majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a
small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition
at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27, 1881, was defeated at
Majuba Hill. The Boers regained their independence under the suzerainty
of Great Britain.
Cecil Rhodes, with vast ideas of Imperial expansion, became the
dominating influence in South Africa. In 1884 Bechuanaland was
annexed. In 1889 Rhodes founded the British South Africa Company. In
1896, after a successful conflict with the Matabeles, Buluwayo was
captured and Matabeleland added to the territory of Rhodesia. In 1886
gold had been discovered in the Transvaal, and a great cosmopolitan
city arose at Johannesburg. This resulted in an enormous influx of
Europeans and the decision of the Boers to exclude them from any share
in the political life of the country. Behind Rhodes, who became Prime
Minister of Cape Colony in 1895, great financial interests grew up and
exerted considerable influence. Under the presidency of Kruger the
Boers adopted a more and more hostile attitude towards the Outlanders.
In 1895 the Jameson Raid, which was connived at by the authorities,
revived Kruger’s power, which had been waning, and made the Boers arm
in preparation for a further surprise.
Occasion:
A promise of intervention was sent by the British Government in
reply to a petition from the Outlanders in 1899. Attempts to reach a
compromise with Kruger failed. Both sides were preparing for war, and
the mining interests exerted great pressure. On October 9, 1899, the
Transvaal issued an Ultimatum.
Course of the War:
The Boers invaded Natal and Cape Colony; Ladysmith, Mafeking, and
Kimberley were invested. British defeats at Magersfontein, Stormberg,
and Colenso (December 1899) led to Lord Roberts being sent out to
supersede General Buller. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved,
Bloemfontein fell. In May 1900 Mafeking was relieved, and in June
Johannesburg and Pretoria were occupied. The attempt to insist on
unconditional surrender prolonged the war for two more years.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Vereeniging_, May 1902, the Transvaal lost its
independence. The Orange Free State had been annexed in 1900. Under
pressure from the financial interests Chinese were introduced to work
the gold-mines. This was one of the chief reasons for the fall of the
Conservative Government in 1906. Campbell-Bannerman, who became Prime
Minister, solved the problem of the future of the Transvaal by granting
them full self-government, and the importation of Chinese was stopped.
Remarks:
The origin of the war can be directly traced to far less worthy
causes than that of redressing the grievances of the Outlanders. The
war was unnecessarily prolonged by an underestimate of the strength
of the Boers and the desire to humiliate them. But the grant of
self-government was the act that saved the war from being barren in
results and from being the precursor of further trouble. The Union of
South Africa was established in 1909.
The Powers of Europe, with the exception of Italy, adopted an
unfriendly attitude towards Great Britain during the war.
THE BOXER RISING IN CHINA
1899–1900
Belligerents:
Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, and Japan.
China.
Cause:
The humiliating results of the war of 1894–5 (p. 72) killed the reform
movement in China and brought the reactionary party, headed by the
Dowager-Empress, back to power. A society called the Boxers spread
very rapidly through the provinces, preaching death to foreigners and
receiving official support.
Occasion:
Attacks on Europeans began in 1899, and became very frequent in
the early months of 1900. In May the Ministers at Peking asked for
additional guards. The Boxers surrounded the city, and Admiral
Seymour’s attempt to reach the capital was frustrated. The destruction
of the Taku Fort by the Allies was treated as a declaration of war, and
Chinese Imperial troops joined the Boxers.
Course of the War:
The settlements at Tientsin were rescued by a Russian force. An
allied force made its way through from Taku, and forced an entry into
Pekin. In August a relief column of 18,000 allied troops defeated the
Chinese in several engagements and marched on Pekin. The legations
had for eight weeks withstood a siege. The Chinese Government gave
foreigners twenty-four hours to leave the capital. The German Minister
was murdered in the street. The British Legation formed the refuge of
all those who were driven out of their places of retreat. When the
relieving force arrived the Chinese only made a faint-hearted defence.
The Empress fled, the legations were relieved, and Pekin was occupied.
Political Result:
By the peace protocol, which was signed on September 7, 1901, the
punishment of the ringleaders was demanded: the forts between Pekin
and the sea were dismantled, permanent guards for the legations were
established, and a large indemnity was fixed.
Remarks:
Official intercourse with the Chinese Government was established on
a more satisfactory basis. But serious trouble in the Far East and
internal disturbances in China itself continued.
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
1904–1905
Belligerents:
Russia.
Japan.
Cause:
When Port Arthur, which Japan had been forced to surrender in 1895, was
seized by Russia there was deep indignation in Japan. In 1902 a treaty
of alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan. Russia
undertook to evacuate Manchuria, and although the withdrawal of troops
began in 1903, instead of continuing the evacuation Russia demanded
new concessions. In Korea Russian speculators obtained concessions,
and influential members of the Russian Court were interested in the
enterprise. Japan protested.
Occasion:
A treaty regulating the position in Manchuria and Korea was suggested
by Japan, but Russia refused to recognize Japan’s paramount influence
in Korea, and after several months of fruitless negotiation Japan
issued an Ultimatum in February 1904.
Course of the War:
After successful initial encounters on the part of Japan, Port Arthur
was surrendered on January 1, 1905. After a Japanese victory at Mukden,
the Russians retreated. In October 1904 the Russian fleet, coming
round from the Baltic, opened fire on a group of Hull fishing smacks
in crossing the Dogger Bank, mistaking them for torpedo boats. The
incident roused considerable indignation in Britain, but the Czar
expressed his regrets. The matter was referred to a commission of
admirals in Paris, and compensation was awarded for the damage done.
On May 27, 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by Admiral Togo at
Tsushima. The Japanese landed a force in Sakhalin, but, both sides
being exhausted and anxious for peace, negotiations were opened in
August 1905.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Portsmouth_, August 1905, the claims of Japan in
Korea were recognized; Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and ceded
the Liao-Tung peninsula (including Port Arthur) and the southern half
of Sakhalin to Japan. The payment of an indemnity, which had been the
chief obstacle to the conclusion of peace, was waived by Japan. The
moderation of the Japanese demands made a good impression in the world,
but was resented in Japan itself.
Remarks:
This was a war of pure aggression, backed by high financial speculation
on the part of Russia. The easy triumph of Japan was a surprise. But
she was fighting for definite national objects, while the Russian
people knew nothing of the cause and aims of the war. Russia spent much
money in subsequent years in restoring her lost armaments. From this
time on the reform movements and revolutionary spirit in Russia grew
rapidly.
TURKO-ITALIAN WAR
1911–1912
Belligerents:
Italy.
Turkey.
Cause:
After the agreements with regard to North Africa between Great Britain
and France, Italy made up her mind that the time was favourable for a
decisive move with a view to expansion, and proceeded to make careful
preparations for military action early in 1911. The position in Tripoli
was made the subject of heated discussion in the Press, and the Turks
were charged with showing gross unfairness to Italian residents. The
possible designs of Germany in North Africa also induced the Italian
Government to take advantage of the first opportunity for an offensive
step.
Occasion:
The Turks, foreseeing danger, sent war stores and munitions to Tripoli,
and on September 29, 1911, the Italians, with their fleet ready and
their troops embarked, declared war.
Course of the War:
On September 30th, Tripoli was blockaded and occupied by the Italians
on October 5th; Benghazi fell on October 20th. In spite of the
publication of a decree annexing Tripoli as a province of Italy, the
advance of the invaders was kept in check. Austria refused to allow
operations in the Adriatic. Russia would not permit the blockade of the
Dardanelles. Fighting continued with indeterminate results and in a
desultory manner until a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ouchy on
October 15, 1912.
Result:
By the _Treaty of Lausanne_, October 15, 1912, Turkish forces were
withdrawn from Tripoli and Cyrenaica, the Italians promised to withdraw
from the occupied islands of the Ægean, and a commercial agreement was
concluded between the two countries. There was no recognition by the
Turkish Government of Italian sovereignty in Tripoli. It was enough for
Italy that her sovereignty was recognized by the Powers. This was done,
France delaying her assent until Italy surrendered certain privileges
in Morocco.
Remarks:
Italy’s aggressive action was prompted by a desire not to be left
behind in the competition for territorial acquisitions in Africa.
FIRST BALKAN WAR
1912–1913
Belligerents:
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro.
Turkey.
Cause:
Even after the deposition of the Sultan, Abdul Hamid, and the triumph
of the Young Turks in the revolution of 1908 the misgovernment of
Turkey did not cease, more especially in Macedonia, where the European
Powers had entirely failed to secure any reforms, but produced an
intolerable situation in the Balkan Peninsula. Despairing of the
successful intervention of the Powers the Balkan States determined
to take matters into their own hands. For the first time an alliance
was formed between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia for the purpose of
destroying the Turkish Empire in Europe.
Occasion:
In September 1912 the Powers, through Austria, Hungary, and Russia
strongly deprecated the outbreak of war. The Allies simultaneously
handed in to the Turkish Government an Ultimatum demanding certain
specified reforms. No reply was sent. The Turks underestimated the
strength of their opponents, and hoped to detach Greece. War broke out
October 17th.
Course of the War:
The Turkish forces were completely overwhelmed. They were defeated by
the Serbians at Kumanovo, October 24, 1912, and Uskub was occupied: the
Greeks drove the enemy north and occupied Salonika: and the Bulgarians
defeated the Ottoman army at Lule Burgas, October 31st, and advanced to
Chatalja. After an armistice and an abortive attempt of the Powers to
secure peace, the war broke out again. Adrianople fell March 26, 1913,
and the Turks submitted.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of London_ Bulgaria was given a frontier from Enos on
the Mediterranean to Midia on the Black Sea. The future of Albania was
to be decided by the Allies and Turkey ceded the island of Crete to
Greece.
Remarks:
Serious disputes as to the disposal of the spoils won from Turkey led
immediately to the outbreak of war among the Allies.
SECOND BALKAN WAR
1913
Belligerents:
Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Roumania.
Bulgaria.
Turkey.
Cause:
In February 1912 a treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Serbia,
whereby it was agreed that North-west Macedonia should go to Serbia,
another part to Bulgaria, and the zone lying between these two should
be submitted to the arbitration of the Czar. In December 1912, in the
First Balkan War, Austria protested against the occupation by Serbia of
Durazzo on the Adriatic, and of Scutari by Montenegro. Serbia declared
that Bulgaria did not adequately support her in resisting the Austrian
demand, felt impelled to claim more territory in Macedonia, and refused
to carry out the provisions of the treaty with Bulgaria. Serbia was
ready to arbitrate. Russia was inclined to support the Serbian claim.
Bulgaria hesitated.
Occasion:
While the dispute was still in the balance the aggressive party in
Bulgaria got the upper hand, and war was declared against Serbia and
Greece in June 24, 1913, only a few months after the cessation of
hostilities in the First Balkan War.
Course of the War:
The Bulgarians found themselves invaded on four frontiers. While they
were being driven back by Serbia and Greece, the Turks repudiated the
Treaty of London and retook Adrianople, and Roumania advanced from the
north and without striking a blow annexed a large slice of territory in
the Dobrudja. Bulgaria was obliged to yield.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Bukarest_, August 10, 1913, Serbia acquired a large
district of South-east Macedonia, Greece obtained Kavalla, and Roumania
was given possession of the territory her troops had occupied.
By the _Treaty of Constantinople_, August 1913, Bulgaria ceded back
to Turkey more than half of the territory won in the previous war,
including Adrianople.
Remarks:
Bulgaria being again restricted in territory felt she had been betrayed
by the Powers, who did nothing to enforce the engagements of the Treaty
of London. Her rivals, Serbia and Greece, gained at her expense. On the
other hand, Bulgarian responsibility for the outbreak of the second war
was undoubted.
The European Powers, by acting together, prevented the Balkan conflict
from spreading into a European War. But the Treaty of Bukarest was no
settlement, and was a signal exposure of their inability to solve the
Balkan problem, which was destined to be the spark for a world-wide
conflagration.
IMPORTANT TREATIES
(OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED)
The _Treaty of Vienna_, June 9, 1815.
_Second Treaty of Paris_, November 20, 1815, Signed by Great Britain,
Austria, Prussia, Russia, France at the conclusion of the
Napoleonic Wars.
France gave up certain fortresses on the frontier but retained
Alsace-Lorraine. Payment of 700 million francs was exacted from
France. The greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw fell
to Russia, Posen to Prussia, and Cracow became a republic.
Prussia got back nearly all her old possessions, and there was a
reconstruction of German States under a Confederation. Holland,
Belgium, and Luxemburg were established as an independent
kingdom under the House of Orange: Switzerland was extended and
her integrity guaranteed: Sardinia obtained Genoa and other
territory: Austria received an extension of territory in North
Italy and on the coast of the Adriatic, and became the dominant
state in the German Confederation. The Pope and the King of the
Two Sicilies regained their former possessions.
[The foregoing record of wars serves to show to what a small
extent this treaty secured the settlement of European territorial
problems.]
_The Rushe-Bagot Treaty_, April 1817, between Great Britain and
the United States. The two powers agreed to withdraw their
battleships from the Great Lakes.
It may be noted that the absence of armaments on the whole
Canadian frontier cannot be said to have endangered the relations
between the two countries in view of the fact that the
Anglo-American peace centenary was celebrated in 1915.
_The Treaty of Washington_, May 8, 1871, between Great Britain and
the United States. The north-western boundary was finally
delimited: an attempt was made to settle the Canadian Fishery
dispute, and it was agreed to refer the Alabama Claims to a
tribunal of arbitration, which subsequently fixed the sum to be
paid over by Great Britain as indemnity.
_The Triple Alliance_ in 1882 was the result of Italy joining the
alliance between Germany and Austria, which had grown out of the
support given to Austria as against Russia at the Congress of
Berlin in 1878, Italy having become estranged from France after
the occupation of Tunis in 1881. The Triple Alliance was renewed
for five years in 1887 and in 1891, and again in 1902 it was
extended for a term of twelve years.
_The Berlin Act._ The outcome of the Conference of Berlin, 1884–5, at
which fourteen Powers were represented. The respective spheres
of influence of the European Powers in Africa were delimited.
The neutrality of the Congo Free State was recognized, and it
was established as an independent State under the sovereignty of
the King of the Belgians. An area was marked out in which there
should be free trade, which should be excluded from effects of
disputes between the signatory Powers, and be placed under the
rule of neutrality.
The latter stipulation has, however, not been carried out.
_The Suez Canal Convention_ signed by nine Powers at Constantinople,
October 29, 1888. Lesseps obtained the preliminary concession
for the construction of the Canal in 1856. The Canal was opened
in 1869. Disraeli bought four million pounds’ worth of shares
from the Khedive on behalf of the British Government in 1875.
The Convention ensured that the Canal should always be open to
vessels of commerce and war without distinction of flag. Great
Britain signed with a reservation, but in the Anglo-French
agreement of 1904 declared her adherence to the Convention and
agreed to its being put into force.
_The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty_, November 18, 1901, between Great Britain
and the United States, gave the United States right of control
in time of war of the Panama Canal. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of
1850, which established a joint Anglo-American protectorate over
the Canal was thereby abrogated.
_The Anglo-Japanese Alliance._ Treaties signed in London January 30,
1902, and August 12, 1905. The integrity and independence of
China was recognized. If either Great Britain or Japan should
be attacked and involved in a war with two Powers, they engaged
mutually to assist one another. The aim of the alliance was
officially defined as “the consolidation and maintenance of
general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India.” In
1911 the treaty was revised, a clause stipulating that there
was no obligation to go to war with a Power with whom a treaty
of arbitration was in force. This removed the danger of Great
Britain being involved in a war between Japan and the United
States.
_The Argentine-Chile Treaty_, 1902. From 1840 to 1900 constant
boundary disputes arose between the two countries, which
invariably led to war. At last the people themselves in both
countries decided by large majorities to negotiate a peaceful
settlement of the dispute. The delimitation of the frontier was
carried out by a mixed commission, and to commemorate the treaty
an immense statue of Christ was erected on a high pass in the
Andes on the boundary line.
_The Anglo-French Convention_, April 8, 1904.
This removed outstanding causes of friction between the two
countries, and was the foundation of the Entente.
Newfoundland fisheries and West African boundary problems were
settled: the Siamese, New Hebrides, and Madagascar disputes were
settled: Egypt was declared exclusively under British protection,
and Morocco was left to France. A Franco-Spanish Convention was
concluded in October of the same year with regard to Morocco. To
both these treaties secret clauses were attached which amounted
virtually to the prospective partition of Morocco by France and
Spain.
_The Agreement of Karlstadt_, September 23, 1905.
The Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved, and Norway
recognized as an independent kingdom.
The movement in favour of separation had grown rapidly from 1899.
It was resisted by the King of Sweden. A plebiscite in Norway
declared in favour of it, and agreement was reached without any
armed conflict.
_The Algeciras Act_, April 7, 1906, agreed to by thirteen Powers, was
based on the sovereignty, independence, integrity, and economic
liberty of Morocco. The provisions concerned the organization
of police, regulation of taxation, customs, etc. This Act was
disregarded by France in 1911, when a French force was sent to
Fez and occupied the country.
_The Anglo-Russian Convention_, September 23, 1907.
Persia was divided so as to give Great Britain and Russia spheres
of influence with a neutral zone between. (Persia was not a party
to the treaty.) An agreement was come to with regard to
Afghanistan and Thibet, settling all points where dispute might
arise.
_The Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty_, April 4, 1908.
By this Treaty differences between Great Britain and the United
States which do not affect the vital interests, independence,
or honour of either country, or which do not concern the
interests of third parties are referred to the Permanent Court
of Arbitration at the Hague.
INDEX OF TREATIES
PAGE
Adrianople, Treaty of 15, 17
Akerman, Treaty of 16
Algeciras Act 101
Anglo-French Convention 100
Anglo-Japanese Alliance 100
Anglo-American Arbitration 101
Anglo-Russian Convention 101
Argentine-Chile Treaty 100
Bardo, Treaty of 66
Berlin, Treaty of (1850) 48
Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 59
Berlin Act 99
Bukarest, Treaty of (1886) 75
Bukarest, Treaty of (1913) 97
Constantinople, Treaty of (1897) 83
Constantinople, Treaty of (1913) 97
Frankfort, Treaty of 55
Gandamuk, Treaty of 58
Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of 30
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 100
Karlstadt, Agreement of 101
La Marsa, Treaty of 66
Lausanne, Treaty of 93
London, Treaty of (1834) 21
London, Treaty of (1839) 19
London, Treaty of (1852) 49
London, Treaty of (1913) 95
Nanking, Treaty of 28
Paris, Treaty of (1815) 98
Paris, Treaty of (1856) 37
Paris, Treaty of (1898) 85
Portsmouth, Treaty of 91
Prague, Treaty of 51
Rushe-Bagot Treaty 98
San Stefano, Treaty of 59
Shimonoseki, Treaty of 77
Suez Canal Convention 99
Tientsin, Treaty of 66
Triple Alliance 99
Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of 24
Vereenigen, Treaty of 87
Vienna, Treaty of (1815) 98
Vienna, Treaty of (1866) 35
Villa Franca, Treaty of 35
Washington, Treaty of 43, 98
Zurich, Treaty of 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(_Each war has its own literature. Only a few leading authorities and
books easily accessible to students are given here._)
The Cambridge Modern History, vols. xi, xii.
Modern Europe. C. A. Fyffe.
A Political History of Contemporary Europe. Seignobos.
History of our own Times. Justin McCarthy.
A Century of British Foreign Policy. Gooch and Masterman.
History of our Time (1885–1911). G. P. Gooch.
Wars of the Nineties. Atteridge.
The Map of Europe by Treaty. Hertslet.
International Law. C. E. Hall.
The Termination of War and Treaties of Peace. Coleman Philipson.
Three Centuries of Treaties of Peace. Sir W. Philimore.
Turkey in Europe. Sir C. Eliot.
Nationality and War in the Near East. A Diplomatist.
The New Map of Europe. H. A. Gibbons.
Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Robertson and Bartholomew.
The Balkan War. Lieut.-Col. Rankine.
History of the Greek Revolution. G. Finlay.
History of Italian Unity. Bolton King.
The Far Eastern Question. M. V. Chirol.
The History of South America. Akers.
The American Civil War. F. L. Paxon.
The Downfall of Spain. Wilson.
The Invasion of the Crimea. A. W. Kinglake.
Modern Egypt. Lord Cromer.
The War in South Africa. Hobson.
The War of Steel and Gold. H. N. Brailsford.
Nationalism, War, and Society. E. Krehbiel.
Ten Years of Secret Diplomacy. E. D. Morel.
Imperialism. J. A. Hobson.
International Tribunals. Evans Darby.
_Printed in Great Britain by_
UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON
Transcriber’s Notes
Italic text is encloseed in _underscores_.
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.