim for
the port of Sanmen was refused by China.
Remarks:
The encroachments of the Western Powers evoked intense indignation in
China. The rivalry in the exploitation of the Far East by the West had
begun in real earnest.
THE ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR
1895–1896
Belligerents:
Italy.
Abyssinia.
Cause:
Having become a united nation, Italy soon developed Imperialistic
ambitions. She looked towards Tunis, but was forestalled there by
France in 1881. In 1884, being secure from an attack by land, by an
alliance with Austria concluded in 1882, and being assured by Great
Britain that the occupation by a friendly Power of certain positions on
the Red Sea littoral would not be regarded unfavourably, the Italian
Government decided on a forward policy in Africa.
Occasion:
After a preliminary expedition in 1887, which was unsuccessful and had
to be recalled, a treaty was made with Menelek, after the death of King
John of Abyssinia, which was interpreted in Italy as involving Italian
suzerainty over Abyssinia. Italy supported Menelek against his rival
Ras Mangascia.
Course of the War:
Italian victories over the Dervishes at Agordat (1893) and Cassala
(1894) encouraged the ambition of Italy for a vast African Empire.
On a further Italian advance in 1895 the Abyssinians united in their
resistance. Menelek repudiated all idea of a protectorate, and General
Baratieri suffered a disastrous defeat at Adowah, March 1, 1896.
Political Result:
The Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia was abandoned, and by the Treaty
of Peace signed in September 1900, the frontiers of the Italian colony
were reduced.
Remarks:
The attempt on the part of Italy to hunt with the lions in colonial
aggrandizement ended in humiliation. Italy was now able to devote its
attention to much-needed internal reforms. But the Imperialist policy
only died down to be revived later.
THE WAR IN THE SOUDAN
1896–1898
Belligerents:
Great Britain--Egypt.
Arabs and Dervishes.
Cause:
The Soudan had fallen into the hands of rebellious tribes under the
Mahdi. In 1883 on Egyptian force under General Hicks had been defeated
at El Obeid, and General Baker was also defeated in his attempt to
relieve the Tokar garrison. The successes of a British force near
Suakin were rendered useless by the refusal of the British Government
to advance further. Early in 1884 it was decided to despatch General
Gordon, who had an intimate knowledge of the country, to bring away
Europeans from the Soudan. On arriving at Khartoum he was cut off from
all communication with Egypt, Berber and the Bahr-el-Gazal province
having fallen into the hands of the Mahdi. The relief expedition was
sent out too late to save him. Khartoum fell, and Gordon was killed
on January 25, 1885. The whole of the Soudan remained under the rule
of the Mahdi for thirteen years. The British Government came to the
conclusion that Egypt could never be considered permanently secure so
long as a hostile Power was in occupation of Khartoum.
Occasion:
After the Italian defeat at Adowah it was decided to create a diversion
in Italian interests, and orders were given to occupy the province
of Dongola. Rumours of the crumbling power of the Khalifa, who had
succeeded the Mahdi, strengthened the idea that it was a favourable
opportunity to advance into the Soudan.
Course of the War:
British and Egyptian troops under Kitchener occupied Dongola September
23, 1896. In 1897 desert railways were constructed, and Abu Hamed
and Berber were wrested from the dervishes. In 1898 reinforcements
of British troops were sent from Cairo. Omdurman, the stronghold of
Mahdism, was captured on September 2, 1898, and two days later Khartoum
was occupied.
Political Result:
By an agreement between the British and Egyptian Governments in
January 1899, the Soudan was placed under their joint control,
the Governor-General to be appointed by the Khedive on British
recommendation.
Remarks:
The arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, in September 1898, where
he hoisted the French flag, created a momentary excitement and talk
of war, but the British Government adopted a firm attitude, and he
received orders to withdraw.
No opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian agreement was encountered in
Europe. The economic and agricultural development of the Soudan has
since progressed rapidly.
Nearly a million square miles were added to the territory under British
rule.
THE TURKO-GREEK WAR
1897
Belligerents:
Turkey.
Greece.
Cause:
Crete, which formed part of the Ottoman Dominion, had been granted
a Constitution in 1868. A revolt in 1889 caused the Sultan to limit
the powers of the assembly and supersede the Christian governor by a
Mussulman. Disturbances broke out between Christians and Mohammedans
in the succeeding years. In February 1897 the Christians proclaimed
union with Greece, and Colonel Vassos was sent with a force to occupy
the island in the King’s name. The Powers intervened, and the Admirals
occupied Canea. Neither the Sultan nor the King wanted war. The King
was under the impression that the Powers would prevent it.
Occasion:
Enthusiasm for war which was not accompanied by any sort of military
organization or preparation grew up in Greece. When armed bands crossed
the frontier into Macedonia, Turkey immediately declared war (April 17,
1897).
Course of the War:
The Greek fleet, on which great hopes had been placed, effected
nothing. The Turkish forces occupied Larissa, advanced across Thessaly,
defeated the Greeks all along the line, and on May 17, 1897, the
victory of Domokos opened to the Turks the pass which leads down to
Lamia. The Powers intervened, and a armistice was signed.
Political Result:
By the treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, December 4, 1897,
the Turks evacuated Thessaly, and certain strategic alterations were
made in the frontier. Greece paid an indemnity of four millions, and
accepted the European control of her finances. Crete continued to be
the arena of periodic conflict. Prince George of Greece was appointed
High Commissioner of the Powers under a new Constitution, but he
resigned in 1906. While virtually Greek the island remained under the
suzerainty of the Sultan.
Remarks:
This was only one of the many Balkan conflicts. The intervention of
the Powers was invoked in order to check any increase in the dominion
of the Sultan. But owing to their own conflicting ambitions and the
inherent racial complications in the Balkans, they never at any time
reached a solution of the problems involved.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
1897–1898
Belligerents:
Spain.
The United States of America.
Cause:
The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its
highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century)
continued throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth
century, and was hastened by the misgovernment, corruption, and
incessant outbreaks of revolution in Spain itself. One by one by
means of revolution, the Spanish-American colonies had gained their
independence. The policy of the Holy Alliance and of Metternich was
to check the growth of Constitutional government in Europe. King
Ferdinand of Spain was in conflict with the constitutional movement,
and civil war prevailed. In 1823 France intervened in Spain on behalf
of Ferdinand, and French troops entered Madrid. Canning, on behalf of
Great Britain, prohibited the conquest by France or her allies of the
Spanish colonies, and formally recognized their independence in 1824.
Cuba and other islands were the last of the Spanish possessions. During
the remainder of the nineteenth century Spain continued periodically to
be torn and weakened by internal disturbances.
Occasion:
In order to quell the revolts in Cuba more effectually the milder
policy of Martinez Campos was exchanged in 1897 for the ruthless and
brutal rule of General Weyler. The United States were deeply stirred
by the torture and starvation of their neighbours. General Weyler was
recalled. But when the American cruiser _Maine_ was blown up in the
port of Havana, the United States demanded the evacuation of Cuba by
Spain. Spain refused.
Course of the War:
Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American
land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands
with comparatively little struggle.
Political Result:
By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain
surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the
Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899.
Remarks:
This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire,
which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various
states and the bad government in the Mother Country.
THE BOER WAR
1881, 1899–1902
Belligerents:
Great Britain.
The Transvaal and Orange Free State.
Cause: